Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEED)

REVIEWER
Module Number 1
Subject Code: Proed 1
Subject Description: Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Lesson:
Human Development, Growth and Maturation

• Human Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and
continues through the life span.
• Development includes growth and decline.
• Development can be positive and negative.

Definition
Growth • Pertains to the physical change and increase in size
• Can be measured quantitatively; can be measured in kilos, lbs,
meters, inches, etc.
• Indicators of growth are height, weight, bone size and dentition.
• The growth rate is rapid during the
1. Prenatal
2. Neonatal
3. Infancy
4. Adolescence
• Slows during childhood
• Minimal during adulthood
Development • Pertains to the behavioral aspect of growth
• Involves progressive increase in skill and capacity of function.
• It is qualitative change in the child’s functioning; can be
measure through observation.

Maturation • Does not necessarily happen along with aging or physical

growth, but is a part of growth and development.
• Refers to the sequential characteristics of biological growth and
development (internal ripening).

Principles of Growth and Development

1. Nature vs. Nurture
Development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)
• Nature (heredity) is responsible for many of physical characteristics such as hair,
and eye color, facial features, and to some extent the height and weight.
• Nurture (environment) can influence a person’s many characteristics.
2. Development proceeds from the head downward. (Cephalocaudal principle)
The child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the legs.
Infants develop control of the head and face movements at first two months. In next few
months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. Next gain control over leg
and able to crawl, stand, walk, run, jump, climb.
3. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. (Proximodistal)
This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms
develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.
4. Growth and Development is a continuous process.

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In the early years of life, development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity
not only of body size, and functioning, but also of behavior.
Even after maturity has been attainted, development does not end. Changes continue
which lead to the period of life known a senescence or old age.
5. Development proceeds from the simple to the more complex.
Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems.
Example: Learning relationships between things (how things are similar) or
classification, is an important ability in cognitive development.
6. Growth and Development proceed from general to specific.
Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined movements to more refined
(smaller) muscle movements. Example: the infant will be able to grasp an object with
whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger.
7. There are individual rates of growth and development.
Each child is different and the rates at which individual children grow are different.
Although the patterns and sequences for growth and development are usually the same
for all children, the rates at which individual children reach developmental stages will be
different.
8. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive
and socio-emotional processes.
Development due to genes inherited from parents, such as in height and weight, brain,
heart, and lungs development all point towards the role of biological processes. The role
of cognitive processes relate to mental activities associated with the processes of
knowing, and experiencing, such as thought, perception, attention, problem solving.
Socio emotional processes refer to changes in an individual’s interaction with other
people, changes in emotions, and in personality. (http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kepy104.pdf)

Approaches to Human Development

1. Traditional Approach
- Shows extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in
adulthood and decline in late old age.
2. Life-Span Development
- Even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as is does during childhood.
a. Development is life long - it takes place across all age groups starting from
conception to old age.
b. Development is multidimensional - The various processes i.e. biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional are interwoven in the development of a person
throughout the life-span.
c. Development is plastic – Plasticity means that the ability to change is not
restricted to any period of life but that people of all ages are able to react and
adapt to their environment (Boyd & Bee, 2019). People of any age are able to
learn. They can develop new habits or shed old ones.
d. Development is contextual – sees the individual as inseparable from the social
context. The view that development is influenced by one's ethnicity and
culture.
e. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. – The goals of
individuals vary among developmental stages. Example, as a person reaches
middle and late adulthood, concern with growth is not prioritize as much as
maintenance and regulation is.

Lesson:
Issues on Human Development
1. Nature vs. Nurture
• Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. One of
the reasons why the development of human beings is so similar is because our common

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specifies heredity (DNA) guides all of us through many of the same developmental changes
at about the same points in our lives.
• Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which involves the process of learning
through experiences.

2. Early vs. Later Experience

• Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According
to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this
is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never
adjust or develop normally.
• In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does
not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout life, however there is
evidence that childhood adversity may correlate to greater levels of stress in
adulthood. Many people with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into
well-adjusted adults.

3. Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process. The
continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking,
talking or acting much the same way as they get taller.
• The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession of changes that
produce different behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages. Biological
changes provide the potential for these changes.

4. Stability vs. Change

• Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan.
In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are modified by interactions with
family, experiences at school, and acculturation.
• This capacity for change is called plasticity. For example, Rutter (1981) discovered than
somber babies living in understaffed orphanages often become cheerful and affectionate
when placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes.

Lesson: The Child and Adolescent Learners

UNCRC (United Nation Convention of the Rights of the Child) Child

Еvery human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law
applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier

• the term “child” comes from the Latin “infans” which means "the one who does not
speak"
Definition of Child
• Philippine Constitution – A child refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or
those over but is unable to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves from
abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or mental
disability or condition.
• World Health Organization (WHO) – A child is a person 19 years or younger unless
national law defines a person to be an adult at an earlier age. However, when a person
falls into the 10 to 19 age category they are referred to as an adolescent.

Childhood connote a time of innocence, where one is free from responsibility but
vulnerable to forces in his environment.

Childhood refers to the time or state of being a child, the early stage in the existence or
development of something.

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• From a historical perspective, childhood is an evolving series of steps, usually constant,
towards adulthood shaped by an extensive array of forces and ideas that range from
region to religion and from gender to politics.

UNICEF Adolescence
a. Early adolescence (10- 14 years old).
- It is at this stage that physical changes generally commence, usually beginning with
a growth spurt and soon followed by the development of the sex organs and
secondary sexual characteristics. These external changes are often very obvious and
can be a source of anxiety as well as excitement or pride for the individual whose
body is undergoing
b. Late adolescence (15-19 years old)
- The major physical changes have usually occurred by now, although the body is
still developing. The brain continues to develop and reorganize itself, and the
capacity for analytical and reflective thought is greatly enhanced. Peer-group
opinions still tend to be important at the outset, but their hold diminishes as
adolescents gain more clarity and confidence in their own identity and opinions.

• The term “adolescence” comes from the Latin, adolescentia, from adolescere, “to grow
up”

Definition of Adolescence
• WHO – defines adolescence as the period of life between 10 and 19 years of age.
• The ages of adolescence vary by culture. In the US, for example, adolescence is the
period that begins between ages 12 and 14 and ends at 19 or 20.

It is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood, marked by major physical

changes of puberty and important psychological and social changes.

In common usage in English countries “adolescent” and “teenager” are synonymous.

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 (UNCRC)

• It provides a comprehensive listing of rights for children- social, economic, cultural civil
and political
• It explicitly defines the need for policy and decision-makers to put the interest of children
over and above other concerns.
• The Philippines is a state party to the CRC and is obligated to give primary consideration
to the best interest of the child in all aspects of its decision- making.

Rights of the child as embodied in the Convention on the Rights of the Child and adapted
by the General Assembly on November 20, 1989 are as follows:
1. Respect and ensure the rights of each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination
of any kind, irrespective of the child’s parents or his / her legal guardian’s race, color, sex,
language, political opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, birth or status
(Article2:1)
2. Register the child immediately after birth and have the right from birth to a name,
nationality, and right to know and be cared for by his parents. (Article 7:1)

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3. Ensure that a child shall not be separated from his/her parents against his will, except when
separation is necessary for the best interests of the child after having been determined by
judicial review. (Article 9:1)
4. Respect the rights of the child to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. (Article
14:1)
5. Recognize the rights of the child to freedom of association, and peaceful assembly (Article
15:1)
6. Not subject the child to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family,
home, or correspondence nor unlawful attacks on his/her honor and reputation. (Article
16:1)
7. Recognize the importance of function of mass media and ensure that the child has access
to information / material form a diversity of national and international sources (Article 17:
a,b)
8. Ensure recognition that both parents have common responsibilities for the upbringing and
development of the child (Article 18:1)
9. Take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social, and educational measures to protect
the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect,
maltreatment, and exploitation (Article 19:1)
10. Provide assistance to a child temporarily deprived of a family environment (Article 20:1)
11. Permit a system of adoption that shall ensure that the best interests of the child shall be the
paramount consideration. (Article 21:1)
12. Recognize for every child the right to benefit from social security. (Article 26:1)
13. Recognize the right of the child to education with a view to achieving this right
progressively an on the basis of equal opportunity. (Article 28:1)
14. Recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from
performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education
(Article 32:1)

In the Philippines, Presidential Decree No. 603 dated December 10, 1974, listed down the rights
of the children and young persons.

All children shall be entitled to the rights herein set forth without distinction as to
legitimacy or illegitimacy, sex, social status, religion, political antecedents, and other factors.

1. Every child is endowed with dignity and worth of a human being from the moment of his
conception, as generally accepted in the medical parlance, and has therefore, the right to
be born well.
2. Every child has the right to a wholesome family life that will provide him with love, care
and understanding, guidance and counseling moral and material security.
3. Every child has the right to a well-rounded development of his personality to the end that
he may become a happy, useful, and active member of the society.
• The gifted child shall be given opportunity and encouragement to develop his
special talents.
• The emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted child shall be treated with
sympathy and understanding, and shall be entitled to treatment and competent care.
• The physically or mentally handicapped child shall be given the treatment,
education and care required of his particular condition.
4. Every child has the right to a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient shelter, proper
medical attention, and all the basic physical requirement of a healthy and vigorous life.

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5. Every child has the right to be brought up in an atmosphere of morality and rectitude for
the enrichment and the strengthening of his character.
6. Every child has the right to an education commensurate with his abilities and to the
development of his shills for the improvement of his capacity for service to himself and
his fellowmen.
7. Every child has the right to fulfill the opportunities for safe and wholesome recreation
and activities, individual as well as social, for the wholesome use of his leisure hours.
8. Every child has the right to protection against exploitation, improper influences, hazards,
and other conditions or circumstances prejudicial to his physical, mental, emotional,
social and moral development.
9. Every child has the right to live in a community and a society that can offer him an
environment free from pernicious influences and conducive to the promotion of his
health, and the cultivation to the promotion of his health and the cultivation of his
desirable traits and attributes.
10. Every child has the right to the care, assistance, and protection of the state, particularly of
the state, particularly when his parents or guardians fail or are unable to provide him with
his fundamental needs for growth, development, and improvement.
11. Every child has the right to an efficient and honest government that will deepen his faith
in democracy and inspire him with the morality of the constituted authorities both in their
public and private lives.
12. Every child has the right to grow up as a free individual, in an atmosphere of peace,
understanding, tolerance, and universal brotherhood and with the determination to
contribute his share in the building of a better world.

Lesson: Periods of Development

Santrock’s Developmental Stages
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASK
Prenatal Period (from conception to It involves tremendous growth – from a single cell to
birth) an organism complete with brain and behavioral
capabilities
Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) 1. Time of extreme dependence on adults
2. Language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor
coordination and social learning are beginning
Early Childhood (end of infancy to 1. Preschool years.
5-6 years old) 2. More self-sufficient and learn to take care of
themselves
3. Develop school readiness skills and spend many
hours in play with peers
Middle and Late Childhood (6-11 1. The elementary school years
years old) 2. Reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered.
3. The child is formally exposed to the larger world
and its culture.
4. Achievement becomes central theme of the child’s
world and self-control increases
Adolescence (10-12 ending up to 1. Begins with rapid physical changes – dramatic gains
18-22 years old) in height and weight, changes in body contour
2. Development of sexual characteristics such as
enlargement of breast, development of pubic and facial
hair, and deepening of the voice
3. Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent
4. More time is spent outside of the family.

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Early Adulthood (from late teens or 1. Time of establishing personal and economic
early 20s lasting through the 30s) independence, career development
2. Selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in
an intimate way
3. Starting a family and rearing children
Middle Adulthood (40 to 60 years) 1. Time of expanding personal and social involvement
and responsibility
2. Of assisting the next generation in becoming
competent and mature individuals.
3. Of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in career.
Late Adulthood (60’s and above) 1. Time for adjustment to decreasing strength and
health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new
social roles.

Lesson: Havighurst’s Developmental Stage and Tasks

The term Developmental task was introduced by Robert Havighurst in 1950's.

R.H. Havighurst stated that "a development task is a task which arises at or about a certain period
in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness and to
success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with later task."

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

Infancy and Early Childhood (0-5 1.Eat solid food
years old) 2.Walk
3. Talk
4. Control elimination of waste
5. Relate emotionally to others
6. Distinguish right from wrong
7. Learn sex differences and sexual modesty
8. Achieve personal independence
9. Form simple concepts of social and physical reality
Middle Childhood (6-12 years old) 1. Learn physical skills required for games
2. Build healthy attitudes towards oneself
3. Learn to socialize with peers.
4. Learn appropriate masculine or feminine role
5. Gain basic reading, writing and mathematical skills
6. Develop concepts necessary for everyday living
7. Formulate a conscience based on value system
8. Develop attitude toward social groups and
institution
Adolescence (13-18 years old) 1. Establish more mature relationships with same-age
individuals of both sexes.
2. Achieve a masculine or feminine social role
3. Accept own body.
4. Establish emotional independence from parents.
5. Achieve assurance or economic independence
6. Prepare for an occupation
7. Prepare for marriage and building of family.
8. Acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic
responsibilities
9. Develop a set of values that guides behavior
Early Adulthood (19-29 years old) 1.Select a partner
2. Learn to live with a partner.

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3. Start a family.
4. Manage a home.
5. Establish self in a career/occupation
6.Assume civic responsibilities
7. Become part of a social group
Middle Adulthood (30-60 years old) 1. Fulfill civic and social responsibilities
2. Maintain an economic standard of living
3. Assist adolescent children to become responsible,
happy adults
4. Relate one’s partner.
5.Adjust to physiological Changes
6. Adjust to aging parents
Later Maturity (61 and over) 1. Adjust to physiological changes and alterations in
health status
2. Adjust to retirement and altered income
3. Adjust to death of spouse
4.Develop affiliation with one’s age group
5.Establish satisfactory living arrangements

Lesson: Physical and Motor Development of Children and Adolescents

A. Biological Beginnings
1. Prenatal Stage
• Considered as one of the most – if not the most, important period of all in the life span of
a person.
• This person begins at conception and ends at birth and approximately 270 to 280 days in
length or nine calendar month

Prenatal period is divided into three major phases

a. Germinal Stage (fertilization to two weeks)
- Period of the zygote (refers to the newly formed cell after the union of the egg cell
and the sperm cell).

- This period includes the ff.:

a. creation of the zygote,
b. continued cell division, and
c. the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall

b. Embryonic Period (two weeks to 8 weeks)

- Period of the embryo (cell known as the zygote is now known as embryo)
- By the 14th day after fertilization, the blastocyst is already implanted in the uterus.
- The ff. developments take place
a. cell differentiation intensifies
b. life support systems for the embryo, the placenta, umbilical cord, and amnion –
develop and
c. organs systems appear.

c. Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth)

- The embryo before is now known as fetus in this stage.
- The fetal stage begins with the formation of the first bone cells.
- Various organs grow functionally and take the appearance of the human body at
which life can be sustained outside the womb.

Things to Remember
Concept Related Processes Characteristics/ Descriptions
/ Ideas

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Teratology Meaning of - this is the field of study that investigates the causes
teratology of congenital (birth) defects
- that which causes birth defects is called teratogen.

Hazards to Prescription and - Prescription drugs that can be harmful include

Prenatal non-prescription antibiotics.
Development drugs. - Diet pill, and aspirin are example of non-
prescription drugs that can be harmful.
Psychoactive Drugs - Researchers found that women who drank more
caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm
deliveries and newborns with lower birth weight
compared to their counterparts who did not drink
caffeinated coffee.
- Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the
so-called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a
cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of
mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
These abnormalities include facial deformities, and
defective limbs, face and heart. Most of these
children are below average in intelligence and some
are mentally retarded.
- Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among
smoking mothers. There are also higher incidences of
preterm births and lower birth weights among
children with smoking mothers.
- On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver
smaller than average size babies with more incidence
of toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained
placenta, hemorrhaging after birth, and breech
deliveries.
Environmental - These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays,
Hazards environmental pollutants, toxic wastes and prolonged
exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
- Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are
higher among the offspring of fathers exposed to high
levels of radiation in their occupation.
- X-rays also can affect the developing embryo and
fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first
several weeks after conception when women do not
yet know that they are pregnant.
- Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon
monoxide, mercury and lead caused defects in
animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early
exposure to lead affects children’s mental
development.
-Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or
hot tubs raises the mother’s body temperature
creating fever that endangers the fetus. The high
temperature due to fever may interfere with cell
division and may cause birth defects or even fetal
death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged
periods of time.

Other maternal - Rubella (german measles) can be harmful

factors - Syphilis, genital herpes and AIDS are other
teratogens.

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- A developing fetus depends entirely on its mother
for nutrition. It is recognized that maternal
malnutrition during pregnancy may result to
inadequate growth of the fetus. If a fetus does not
receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell division
is seriously hampered.
- One aspect of maternal nutrition that has emerged is
folic acid. Lack of folic acid in the mother’s diets
leads to a birth defect of the brain and the spinal cord.
- High anxiety and stress in the mother are linked
with less than optimal prenatal and birth outcomes.
- Two maternal age periods can lead to problems
before the offspring’s development.
a. adolescence and
b. 30 and older

Paternal factors - Paternal factors that can adversely affect prenatal

development include exposure to lead, radiation,
certain pesticides and petrochemicals.
- Older fathers also may place their offspring at risk
for certain defects.

B. Physical and Motor Development of Children and Adolescents

2. Infancy Stage (birth – two weeks of life)

• Infancy is the transition period intervening between birth and two weeks of life and
identified as the shortest of all developmental period.

3. Babyhood Stage (2nd week to two years old)

• Compared to infancy, babyhood stage is characterized by decreasing dependency for the
reason that this is the time when babies achieve enough body control to be dependent.
• Skills are hand skills and leg skills.
• Growth is manifested at the earliest stage, usually following a cephalocaudal trend in the
lengthening of the neck and torso, followed by the legs. Brain and neck develop earlier
than legs and trunk. Following is the proximodistal pattern, development occurs from the
center outward: Example, the internal organs develop earlier than the arms and hands.

4. Early Childhood (three to five years old)

• This stage is regarded as the teachable moment for acquiring skills because children
enjoy the repetition essential to learning skills.
• Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although much slower in pace than in
infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from the
remaining baby-like features of the toddler toward a more slender appearance of a child.
The trunk, arms and legs become longer.
• Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around three and
becomes a little less as the preschooler gets older.
• Gross motor ( locomotor like walking, running; non-locomotor like bending, stretching,
turning; and manipulative skills like throwing, striking, bouncing, catching and dribbling)
and fine motor development ( like picking, squeezing, opening things, holding and using
a pencil; or eating buttoning, zipping, combing and brushing) are developed.

Motor Development improves with age. Such motor skills involve large muscle movements
along with fine motor skills, controlled by small muscle.

Physical Development of Preschoolers

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1. There are significant changes in the physical growth of preschoolers.
2. The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and fine
motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early stage.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development of
preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classroom can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.

5. Middle and Late Childhood (six to twelve years old)

• Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage,
physical development involves
1. Having good muscle control and coordination
2. Developing eye-hand coordination
3. Having a good personal hygiene
4. Being aware of good safety habits
• Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the best time to teach
children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong healthy bones
throughout their lives.
• Performing unimanual (require the use of one hand) and bi-manual (require the use of
two hands) activities becomes easier. Motor development skills include coordination,
balance, speed, agility and power.
6. Adolescence
• Usually height is attained at age 14 or 15 for girls and 18 for boys.
• Manifestations of growth differ among boys and girls
Boys - develops wider shoulder, longer legs relative to trunk and longer forearms relative
to the upper arms and height
Girls – widening of the pelvis to make child bearing easier. There is also accumulation of
layers of fat under the skin that results to a more rounded appearance.

Puberty brings about the physical differences that differentiate females and males. The
changes include the growth of pubic hair, the development of the breasts in females and
growth of facial hair in males.
The principal sign however of sexual maturation in boys is the sperm in the urine. Boys
become fertile as soon as sperm is present in the urine
➢ Spermarche is the first ejaculation of semen containing ejaculate for the males
➢ Menarche is the beginning of the menstrual cycle for the female.

C. Neuroscience and Brain Development

• The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.5kg. In men, the average weight is
about 1370 grams and in women about 1200 grams.

Infancy
▪ The newborn human brain is approximately at 350- 400 grams and it doubles in
weight after 6 months.
▪ Brain development proceeds at an uneven pace occurring between 3 and 10
months and between 15 and 24 months.
▪ There are 100 billion neurons or brain cells present at birth. Usually there is no
increase in numbers but continues to develop with age.
▪ The first to be myelinated is the peripheral nervous system connecting the sensory
perception, brain muscles, spinal cord, and the internal organs and glands. The
myelination of these organs enable the newborn to process new information, like
receiving and acting on it from the various sensory systems. However, vision is
exempted from this since this is the least mature

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❖ Myelination is the process of acquiring a myelin sheath that increases the
efficiency of transmitting neural messages.

Early and Middle childhood

▪ The sensory and motor areas are the primary sites of brain growth during the first
spurt, associated with the noted improvements in fine motor skills and eye-hand
coordination.
▪ During the second spurt, focus of development is on the frontal lobes of the
cerebral cortex.
▪ Increased ability to control attention is evident in ages 6-12 due to continuous
myelination in particular the reticular formation and the nerves linking the
reticular formation to the frontal lobes.
▪ 95% of brain growth is reached at age of 9.
▪ Increased efficiency by which older children learn math concepts and problem
strategies is explained by lateral spatial perception. Example is relative right-left
orientation – ability to identify what is right and what is left.

Adolescence
▪ There are two major brain growth spurts
1. Between ages 13 to 15 – the cerebral cortex becomes thicker and neuronal
pathways become more efficient. This enables teenagers to think abstractly and
reflect on their cognitive processes better than those of school aged children.
2. Between ages 17 and continue until adulthood – the focus of development is on
the frontal lobes of cerebral cortex which makes cognitive functions easier for
older teens.

Environmental Influences on Development of the Brain

• The least developed part of the brain at birth is the cortex, the grey matter that plays a key
role in attention, perception, awareness, thought, memory, language and consciousness.
• Lateralization is how the human brain is divided into two hemispheres – left and right.
• The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the left side of
the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the brain are
contralateral or crossed.)

D. Factors Affecting Biological / Physical Development

Human development is affected by both genetic and environmental influences
1. Maternal Nutrition – Mother supplies all the nutrients to the inborn fetus through the food
intake so that she should take care of her diet for her sake and that of the fetus. It is
important that she gets a continuous supply of fresh fruits, minerals and vitamins needed.
2. Child Nutrition – Adequate nutrition contributes to a continuous brain growth, rapid
skeletal, and muscular development. It is not the amount of food that children eat but what
they eat that contributes to healthy living.
3. Early Sensory Stimulation – Children under 6 years old tend to be farsighted, because their
eyes have not matured and are shaped differently from those of adults. After that age, the
eyes not only are more mature but can focus better.
Sensory deprivation exists in terms of the reception of sounds from the environment. Same
with visual handicaps, children may also suffer from auditory problems.

Factors that Affect Growth

1. Genetic History – The child’s genetic history influences to a large extent his growth. By
just looking at the parent’s height, the rate of growth of the child can more or less be
predicted.
2. Nutrition – Children, no matter how fat should never be put on diet. He must have in his
diet, nutritious food but less on juice or soda which can interfere with the child’s appetite
for rich in needed nutrients.

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3. Medical Condition – Children born with or develop serious medical conditions can have
stunted growth if not treated.
4. Exercise – Regular physical activity promotes growth by strengthening the bones and
muscles.
5. Sleep – About 70-80 percent of growth hormone is secreted during sleep

E. Exceptional Development
1. Physical Disabilities. The physically handicapped have impairments that are temporary or
permanent such as paralysis, stiffness or lack of motor coordination of bones, muscles or
joints so that they need special equipment or help in moving about.
2. Sensory Impairments.
• Vision
a. Visual impairment – They are those who lack sufficient vision to effect a normal
functioning in school
b. Blindness – the inability of the person to see.
The most common visual problems are as follows
▪ Reduced visual acuity – poor sight
▪ Amblyopia – lazy eye
▪ Hyperopia – farsightedness
▪ Myopia – nearsightedness
▪ Astigmatism – imperfect vision
• Hearing – when hearing is impaired there is limited functioning of the auditory
system.
3. Learning Disabilities
• Includes problems among children related to disorders in understanding or using
spoken and/or written language. Such disorders manifest in the inability to listen
well, process information readily, and inabilities to talk, read, write, spell and even
add numbers.
• A disabled child is usually normal intelligence but does not meet the age-level
expectations.
The different types of learning disabilities are
▪ Dyslexia – reading
▪ Dysgraphia – writing
▪ Visual agnosia – sight
▪ Motor aphasia – speaking
▪ Dysarthria – stuttering
▪ Auditory Agnosia – hearing
▪ Olfactory agnosia – smelling
▪ Dyscalculia – math
4. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
• Interferes with an individual’s ability to focus (inattention), regulate activity level
(Hyperactivity) and inhibit behavior (impulsivity). Among children and
adolescents, it is one of the most common learning disorders.
• This syndrome is manifested early in the preschool or early elementary years but
can persist into adolescence and occasionally into adulthood.
• Children with ADHD need assessment from health care professionals with the help
of parents and teachers. There is no specific test for ADHD but it can be diagnosed
through a series of psychological test, physical examination, and observing child’s
behaviors in day to day setting.

F. Theories
• Maturation Developmental Theory

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Early in the 20th century, Dr. Arnold Gesell observed and documented patterns in the way
children develop, showing that all children go through similar and predictable sequences,
though each child moves through these sequences at his or her own rate or pace

This process is comprised of both internal and external factors.

▪ The intrinsic factors include genetics, temperament, personality, learning styles, as well
as physical and mental growth.
▪ The external factors include environment, family background, parenting styles, cultural
influences, health conditions, and early experiences with peers and adults.

• Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory presents child development within the context of
relationship systems that comprise the child’s environment.
It describes the multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the
development of other child. Each layer is further made up of different structures.

Bronfenbrenner’s Structure of Environment

1. Microsystem (or the immediate context) includes those units that have direct
influence on the child. It includes one’s family, school, and neighborhood.
▪ The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents; however the child
also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-
directional influences.
▪ Bronfenbrenner theory looks into the interaction of structures within a layer and
interactions of structures between layers.
2. Mesosystem – this layer consists of the interconnections between these components.
The mesosystem includes the link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or
the parent and health services or the community and the church.
3. Exosystem - (the socio-economic context) are the cultural institutions which have
indirect influence on the child’s development .For example city government, the
parent’s workplace, and the mass media.
4. Macrosystem – (cultural context) contains the values and beliefs, customs and laws of
the culture in which a child is growing.
5. Chronosystem – This covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s
environments.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of family life is the
most destructive force to a child’s development.” Researches tell us that the absence or lack of
children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults have negative effects on their
development.

Ecological System Theory

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Lesson: Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescent- Language and Literacy

From birth, infants listen to sounds of speech and that of their native language.
• Babbling starts at the end of the second month.
• Infants utter their first word at the age of 12 months.
• Children begin putting two words together at about 18months; and
• Three or more words together anywhere from 2 to 3 years of age.

Bilingual Language Development

Children who learn two languages simultaneously, puts children to an advantage in terms
of language proficiency. It affords advanced cognitive skills, flexibility of thought and greater
acceptance of peers from other cultural background.

Theory
Noam Chomsky noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate Language Acquisition Device
(LAD). This LAD is a metaphorical organ that is responsible for language learning. Just as a heart
is designed to pump blood this LAD is preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the language
community children find themselves in.
- Children have an innate LAD that enables them to learn a language early and quickly.

Jerome Bruner agrees with LAD, however, the social context and the behavior of parents and/or
primary caregivers have a significant impact on language development. This aspect of the
environment he calls the language acquisition support system (LASS). According to Bruner, the
LAD cannot function alone and every LAD therefore needs a LASS.
• Social interactions like joint picture reading help support language development in children
as this provide a scaffolding environment to structure the child’s early language utterances.

Literacy is the process that begins well before the elementary grades and continues into
adulthood and even throughout life.
• It is in the preschool years when children gradually learn to read and write.

❖ Language disorder refers to any systematic deviation in the way people speak, listen,
read, write or sign that interferes with their ability to communicate with their peers.
❖ Aphasia is the loss of ability to use and understand the language.

Lesson: Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents

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• Cognition is the process of learning in the broadest sense that includes perception,
memory, judgment, and thinking.
• It is both a mental activity and behavior that provides an understanding of the world
arising from biological, experiential, motivational and social influences.
• Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering,
problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to
adulthood.
• Cognitive development is the process by which human beings acquire, organize, and
learn to use knowledge.

I. Cognitive Development Theories

A. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development

▪ Piaget’s theory fueled other researches and theories of development and
learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
▪ Piaget’s theory relates to the differences in the way of thinking and
understanding the world was shaped by the errors of children. Piaget
maintains that children’s incorrect responses on test were more enlightening
that their correct responses.
▪ This theory has been applied widely to teaching and curriculum design
especially in the preschool and elementary curricula

Basic Cognitive Concepts

1. Piagetian tasks – Piaget’s research method involved observing a small number of
individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed.
2. Schema (plural, Schemata) – organized unit of knowledge.
▪ The child uses this to be able to understand a situation or an experience and which
will serve as basis for organizing actions to respond to the environment.
▪ Example – Karen is teaching her son, John, about dogs. She showed him the
neighbor’s dog. John created his own schema of what a dog is (1.) it has four legs and a
tail (2.) it is furry and (3.) it barks. Whenever John sees another dog, he uses the schema
on his mind about a dog, four legs, a tail, furry and bark, John will say it is a dog!
3. Organization – this is the predisposition to combine simple physical or psychological
structures into more complex systems.
4. Assimilation – is making use of an existing schema to a new experience.
▪ Example – John, in the park, saw “aspin” and said it is a dog. Then, he saw a
Chihuahua (a small dog) walk by, he would add this new information (a different
looking dog) to his schema of a dog.
5. Accommodation – is modifying an existing schema to a new experience.
▪ Example – John went to a farm and saw another animal that looks a little like a
dog, but somehow different. With the schema of a dog in his mind, he asks
“Mother that is a funny looking dog.” Then Karen will explain that the animal is
not a dog, but a goat. With further descriptions from Karen, John will now create
a new schema, that of a goat.
6. Adaptation – involves the process of assimilation and accommodation that are
complementary. It is adjusting one’s thinking according to environmental
demands.

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7. Object permanence – This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists
even when out of sight

The Stages of Cognitive Development

Phase Age Description

A. Sensorimotor 0-2 years Sensory Organs and muscles become more

functional
Stage 1. Use of Birth to 1 month Movements are primariliy reflexive
reflexes
Stage 2. Primary 1-4 months Perceptions center around one’s body.
circular reaction Objects are perceived as extension of the
self.
Stage 3. Secondary 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment.
circular reaction Initiates acts to change the movement.
Stage 4. 8-12 months Differentiate goals and goal-directed
Coordination of activities.
secondary schemata
Stage 5. Tertiary 12- 18 months Experiments with methods to reach goals.
circular reaction Develops rituals that become significant.
Stage 6. Invention of 18-24 months Uses mental imagery to understand the
new means. environment.
B. Preoperational 2-7 years old Emerging ability to think.
*Children use symbolism (images and
language) to represent and understand the
various aspects of environment.
Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 years Thinking tends to be egocentric.
Exhibits use of symbolism

*Egocentrism – tendency of the child to only

see his point of view and assume that
everyone also has his same point of view.
Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole thing into
separate parts.
Able to classify objects according to one
trait.
C. Concrete 7-11 years Learns to reason about events between here-
Operations and now
Can understand the basic properties of and
relations among objects and events in the
everyday world.
Able to solve concrete (hands on) problem
in logical fashion
D. Formal 11 + years Able to see relationships and to reason in the
Operations abstract.
Becomes more scientific in thinking
Capable of systematic, deductive reasoning.

From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles.

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1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive
development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners
and require adaptation.
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental
operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are
beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

B. Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development

• The theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in
cognitive development. He believed that individual development could not be understood
without looking into the social and cultural context within which development happens.
• The theory asserts that complex forms of thinking have their origins in social interactions
rather than the child’s private explorations.
• Social Interaction and Language are two central factors in cognitive development.
• According to Vygotsky, children’s learning of new cognitive skill is guided by an adult,
or a more skilled child, such as an older sibling), who structures the child’s learning
experience, a process called scaffolding.
• Scaffolding is a term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the
learner accomplishes a task.

To create an appropriate scaffold, the adult must gain and keep the child’s
attention, model the strategy, and adapts the whole process to the child’s developmental
level or zone of proximal development.

• The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the range of abilities that an individual can
perform with assistance but cannot yet perform independently. These skills are called
"proximal" because the individual is close to mastering them but needs more guidance
and practice in order to perform these actions independently.

In the classroom setting:

• The teacher makes adjustment in the amount and type of support he gives to the child as
he tries to acquire a skill. When the child has acquired the skill, teacher withdraws
support.
• The teacher would provide the scaffolding for children’s discovery, through questions,
demonstrations and explanations. To be effective, the assisted discovery processes would
have to be within the zone of proximal development of each child.
• Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes the need for social interaction in facilitating the child’s
development. It assumes that the thought processes are internalized accrue from
interaction with others in the social environment.
• The shifts in the use of symbols and languages give way to the honing of intellectual
capacities that is manifested in the transitions between elementary functions and higher
mental functions.

II. Intelligence and Individual Differences

Intelligence – is the capacity to think and understand.
– It includes the combination of various separate abilities that includes verbal
communication, abstract thinking, logical reasoning and use of common sense.

a. Concept of Intelligence (Binet)

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Alfred Binet, French psychologist, who played a dominant role in the development of
experimental psychology in France and who made fundamental contributions to the
measurement of intelligence.

Binet (Binet & Simon, 1905) defined intelligence in terms of judgment, practical sense,
initiative, and adaptability.

This first intelligence test, the Binet-Simon Scale, comprised a variety of tasks they
thought were representative of typical children's abilities at various ages, became the
basis for the intelligence tests still in use today.

Binet stressed the limitations of the test, suggesting that intelligence is far too broad a
concept to quantify with a single number. Instead, he insisted that intelligence is
influenced by many factors that it changes over time and that it can only be compared in
children with similar backgrounds.

When the Binet-Simon Scale was brought to the United States, it generated considerable
interest. Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman took Binet's original test and
standardized it using a sample of American participants. This adapted test, first published
in 1916, was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard
intelligence test used in the U.S.

b. General Intelligence (Spearman)

Charles Spearman first described the existence of general intelligence in 1904. According
to Spearman, this g factor was responsible for overall performance on mental ability tests.

General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to the existence of a broad mental
capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures.

For example, a person who does well on a verbal test would probably also do well on
other tests. Those who hold this view believe that intelligence can be measured and
expressed by a single number, such as an IQ score. The idea is that this underlying
general intelligence influences performance on all cognitive tasks.

c. Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone)

L.L. Thurstone said that intelligence, considered as a mental trait, is the capacity to make
impulses focal at their early, unfinished stage of formation. Intelligence is therefore the
capacity for abstraction, which is an inhibitory process

The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities, a model of human intelligence that challenged
Charles Spearman’s then-dominant paradigm of a unitary conception of intelligence.

Using his new approach to factor analysis, Thurstone found that intelligent behavior does
not arise from a general factor, but rather emerges from seven independent factors that he
called primary abilities: (1.) word fluency (2.) verbal comprehension, (3.) spatial
visualization, (4.) number facility, (5.) associative memory, (6) reasoning, and (7.)
perceptual speed

His theory was a compromise that accounted for the presence of both a general factor and
the seven specific abilities. This compromise helped lay the groundwork for future
researchers who proposed hierarchical theories and theories of multiple intelligences.

d. Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

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Gardner proposed different types of intelligence. He argues that everyone possesses all of them
but in different strengths and combinations. The different types are as follows:

1. Linguistic (effective expression of one’s own ideas through words, and the ability to
understand others through words and process information verbally)
2. Logical/Mathematical (the ability to understand logical/causal processes and patterns, and
manipulate numbers, quantities, etc.)
3. Musical/Rhythmic (keen sense of pitch and rhythm, strong musical memory)
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (innate understanding of the body’s movements, quick reflexes, etc.)
5. Spatial (ability to envision physical space within the mind. Keen sense of direction, good
at arranging things, parking cars, etc.)
6. Naturalistic (understanding the natural world, classifying plants and animals, recognizing
weather patterns, etc.)
7. Interpersonal (ability to understand other people — what motivates them, how they will
act in certain situations, what they need to function well, what frightens them, etc.-
Important for teachers)
8. Intrapersonal (highly developed sense of self, understanding of one’s own abilities,
limits, motivations, needs, etc.)

He claimed that the number of intelligences can even be greater than eight and possibly be nine
which he called spirituality or existential intelligence.

9. Existential (strong inclination and ability to wrestle with questions of life, death,
meaning, etc.)

Gardner’s theory has been subject to much criticism, primarily because there is no empirical
evidence to support it. Despite the criticism, however, many educators use Gardner’s ideas in
designing their instruction, whether or not they are consciously following his theory.

e. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg)

• This theory points to three major components of intelligent behavior:
1. Information processing skills – are required to encode, combine, and compare
varying kinds of information.
2. Experience with a given task or situation – From experience, an individual can
automize over repeated experiences in doing a task. There is a relative
difference in intelligence between performances of one who experience doing
a particular task for years than one who has not.
3. Ability to adjust one’s behavior to the demands of a context – context accepts
the view that people function according to different situations and try to adapt

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to the demands of a situation by selecting and shaping other situations as
necessary to meet their own needs.
• Sternberg has developed a theory of successful intelligence as an extension of his
triarchic theory. This states that man can mold, shape environment to meet his
needs as well as that of society through analytical, creative, and practical abilities.

f. Cognitive Information Procession Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

The basic idea of Information processing theory is that the human mind is like a
computer or information processor — rather than behaviorist notions that people merely
responding to stimuli.

These theories equate thought mechanisms to that of a computer, in that it receives input,
processes, and delivers output. Information gathered from the senses (input), is stored and
processed by the brain, and finally brings about a behavioral response (output).

Our cognitive processes filter information, deciding what is important enough to ‘save’
from our sensory memory to our short-term memory, and ultimately to encode into our
long-term memory. Our cognitive processes include thinking, perception, remembering,
recognition, logical reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, our sense of judgment, and
planning.

The general model of information processing theory includes three components:

1. Sensory Memory – it refers to what we are experiencing through our senses at any
given moment. This includes what we can see, hear, touch, taste and smell. Sight and
hearing are generally thought to be the two most important ones.

2. Short Term Memory. The information is processed further. Some of the information
we hold in our short-term memory is discarded or filtered away once again, and a portion
of it is encoded or stored in our long-term memory.
• A number of factors impact how we process things in our working memory.
These include our individual cognitive abilities, the amount of information we’re
being asked to remember, how focused we’re able to be on a given day and how
much of our attention we give to the information.
• We also have the ability to focus on the information we deem to be most
important or relevant. Then we use selective processing to bring our attention to
those details in an effort to remember them for the future.

3. Long Term Memory. The capacity of long-term memory could be unlimited, the main
constraint on recall being accessibility rather than availability.

III. Factors Affecting Cognitive Development

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1. Biological Factors 2. Environment factors
a. Sense organs a. learning opportunities
b. intelligence b. Socio economic status
c. Heredity c. Family and Society
d. Maturation d. various types of Stimuli
Lesson: Socio-emotional Development of Children and Adolescents

• Social-emotional development includes the child’s experience, expression, and

management of emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships
with others (Cohen and others 2005). It encompasses both intra- and interpersonal
processes.

• The core features of emotional development include the ability to identify and understand
one’s own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states in others, to
manage strong emotions and their expression in a constructive manner, to regulate one’s
own behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships.
(National Scientific Council on the Developing Child 2004, 2)

B. Development of Self and Social Understandings

• Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
▪ Freud asserts that the human psyche (personality) is structured into three parts
(tripartite)
▪ These structures all develop at different stages in a person’s life
▪ Although each part comprises unique features and contributes to an individual’s
behavior, they interact to form a whole

Parts of a Personality
1. Id (internal desire)
• also called internal drives or instinctive drive

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• it consist of the body’s primitive biological drives and urges which are
concerned with achieving pleasure and self-satisfaction.
• Id lives completely in the unconscious

Example: desire for food and sex. The id seeks instant gratification for our wants and
needs. If these needs or wants are not met, a person can become tense, anxious, or angry.

2. Ego (reality)
• it is the “I” part of the individual that gives him/her the sense of his/her own
identity.
• The ego is the rational part of the personality. trying to meet the desires of the
id in a way that is socially acceptable in the world
• This may mean delaying gratification and helping to get rid of the tension the
id feels if a desire is not met right away. The ego recognizes that other people
have needs and wants too, and being selfish isn't good in the long run

3. Superego (conscience)
• It is the part of the personality concerned with morals, precepts, standards, and
ideas.
• Develops last, and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong.

Freudian Stages of Psychosexual Development

Development of an individual can be divided into distinct stages characterized by sexual

drives.
As a person grows, certain areas become sources of pleasure, frustration or both

Stage Age Characteristics

Oral Birth to 1 ½ years old Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of
gratification and exploration
Primary Need: Security
Major Conflict: Weaning
Anal 1 ½ to 3 years old Source of pleasure: anus and bladder
(sensual satisfaction and self-control)
Major Conflict: toilet training
Phallic 4-6 years old Center of pleasure: child’s genital
(masturbation)
Major Conflict: Oedipus and Electra
Complex

The Oedipus complex is a theory of Freud

which involves a boy, aged between 3 and 6,
becoming unconsciously sexually attached
to his mother, and hostile towards his father
(who he views as a rival).

The Electra complex is a term used to

describe the female version of the Oedipus
complex. It involves a girl, aged between 3
and 6, becoming unconsciously sexually
attached to her father and increasingly
hostile toward her mother.
Latency 6 to puberty Energy directed to physical and intellectual
activities
Sexual impulses repressed
Relationship between peers and same sex

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Genital Puberty onwards Energy directed towards full sexual maturity
and function and development of skills to
cope with the environment.

• Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

▪ Erikson’s Theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the
earlier stages served as a foundation for later stages. The theory highlighted the
importance of one’s environment, particularly, on how earlier experiences
gradually build upon the next and result into one’s personality.
• Psycho – relating to the mind, brain and personality
• Social – external relationships and environment
▪ Erikson was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. While Freud focused on
biological and sexually-oriented theory, Erikson extended the theory and
incorporated cultural and social aspects.

Why is there a need to understand Erikson's Theory?

It can help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time understanding of
the various environmental factors that affect his own and his students’ personality and behavior.
Stage Age Crisis (+) Resolution (-) Resolution
Infancy Birth to Trust vs. Mistrust Learn to trust Mistrust,
18 mos. others withdrawal,
estrangement
Early 18 mos. Autonomy vs. Self-control Compulsive,
Childhood To 3 Shame and Doubt without loss of self- restraint or
self-esteem compliance
Ability to Willfulness and
cooperate and defiance
express oneself
Late 3 to 5 Initiative vs. Guilt Learns to become Lack of self-
Childhood assertive confidence
Ability to Pessimism, fear
evaluate one’s of wrongdoing
own behavior Over-control
and over-
restriction
School Age 6-12 Industry vs. Learn to create, Loss of hope,
Inferiority develop and sense of being
manipulate. mediocre
Develops sense of Withdrawal
competence and from school
perseverance. and peers
*Parents, teachers *Those who
who support, ignore, rebuff,
reward and praise deride their
children are efforts are
encouraging and strengthening
helping children feelings of
develop their inferiority.
sense of industry.
Adolescence 12- 18 or Identity vs. Role Coherent sense of Feelings of
20 Confusion self confusion,
Plans to actualize indecisiveness
one’s abilities and possible
*Seeking to find anti-social
an identity, behavior.

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adolescents try on *When the
many roles. If adolescent fail
they experience to develop a
continuity in their sense of
perception of self, identity, he/she
identity develops. experiences
role confusion
or a negative
identity.
Intimate Impersonal
relationship with relationships
Young 18 -25 Intimacy vs. another person Avoidance of
Adulthood Isolation Commitment to relationship,
work and career or
relationships lifestyle
*Center to commitments
intimacy is the *Failure to
ability to share establish close
with and care for and intimate
others. relationship
results to
feeling of
isolation.
Adulthood 25- 65 Generativity vs. Creativity, Self-
Stagnation productivity, indulgence,
concern for self-concern,
others. lack of interests
and
commitments

Maturity 65 - death Integrity vs. Acceptance of Sense of loss,

Despair worth and contempt for
uniqueness of others.
one’s own life
Acceptance of
death

• Albert Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

▪ Bandura said that learning may also occur as a result of watching someone else
perform an action and experience reinforcement or punishment. This kind of
learning called observational learning or modeling, involves a wide range of
behavior.
▪ Bandura also calls the attention to a class of reinforcement called intrinsic
reinforcement. Bandura has bridged the gap between learning theories and other
approaches by emphasizing the role of cognitive elements in learning. A person
learns from observing others as they perform tasks are influenced by processes
such as attention and memory.
▪ Another important consideration is maturation. It needs maturity to be able to
understand/perform a more complicated task.
▪ Bandura suggests that what an observer learns from a particular model is
influenced by his own goals, expectations about what kinds of consequences are
likely if he adopts the model’s behavior and judgment of his own performance.

❖ Bobo Doll Experiment. During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of
experiments on observational learning, collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments.

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C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation
1. Content Theories
• Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory comprising a five-tier

model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs
lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs
higher up.

This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four
levels are often referred to as deficiency needs (D-needs), and the top level is known as growth
or being needs (B-needs).ACC

Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet.
Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are
denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the hungrier they will become.

• ERG Theory

Clayton Paul Alderfer, in his ERG Theory, said that as one need is filled, this will provide
motivation to want to fulfill another need. All three needs must be satisfied simultaneously
in order for an individual to feel motivated.

• ERG theory shows that a person works on fulfilling these needs simultaneously or
separately depending on the difference of goals, status, and the environment.

• ERG Theory proposes that if a higher-level need fails to be filled then a person may
regress and seek to further fill lower-level needs instead.

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• For example, if an ambitious employee isn’t provided with growth opportunities, then
their motivation will be lower and they may become frustrated. This may cause them to
seek out more relatedness needs. They may socialize with other members of the team
more.

• Finally, if they are unable to satisfy their relatedness need, they may seek to further
satisfy their existence needs.

Difference from Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Unlike in Maslow’s theory, needs at multiple levels can be pursued at the same time.
In ERG Theory, if a higher-level need isn’t satisfied then the person may regress to
seeking to satisfy lower-level needs (Frustration-Regression principle).
• In Maslow’s theory needs must be satisfied in sequence from the bottom to the top of the
pyramid, one at a time. This is not the case with ERG Theory, where different levels of
needs can be satisfied at any time. For example, an individual can feel that they are
having their growth needs met whilst still feeling unsatisfied in their relationships.

• Theory of Needs (McClelland)

McClelland's Human Motivation Theory states that every person has one of three main
driving motivators: the needs for
(a.) achievement - desire to do better; solve problems or master complex problem
(b.) affiliation - desire for friendly and warm relationship with others
(c.) power - desire to control other and influence their behavior.

These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life
experiences.
McClelland's theory is sometimes referred to as the three need theory or as the learned
needs theory

• Two Factors Theory (Herzberg)

Frederick Herzberg (1959) came up with Dual Factor theory or also called the
Motivation-Hygiene Theory. He developed the theory that people’s job satisfaction
depends on two kinds of factors
(a.) Factors for satisfaction (motivators / satisfiers) -
Performance, recognition, job status, responsibility and opportunities for growth all fall
under motivators/ satisfiers.

(b.) factors for dissatisfaction (hygiene factors / dissatisfiers) -

Hygiene factors/dissatisfiers are about salary, secondary working conditions, the
relationship with colleagues, physical work place and the relationship between supervisor
and employee.

2. Process Theories
• Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner derived the reinforcement theory, one of the oldest theories of
motivation, as a way to explain behavior and why we do what we do. The theory may also
be known as Behaviorism, or Operant Conditioning, which is still commonly taught in
psychology today. The theory states that "an individual’s behavior is a function of its
consequences". It focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or
decrease a behavior. Through this process, an association is formed between the behavior
and the consequences for that behavior.

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Reinforcement theory claims that stimuli are used to shape behaviors. There are four
primary approaches to reinforcement theory: (a.) positive reinforcement, (b.) negative
reinforcement (c.) positive punishment, and (d.) negative punishment.

Reinforcment Punishment
Positive Something is added to increase the Something is added to decrease
likelihood of a behavior. the likelihood of a behavior.
Negative Something is removed to increase the Something is removed to
likelihood of a behavior. decrease the likelihood of a
behavior.

• Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory stresses and focuses on outcomes, and not on needs
unlike Maslow and Herzberg. The theory states that the intensity of a tendency to
perform in a particular manner is dependent on the intensity of an expectation that the
performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the appeal of the outcome to
the individual.

The Expectancy theory states that motivation is an outcome of how much an individual
wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to
expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to
reward (Instrumentality).
▪ Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the expected
outcome. It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an employee expects
to receive after achieving the goals.
▪ Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance.
Expectancy is influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for
performing the job, availability of right resources, availability of crucial
information and getting the required support for completing the job.
▪ Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be
there. Instrumentality is affected by factors such as believe in the people who
decide who receives what outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who
gets what outcome, and clarity of relationship between performance and
outcomes.

• Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. Goal-setting
theory of motivation states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate
feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.

In simple words, goals indicate and give direction about what needs to be done and how
much efforts are required to be put in.

Seven Goal Setting Theory Principles

a. Clarity – Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous.

b. Challenge –
c. Commitment –
d. Feedback –
e. Task Complexity –
f. Self-efficiency –
g. Goal commitment – The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors:
➢ Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.
➢ Goals should be set-self by individuals rather than designated.

• Self-determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)

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Edward Deci and Richard Ryan's Self-Determination theory states that motivation is what
moves us to act. The theory looks at the inherent, positive human tendency to move
towards growth, and outlines three core needs which facilitate that growth. Those needs
are Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness.

(a.) Competence – The need to experience our behaviors as effectively enacted (to feel
like we’ve done a good job).

(b.) Autonomy – The need to experience behavior as voluntary and “…reflectively self-
endorsed” (to feel like we have control over what we do).

(c.) Relatedness – The need to “…interact, be connected to, and experience caring for
others” (to have meaningful relationships and interactions with other people).

D. Moral Development Theories

• Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
Jean Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what children do (i.e., in whether
they break rules or not) but in what they think. In other words he was interested in
children’s moral reasoning.

Piaget was interested in three main aspects of children’s understanding of moral issues.
(a.) Children’s understanding of rules. - Where do rules come from?
- Can rules be changed?
- Who makes rules?

Children’s understanding of moral responsibility. - Who is to blame for “bad” things?

- Is it the outcome of behavior that makes an action “bad”?
- Is there a difference between accidental and deliberate
wrongdoing?

Children’s understanding of justice. - Should the punishment fit the crime?

- Are the guilty always punished?

Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgments and punishment
tended to change as they got older. In other words just as there were stages to children’s
cognitive development so there were also universal stages to their moral development.

Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking:

(a.) Heteronomous morality (moral realism) (5-9 yrs)

The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism – morality imposed
from the outside. Children regard morality as obeying other people's rules and laws,
which cannot be changed.

They accept that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents, teacher, God),
and that breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe punishment (immanent
justice).

The function of any punishment is to make the guilty suffer in that the severity of the
punishment should be related to severity of wrong-doing (expiatory punishment).

(b.) Autonomous morality (moral relativism) (9-10 yrs old)

The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral relativism – morality based on
your own rules. Children recognize there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality
depends on intentions not consequences.

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Piaget believed that around the age of 9-10 children’s understanding of moral issues
underwent a fundamental reorganization. By now they are beginning to overcome the
egocentrism of middle childhood and have developed the ability to see moral rules from
other people’s point of view.

With regard to issues of blame and moral responsibility older children don’t just take the
consequences into account they also consider motives. Children begin to realize that if
they behave in ways that appear to be wrong, but have good intentions, they are not
necessarily going to be punished. Thus for them a well-intentioned act that turned out
badly is less blameworthy than a malicious act that did no harm.

• Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg opines that the child’s cognitive capabilities determine the growth
of his moral reasoning. Further, moral development builds on concepts acquired in
various stages, such that the attainment in each stage becomes a product of the previous
stages.

Level Stage Description

Preconventional Level. Punishment/ Obedience. One motivated by
Moral Reasoning is based Obedience 1 fear of punishment. He will act in order to
on the consequence/result and moral avoid punishment
of the act, not on the advantage Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by
whether the act itself is 2 the benefit that one may obtain later. You
good or bad scratch my back, I'll scratch yours.
Social Approval. One is motivated by what
others expect in behavior - good boy, good
Conventional Level. girl. The person acts because he /she values
3
Moral Reasoning is based Conformity how he/she will appear to others. He/she
on the conventions or to peers and gives importance on what people will think
"norms" of society. This society or say.
may include approval of
others, law and order. Law and Order. One is motivated to act in
4
order to uphold law and order. The person
will follow the law because it is the law.
Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can
5 be changed. One will act based on social
justice and the common good.
Post Conventional Level.
Social Universal Principles. This is associated
Moral Reasoning is based
contract and with the development of one's conscience.
on enduring or consistent
universal Having a set of standards that drives one to
principles. It is not just
principles possess the moral responsibility to make
recognizing the law, but 6
the principles behind it. societal changes regardless of
consequences to self. Examples of persons
are Mother Theresa, Martin Luther King Jr.

• Elliot Turiel’ Moral Rules

▪ Elliot Turiel, a psychologist at the University of California, Berkeley, maintains
that even very young children can distinguish moral rules from what are dictated
by conventions and are accepted ways of doing things. This is seen in standards of
dressing and even in speech. Moral rules manifest a concern for the welfare of
others and are not influenced by opinion.

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▪ Moral acts such as hurting someone or hitting somebody as part of a game cannot
be legitimized actions. The youngest children however were less clear about acts
leading to psychological harm, such as name calling as part of a game.

Social domain theory was formulated by Elliot Turiel (1978,1979,1983). There are three
main components involved:
1. Moral Issues: Perspective judgments about how individuals ought to behave.
2. Social Conventions: Arbitrary, agreed upon rules and norms that structure social
interactions.
3. Psychological Concepts: Include personal as well as prudential issues (safety,
comfort and health).

• Carol Gilligan’s Moral Reasoning and Gender

▪ Gilligan of Harvard University speaks moral development which strikes a balance
between male-oriented theories as expounded by Kohlberg’s and Freud’s insights
from interviews with females. Based from Gilligan’s findings most females think
of morality more personally than males do. They usually are more ethical. To them,
morality is to be treated in terms of responsibility to others than as the right of
individuals. Females are more compassionate by nature and are careful and fair in
their actions.
▪ Gilligan adds that females tend to see themselves in terms of their relationship with
others. On the contrary, males have the tendency to view themselves as distinct and
separate from others. The concept of separation and connectedness translate into
their approaches to morality. The assumption that one is separate from others
emphasizes the need for rules to regulate the conduct of human behavior and actions
of each with respect to others. The assumption that one is connected to others
recognizes the responsibility each has for the other.
▪ Males and females look at responsibility differently.
• For males, responsibility is conceived as not doing something that would
transgress on the rights of others as when one is guilty of a physical assault.
• Females think of responsibility in terms of meeting the needs of others as in
caring for the sick. Sex is therefore a differentiating factor although as
Gilligan points out, any attempt to chart moral development as a single
sequence is bound to present only half the picture.
▪ The moral development in females is traced through three levels, each showing a
different resolution to the conflict between responsibility to self and responsibility
to others. Movement from one level to the next occurs in two transitional periods.
1. First level - The primary concern is oneself.
When one sees caring for oneself as selfish and not congruent to
responsibility to others, transition to the next level happens.
2. Second level – Females equate morality with goodness, self-sacrifice, and
caring for others.
The transition to the next level occurs when they meet problems in their
relationships resulting from their exclusion from their own care.
3. Third level – Morality is equated with care for both themselves and others.

VI. Summary
1. Human Development, Growth and Maturation
1. Principle on Growth and Development
2. Approaches to Human Development
3. Issues on Human Development
2. The Child and Adolescent Learners
1. Rights of a Child (UNCRC and PD 603)
2. Periods of Development
3. Developmental Task by Havighurst

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3. Physical and Motor Development of Children and Adolescents.
1. Biological Beginnings
2. Physical and Motor Development
3. Neuroscience and Brain Development
4. Factors Affecting Biological/ Physical Development
5. Factors Affecting Growth
6. Exceptional Development Theories
4. 1. Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents
1. Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents
2. Theories
a. Piaget's Cognitive Development
b. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
3. Intelligence and Individual Differences
a. Concept of Intelligence (Binet)
b. General Intelligence (Spearman)
c. Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone)
d. Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
e. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg)
f. Cognitive Information Procession Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)
4. Factors Affecting Cognitive Development
2. Socio-emotional Development of Children and Adolescents
1. Development of Self and Social Understandings
• Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
2. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
• ERG Theory (Alderfer)
• Theory of Needs (McClelland)
• Two Factors Theory (Herzberg)
• Process Theories
• Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
• Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
• Goal Setting Theory (Locke)
• Self-determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)
3. Moral Development Theories
• Piaget Theory of Moral Development
• Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
• Turiel’ Moral Rules
• Gilligan’s Moral Reasoning and Gender
• Behavioral Learning Theories and Approaches to Learning

IX. References:
▪ Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, Ma. Rita D., Borabo, Heidi Grace L., Lucido, Paz I. Child and
Adolescent Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages (2018). Lorimar
Publishing.
▪ Teresita T. Rungduin, Ph. D., Darwin C. Rungduin, M.A. Child and Adolescent: Learners
and Learning Principles (2019) Adriana Publishing
▪ https://www.statpac.org/walonick/human-development.htm
▪ www.nzdl.org › gsdlmod

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▪ Child and Adolescent Development - Revision Version 04/01 United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
▪ UN- OHCHR (n.d.) 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child. UN Office of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights
▪ Presidential Decree No. 603 (1974) The Child and Youth Welfare Code of the
Philippines.
▪ https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-development/physical-development-in-children-
and-adolescents/#gs.8i1z11

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