PHYSICAL

SCIENCE
2nd Semester, 2nd Quarter | Reviewer
Made by: Veronica Tic-chap and
Shayanna Joy B. Valenzuela

EARLY IDEAS ABOUT THE SHAPE OF THE

Lesson 1: Historical EARTH
Development in the Field of MESOPOTAMIANS - 6th CENTURY BC
Astronomy -​ Earth is flat disk floating in the ocean
and bounded by a spherical sky

ARISTOTLE - 320 BC
ASTRONOMY VS ASTROLOGY -​ A student of Plato presented his
ASTRONOMY arguments establishing the claim that
-​ The study of celestial objects, space, the shape of the Earth was not flat
and the universe as a whole. instead it was spherical.
-​ It is a branch of science -​ The sphere is perfectly solid and the
-​ Astronomer refers to a scientist who heavens are a region of perfection
study astronomy The Earth's component pieces, falling
naturally towards the center, would
ASTROLOGY press into a round form
-​ The study of the developments and -​ in an eclipse of the Moon, the Earth's
position of heavenly bodies. shadow is always circular thus, if
-​ It is considered pseudoscience. It Earth is a flat disc, it would cast an
does not adhere to science and has no oval shadow
scientific validity.
-​ Astrologers are the people who use ERATOSTHENES - 235 BC
astrology to predict future events. -​ He is best known for being the first
person known to calculate the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE circumference of the Earth.
FIELD OF ASTRONOMY
-​ Geocentric Model (Earth-centered) ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA BEFORE
-​ Heliocentric Model (Sun-centered) THE DISCOVERY OF TELESCOPE
PHASES OF THE MOON
The appearance and path of the moon were
observed by ancient people to change within
29.5 days. They observed that the moon
VISIBILITY OF THE PLANET
changes appearance from a thin semicircular They noticed a few stars in heaven are
disk to a full circular disk. The periodic relatively brighter than the rest of the stars.
change of the moon's phases was the basis of The distant stars seemed to be fixed in their
the ancient calendar. position, but these stars change positions
periodically, thus the Greeks called it
"wanderers" or planets. These wandering
stars are named Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn which later were discovered to be
planets, not stars.

MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE

TYCHONIC MODEL
The conflicting ideas and pieces of evidence in
both models have pushed Brahe to come up
with his own model. Backed with his accurate
measurement of the distance and positions of
LUNAR ECLIPSE
the planets and stars, he proposed the geo
One of the things that caught the attention of
heliocentric model of the universe, a hybrid
the ancient people was the time in a month
of the geocentric model of Ptolemy and the
when the moon or part of it seemed to be
heliocentric model of Copernicus. In his
covered by a shadow for a brief moment. A
model, the Sun orbited Earth, while the other
phenomenon such as this is known as a lunar
planets orbited the sun.
eclipse. A lunar eclipse occurs when Earth is
between the moon and the Sun, Earth casts a
JOHANNES KEPLER
shadow on the moon.
A young German mathematician hired
by Brahe as a sort of "research assistant"
SOLAR ECLIPSE
primarily to prove that the geo heliocentric
A solar eclipse happens when the moon is in
model is the right model. Kepler spent many
between the Sun and the Earth and the moon
more years trying out many possible models to
partially or completely blocks out the Sun.
fit the available data but he failed to reconcile
This caused temporary darkness during the
the data on hand with the model Brahe
daytime; thus, ancient people feared the
proposed, especially on the notion of the
occurrence of a solar eclipse since they
stationary Earth. It took another brilliant mind
associate it with the wrath of God.
and his invention of the telescope to prove that
Copernicus was right in proposing that
THE MOTION OF THE STARS
Earth after all is not the center of the
The astronomers noticed that the
universe.
constellations’ positions in the night sky vary
depending on the time of the year. It was also
observed that the stars seem to be attached to a KEPLER’S THREE LAWS OF PLANETARY
celestial sphere that rotates around an axis in MOTION
one day.
First Law: Law of Elliptical Orbit or Law
of Ellipses
Lesson 2: The Concept of
“The orbit of a planet around the Sun in an
ellipse, with the Sun at one of the two foci.” Motion
This means that the planetary orbits are not Aristotle thought that heavy objects fall faster
perfect circles but slightly stretched ovals than light objects in proportion to their weight.
(ellipses). The Sun is not at the center but at
one of the foci of the ellipse. Galileo argued that the motion of a falling
body should be nearly dependent on its weight
Second Law: Law of Equal Areas and should have constant acceleration through
A line segment joining a planet and the Sun careful measurements of distances and time
sweeps out equal areas during intervals of experiments.
time. This means that a planet moves faster
when it is closer to the Sun (perihelion) and TERMS:
slower when it is farther from the Sun
(aphelion). DISTANCE
Length of the part travelled from starting
Third Law: Law of Harmonies point to final point

“ The square of a planet’s orbital period (T2) DISPLACEMENT

is proportional to the cube of the semi-major Length of the part travelled from the starting
axis (r3) of its orbits” point to the final point with consideration to
the direction
Meaning that r³/T² should be the same or
constant for each planet. To determine the SPEED
value of proportionality constant k, the value The rate of change of position of an object in
of Earth’s known orbit could be used: any direction​

TEarth = 365.24 days VELOCITY

A vector quantity whose combination is the
rEarth = 149 million kilometres or 149.6 × 10⁶ rate and direction of motion​
km
ACCELERATION
So, r³/T² = k or proportionality constant Rate wherein velocity changes with time. Can
increase or decrease along, change direction,
(149.6 × 10⁶ km)³ or both
--------------------- = 2.51 × 10¹⁹ km³/days² ​
(365.24 days)² HORIZONTAL MOTION
Rate at which an object’s horizontal velocity
Thus, the ratio of the cube of the mean changes
distance of Earth from the Sun and the square ​
of its revolution is 2.51 × 10¹⁹ km³/days². VERTICAL MOTION
Movement of an object in upward or
downward direction​
theory of light in 1704. According to this
PROJECTILE MOTION theory, light consists of tiny particles or

corpuscles coming from a luminous object.

The different colors of light are attributed to
Form of motion an object experience tha the different sizes and masses of the particles
that is projected in a gravitational field​ that have different refrangibility.

FREE FALL -​ Refrangibility is defined as the

Any motion of a body where gravity is the capability of the light ray to be
only force acting upon it. This type of motion refracted.Newton thought that in the
has constant acceleration absence of other forces, light travels
through space in a straight line.
-​ Reflection is the bouncing of light as
Lesson 3: Nature of Light it hits a surface.
-​ Refraction is the bending of light.
1. Wave Theory of Light
Christian Huygens, a Dutch scientist This theory dominated for over a century due
proposed the wave theory of light in 1690. to Newton’s scientific influence.
He compared light with sound waves.
According to him, light is a longitudinal
wave propagating in all directions at
constant velocity in a homogeneous
medium.

-​ The propagation of light in vacuum is

explained by assuming the presence of
a hypothetical medium called ether.
Ether was the postulated medium for
the propagation of light.
-​ Huygens also suggested that each
color of light has a different 3. Quantum Theory of Light
wavelength. This was proposed by Albert Einstein,
-​ The wavelength, λ, can be measured building on Planck’s work. It states that light
between any two points with the same travels in bundles of energy, and each bundle
phase, such as between crests (on top), is known as a photon.
or troughs (on bottom), or
corresponding zero crossings as TERMS:
shown.
-​ When light is reflected, there is no PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
change in its speed. A phenomenon in which electrons are ejected
-​ When light is refracted, there is a from the surface of a metal when light is
change in the speed of light waves as incident on it
they pass from one medium to another.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
2. Corpuscular Theory of Light Is the full range of electromagnetic radiation,
Sir Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular organized by frequency or wavelength
-​ The shorter the wavelength, the higher
the energy/frequency

-​ Radio waves is the longest wavelength 5. Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein

while gamma rays is the shortest showed light can be considered particles
-​ In the ultraviolet spectrum, red is the (photons) with discrete energy (1905).
longest wavelength while violet is the
shortest 6. Compton Effect: Arthur Holly Compton
-​ This is the reason why red light is used demonstrated wave-particle duality of light
in photographic darkrooms (1922).

HOW DO WE SEE COLOR? 7. Davisson-Germer Experiment: Clinton

Let’s use an apple! Davisson and Lester Germer experimentally
confirmed the wave nature of electrons
1. White light (all invisible colors) is shone (1927).
upon the apple
2. The surface of the red apple absorbs all 8. Bohr's Complementarity: Niels Bohr
colors except red. This reflects to the human introduced the concept of complementarity,
eye highlighting the coexistence of wave and
3. The reflected red light is received by the particle aspects (1928).
human eyes and sends a message to our brain

Key Figures and Their Contributions

Lesson 4: Wave Property of an 1. Louis de Broglie: Proposed wave-particle
Electron duality of matter.
2. Werner Heisenberg: Formulated the
Wave Property of an Electron Uncertainty principle.
3. Erwin Schrödinger: Developed wave
Key Discoveries and Principles functions and electron density clouds.
1. Wave-Particle Duality: Louis de Broglie 4. Max Planck: Introduced Planck's constant
proposed that electrons and matter have and radiation law.
wave properties (1924). 5. Albert Einstein: Demonstrated the
photoelectric effect and wave-particle duality
2. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Werner of light.
Heisenberg stated that momentum and 6. Arthur Holly Compton: Observed the
position of an electron cannot be measured Compton effect.
exactly at the same time (1927). 7. Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer:
Confirmed the wave nature of electrons.
3. Wave Functions: Erwin Schrödinger 8. Niels Bohr: Introduced the concept of
derived equations (wave functions) to complementarity.
describe electrons in orbits, introducing
electron density clouds

4. Planck's Constant: Max Planck formulated

Planck's constant and radiation law (1900)
Lesson 5: Various Light Phenomena and green lasers with red and green
gummy bears
-​ Red laser cannot pass through the red
A. Reflection on the concave and convex gummy bear but it passed through the
sides of spoon looks different green gummy bear
-​ A shiny spoon is like a mini mirror, -​ Green laser cannot pass through the
but with a curve in it. The front of the green gummy bear but it passed
spoon is a CONCAVE surface, and through the red gummy bear
the back is a CONVEX surface -​ Lights of certain wavelengths (colors)
are absorbed and reflected, while the
reflected wavelength is visible to the
observer (Like the apple explanation
earlier!!)

D. Natural and Artificial Lights

1. Direct Sunlight
2. Indirect Sunlight
3. Artificial Lights (fluorescent, LED, and
even fire light)
CONEX - produces upright, virtual images
CONCAVE - produces real and inverted -​ Colored objects look different in
images (depends on the location of the object) natural sunlight compared to artificial
lights
B. Mirages -​ Sun is a white light, meaning it
-​ A mirage is an optical phenomenon contains ALL of the visible light
that creates the illusion of water and colors
results from the refraction of light -​ Artificial lights cannot have all the
through a non-uniform medium. colors of the natural light spectrum.
-​ Mirages are most commonly observed This results to a transmission of dull
on sunny days when driving down a or inaccurate color
roadway.
-​ As you drive down the roadway, there E. Rainbow
appears to be a puddle of water on the -​ Results from the refraction of sunlight
road several yards in front of the car. in falling water droplets plus the
Of course, when you arrive at the reflection of the light from the back of
perceived location of the puddle, you the droplet
recognize that the puddle is not there. -​ Primary rainbow results from one
Instead, the puddle of water appears to reflection inside the droplet
be another one-hundred yards in front -​ Secondary rainbow results from a
of you. second reflection inside the droplet

F. Haloes
C. Gummy Bear Experiment -​ Light shines through ice crystals,
-​ An experiment about light using red creating a white ring around the sun or
-​
-​
-​
-​
-​
moon.

G. Sun Dogs
-​ Known as mock sun or phantom sun
-​ The refraction of light produces
bright spots of light in the sky

H. Colors of the clouds in the sky

-​ In a cloud, sunlight is scattered by
much larger water droplets. This
scatters all colors almost equally
making the cloud look white (Mie
scattering)
-​ Clouds start to look grey and dark
when water vapor clumps together
into raindrops, resulting to less light
being refracted
-​ The color of the sky is determined
by wavelength of white light that
reaches the earth (blue during the
day, red or orange during sunrise or
sunsets)