Seminar Report on

“ QUANTUM COMPUTING ”
B.Tech ( 3rd year )
(Branch – CSE)

Submitted To :- ​ Submitted By :-
Mr. Anand Kumar Pandey Sachin Yadav
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Project report was completed as a result of support from many people, although not all
of them can be mentioned.

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to God for his protection, providence, guidance and
above all, for sustaining us.

We are greatly indebted to our good supervisor Mr. Anand Kumar Pandey for his useful
and necessary observation, suggestions, contribution and corrections. We would not have
been able to achieve anything in this research without your supervision. May God enrich you
greatly in every area of life.

Finally, we wish to express our appreciation to our parents for their love and support.

Sachin Yadav
Introduction

●​ Quantum computing represents a revolutionary approach to processing information,

leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics to perform calculations at
unprecedented speeds.Unlike classical computers that use bits as the smallest unit of
data, quantum computers utilize qubits, which can exist in multiple states
simultaneously due to superposition.

●​ The phenomenon of entanglement allows qubits that are entangled to be correlated

with one another, enabling complex problem-solving capabilities that classical
computers struggle to achieve. Quantum computing has the potential to transform
various fields, including cryptography, drug discovery, optimization problems, and
artificial intelligence, by solving problems that are currently intractable.

●​ As research and development in quantum technologies advance, the implications for

industries and society are profound, raising questions about security, ethics, and the
future of computing. Understanding quantum computing requires a multidisciplinary
approach, integrating concepts from computer science, physics, and mathematics,
making it a fascinating and challenging field of study.

●​ The journey into quantum computing is marked by significant milestones, ongoing

challenges, and a growing community of researchers and enthusiasts eager to explore
its vast potential. The concept of quantum computing is rooted in the principles of
quantum mechanics, which describe the behavior of matter and energy at the smallest
scales, fundamentally differing from classical physics.

●​ Quantum computers can perform certain calculations much faster than classical
computers by exploiting quantum phenomena such as superposition and
entanglement, which allow them to process vast amounts of data simultaneously.
Superposition enables qubits to represent both 0 and 1 at the same time, while
entanglement creates a link between qubits, allowing the state of one to instantly
influence the state of another, regardless of distance.

●​ The potential applications of quantum computing are vast, ranging from enhancing
machine learning algorithms to revolutionizing materials science, enabling the
simulation of complex chemical reactions, and optimizing logistics and supply
chains.The field of quantum computing is rapidly evolving, with numerous startups,
academic institutions, and tech giants collaborating to push the boundaries of what is
possible, fostering a vibrant ecosystem of innovation and discovery.
QUBIT

●​ Qubits, or quantum bits, are the fundamental units of information in quantum

computing, analogous to bits in classical computing but with vastly different
properties. Unlike classical bits that can exist only in states 0 or 1, qubits can exist in
a superposition of both states simultaneously, enabling quantum computers to process
multiple possibilities at once.

●​ The physical implementation of qubits can vary widely, including superconducting

circuits, trapped ions, quantum dots, and photonic systems, each with its own
advantages and challenges. Qubits exhibit unique quantum phenomena such as
superposition and entanglement, which are critical for the computational power of
quantum algorithms.

●​ Superposition allows a single qubit to represent multiple states simultaneously,

massively increasing the parallelism of quantum computations. Entanglement links
two or more qubits in such a way that the state of one qubit instantly influences the
state of another, regardless of the distance separating them - this property enables
complex quantum information processing.

●​ The coherence time of a qubit - the time over which it maintains its quantum state - is
a key performance metric, as decoherence causes loss of quantum information and
errors in computation. Quantum error correction is essential because qubits are highly
susceptible to errors from environmental interference, and robust error correction
schemes are needed to build scalable quantum computers.

●​ The manipulation of qubits using quantum gates allows quantum algorithms to be

implemented; these gates operate differently from classical logic gates due to the
quantum nature of qubits. Measurement of a qubit collapses its quantum state to either
0 or 1, which limits information retrieval but is necessary for extracting results from
quantum computations.

●​ Advances in control techniques, fabrication, and materials science are continuously

improving qubit fidelity, coherence times, and scalability. Understanding qubit
dynamics and optimizing their performance is central to advancing toward practical,
reliable quantum computing hardware. The study and engineering of qubits highlight
the interdisciplinary nature of quantum computing, involving physics, engineering,
computer science, and materials science.
Evolution of Quantum Computing

●​ The evolution of quantum computing traces back to the early 20th century, rooted in
the foundational principles of quantum mechanics developed by physicists such as
Max Planck, Albert Einstein, and Niels Bohr.

●​ In the 1980s, physicists like Richard Feynman and David Deutsch proposed the
concept of quantum computers, recognizing that quantum mechanical phenomena
could be used to perform computations far beyond classical capabilities.

●​ Paul Benioff's pioneering work in the early 1980s introduced the idea of a quantum
mechanical model of a Turing machine, laying the theoretical groundwork for
quantum computation.

●​ In 1985, David Deutsch formulated the first universal quantum computer model,
advancing the notion that a quantum algorithm could simulate any physical process.

●​ The discovery of critical quantum algorithms in the 1990s, particularly Peter Shor’s
algorithm for integer factorization (1994) and Lov Grover’s search algorithm (1996),
demonstrated practical potential for quantum computers to outperform classical
computers in specific problems.

●​ The late 1990s saw the birth of physical implementations of qubits, with
superconducting circuits, trapped ions, and quantum dots becoming prominent
approaches to realizing quantum hardware.

●​ The 2000s marked growing experimental progress, with gradual improvements in

qubit coherence times, gate fidelities, and error correction techniques, driving the
quantum computing field closer to practical realizations.

●​ Around 2011, the first commercial quantum computers became accessible, albeit
limited in scale, sparking significant investment and interest from major technology
companies.

●​ A landmark event occurred in 2019, when Google’s quantum computer reportedly

achieved “quantum supremacy” by solving a computational problem faster than the
world’s most powerful classical supercomputers could.

●​ Since then, notable advancements have continued, including IBM, Honeywell, and
startups enhancing qubit counts, reducing error rates, and developing hybrid
quantum-classical algorithms.
Quantum Superposition

●​ Quantum superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics that allows

quantum systems, such as qubits, to exist in multiple states simultaneously, unlike
classical bits which are strictly in one state at a time (either 0 or 1).

●​ In quantum computing, superposition enables a qubit to represent both 0 and 1 at the

same time, which exponentially expands the computational power of quantum devices
compared to classical computers. This property stems from the wave-like nature of
particles in quantum mechanics, where a qubit’s state is described by a complex
probability amplitude representing a combination of all possible states.

●​ Mathematically, a qubit in superposition is expressed as a linear combination: α|0⟩ +

β|1⟩, where α and β are complex coefficients whose squared magnitudes represent the
probabilities of measuring the qubit in state 0 or 1.

●​ Superposition thus allows a quantum computer to perform parallel computations on

multiple possibilities simultaneously, drastically speeding up problem-solving for
certain complex tasks like factoring large numbers and database searching.

●​ The power of superposition is harnessed by quantum algorithms, which carefully

manipulate qubits in superposed states through quantum gates, guiding the
computation towards desired outcomes with high probability.

●​ However, superposition is fragile because interaction with the environment causes

decoherence, collapsing the qubit’s state into one of the basis states and losing the
quantum advantage. Maintaining and controlling superposition for sufficiently long
durations—quantum coherence—is a critical challenge in building reliable quantum
computers.

●​ Superposition is also intertwined with entanglement, where superposed qubits become

linked so that the measurement outcome of one qubit immediately affects the state of
another, even at a distance.

●​ Understanding and exploiting superposition is essential for realizing quantum

supremacy, where quantum computers solve problems infeasible for classical
machines.
Quantum Entanglement

●​ Quantum entanglement is a uniquely quantum mechanical phenomenon where two or

more qubits become interconnected such that the state of one qubit instantaneously
influences the state of the other(s), regardless of the physical distance separating
them.

●​ This non-classical correlation defies classical intuition, as entangled qubits cannot be

described independently; their states are linked in a way that the measurement of one
determines the state of the others.

●​ In quantum computing, entanglement is a critical resource that enables powerful

quantum algorithms and protocols such as quantum teleportation, superdense coding,
and quantum error correction.

●​ Entangled qubits can exist in a joint superposition state, allowing quantum computers
to process exponentially more information compared to non-entangled or classical
bits.

●​ The phenomenon underpins many quantum algorithms, including Shor’s factoring

algorithm and Grover’s search algorithm, by enabling complex interference patterns
that enhance computational speed and efficiency.

●​ Creating and maintaining entanglement experimentally is a challenging task due to

environmental noise and decoherence, which can easily disrupt the fragile entangled
states.

●​ Quantum entanglement is also essential for quantum communication and quantum

cryptography, where it enables protocols like Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) to
provide theoretically unbreakable encryption.

●​ The famous Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox and Bell's theorem experiments

established entanglement’s reality and its foundational role in quantum physics,
disproving local hidden variable theories.
How does a Quantum Computer Work ?

●​ A quantum computer works by harnessing the principles of quantum mechanics,

primarily superposition and entanglement, to perform computations in ways that
classical computers cannot. The basic units of quantum information in a quantum
computer are qubits, which, unlike classical bits that are either 0 or 1, can exist in
superpositions of both states simultaneously.

●​ Quantum computation begins by initializing qubits into a known state, typically a

superposition to represent many possible inputs simultaneously. Quantum gates
manipulate qubits by changing their states using operations equivalent to classical
logic gates but exploiting quantum phenomena; examples include the Hadamard gate,
Pauli-X, and CNOT gate.

●​ Quantum gates operate on qubits through unitary transformations, which means the
process is reversible and preserves the overall probability distribution of the quantum
system. Entanglement is used to create strong correlations between qubits, enabling
complex operations that process information collectively rather than independently.

●​ A quantum algorithm typically orchestrates a sequence of quantum gates designed to

amplify probabilities of correct answers while diminishing incorrect ones using
interference effects. Quantum circuits are composed to execute these algorithms by
applying gates in a specific order to manipulate qubits toward a desired computational
outcome.

●​ Throughout the computation, coherence is maintained to preserve the quantum state;

however, challenge arises because quantum states are fragile and susceptible to errors
caused by noise and decoherence. Quantum error correction protocols are employed
to detect and correct errors without measuring the qubits directly, thus preserving
quantum information and enabling fault-tolerant quantum computing.

●​ Measurement in a quantum computer collapses the qubit’s superposition to a

definitive classical state (0 or 1), which is the final output of the quantum
computation. Results from measurement are probabilistic, so quantum computations
often require running multiple times to gather meaningful statistical outputs.
Why Quantum Computing ?

●​ Quantum computing promises to revolutionize the way we solve complex problems

that are currently intractable or extremely time-consuming for classical computers. It
leverages the unique properties of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and
entanglement, to perform computations in parallel on many possible solutions
simultaneously. Certain problems, like integer factorization and discrete logarithms,
which underpin modern cryptography, can potentially be solved exponentially faster
on quantum computers using algorithms like Shor’s algorithm.

●​ Quantum computing offers immense potential in optimization problems found in

logistics, supply chain management, and machine learning by efficiently exploring
vast solution spaces. Simulating quantum systems, which classical computers struggle
with due to exponential complexity, becomes feasible using quantum computers,
enabling breakthroughs in chemistry, materials science, and drug discovery.

●​ Quantum computing could drastically accelerate artificial intelligence by improving

machine learning algorithms and enabling faster data processing and pattern
recognition. With the rise of big data, classical computations often hit computational
limits; quantum computers can offer new ways to process massive datasets more
efficiently.

●​ Quantum computing may enable new cryptographic methods that are secure against
quantum attacks, fostering the development of quantum-safe cryptography. It drives
innovation and technological competitiveness, with governments and industries
investing heavily to harness the economic and strategic advantages of quantum
technologies. As classical Moore’s Law scaling slows down, quantum computing
presents an alternative path to sustained computational growth and capability.

●​ As classical Moore’s Law scaling slows down, quantum computing presents an

alternative path to sustained computational growth and capability. The ability to solve
complex optimization, simulation, and cryptographic problems could transform
multiple sectors, including finance, healthcare, energy, and telecommunications.

●​ Quantum computers open up new paradigms of computation beyond classical limits,

challenging our understanding of computation itself and inspiring new theoretical
developments. Investing in quantum computing research supports the development of
related fields like quantum sensing, quantum communications, and quantum
networks, creating a broader quantum technology ecosystem.
Types of Quantum Computing

●​ Hybrid quantum-classical computing frameworks are emerging, combining

quantum processors with classical computers to optimize problem-solving by
leveraging quantum advantages in key subroutines.

●​ Gate-based Quantum Computing is the most widely studied model, analogous to

classical digital computing, where computation is performed using quantum logic
gates acting on qubits arranged in circuits. It manipulates qubits through sequences of
quantum gates that implement algorithms by creating and controlling superposition
and entanglement..

●​ Quantum Annealing is a specialized quantum computing approach primarily focused

on optimization problems, where the system is initialized to a superposition of all
states and then gradually evolved to find the lowest energy configuration representing
the optimal solution. Quantum annealers, like those produced by D-Wave, are
designed to solve combinatorial optimization problems efficiently but are less
general-purpose than gate-based quantum computers.

●​ Topological Quantum Computing is an emerging and highly theoretical model that

uses anyons and topological states of matter to encode qubits in a way that is naturally
protected from certain types of errors, potentially enabling more robust and
fault-tolerant computation. Topological qubits aim to exploit the topology of quantum
states to enhance coherence and reduce error rates, though practical implementations
remain experimental.

●​ Measurement-Based Quantum Computing (MBQC), also known as one-way

quantum computing, operates by preparing a highly entangled resource state (cluster
state) and then performing a sequence of adaptive measurements to drive
computation. MBQC shifts the focus from gate operations to measurement sequences,
offering alternative approaches to quantum algorithm implementation and error
correction.

●​ Analog Quantum Computing involves continuous quantum systems evolving under

controlled Hamiltonians, allowing for the simulation of quantum physical processes
directly without discrete gate operations. Analog quantum simulators are valuable for
modeling complex quantum materials, chemical systems, and fundamental physics
phenomena that are computationally expensive for classical computers.
Drawbacks of Quantum Computing

●​ One of the primary drawbacks is qubit coherence time; qubits are extremely
sensitive to environmental noise and disturbances, causing them to lose their quantum
state (decoherence) quickly, which limits the duration of calculations.

●​ Error rates in quantum operations are much higher compared to classical computing,
necessitating complex quantum error correction methods that require additional qubits
and resources.

●​ Building and maintaining scalable quantum hardware is extremely challenging due

to the delicate nature of qubits and stringent requirements for ultra-low temperatures,
vacuum environments, and precise control.

●​ Quantum algorithms require specialized quantum programming skills and

knowledge, which are not yet widely accessible, posing a barrier to entry for many
developers and organizations.

●​ The current lack of standardized quantum software development tools and

languages hampers the efficient development and deployment of quantum
applications.

●​ Quantum computers are not universally superior : they offer advantages only for
specific problem classes; many tasks still remain more efficiently solved by classical
computers.

●​ The deployment cost of quantum computing technology is extremely high,

involving expensive cryogenic equipment and sophisticated error-correcting
infrastructure.

●​ Real-world quantum advantage or supremacy for practical, useful problems remains

limited, as most existing demonstrations solve contrived or narrowly scoped
problems.

●​ Quantum computing raises security and privacy concerns, as quantum algorithms

may break many classical encryption systems, potentially compromising current
digital security infrastructures if quantum-resistant cryptography is not adopted.
Tech-Giants Utilizing Quantum Computing

●​ IBM is one of the pioneers in quantum computing, offering cloud-based access to

quantum processors through its IBM Quantum Experience platform and developing
advanced superconducting qubit architectures. It focuses on building scalable,
fault-tolerant quantum computers and supports a vast ecosystem of developers with
open-source tools like Qiskit, facilitating broader quantum algorithm development.

●​ Google achieved a notable milestone by claiming quantum supremacy in 2019 when

its Sycamore processor solved a problem faster than classical supercomputers, firmly
positioning itself as a leader in the field. It continues to improve coherence times,
error rates, and quantum volume, while actively exploring applications in chemistry,
optimization, and machine learning.

●​ Microsoft invests heavily in topological quantum computing, an approach promising

increased error resilience, alongside its Azure Quantum cloud platform that integrates
various quantum hardware providers. It provides the Quantum Development Kit and
the Q# programming language aimed at simplifying the development of quantum
algorithms and encouraging collaboration across quantum ecosystems.

●​ Amazon Web Services (AWS) offers Amazon Bracket, a managed quantum

computing service that provides access to diverse quantum hardware from multiple
vendors, enabling developers to experiment easily in the cloud. It combines classical
and quantum computing resources, supports hybrid algorithms, and is developing its
own quantum processor technology as part of a comprehensive quantum strategy.

●​ Honeywell focuses on trapped ion qubits with high fidelity and long coherence times
and has merged its quantum division with Cambridge Quantum to expand its quantum
software and algorithms capabilities. Honeywell Quantum Solutions is known for
demonstrating leading quantum volume metrics and pursuing applications in finance,
logistics, and chemistry.

●​ Intel invests in quantum hardware research, particularly in silicon spin qubits, aiming
to leverage existing semiconductor manufacturing expertise to build scalable quantum
processors. It works on improving qubit coherence, fabrication techniques, and
quantum control electronics, partnering with academic institutions and national labs
for advanced quantum research.
Conclusion

●​ Quantum computing represents a paradigm shift in computational technology,

leveraging unique quantum mechanical principles like superposition and
entanglement to solve problems beyond the reach of classical computers. The
technology promises transformative impacts across numerous domains, including
cryptography, optimization, drug discovery, materials science, and artificial
intelligence, with the potential to unlock solutions to previously intractable
challenges.

●​ Despite remarkable theoretical advances and experimental breakthroughs, quantum

computing remains in its early developmental stages, facing significant technical
hurdles such as qubit coherence, error correction, hardware scalability, and algorithm
development. The collaborative efforts of academia, industry, and government
agencies worldwide are accelerating progress, with major technology companies
investing heavily in research, cloud quantum platforms, and ecosystem building.

●​ Quantum computing is not a replacement for classical computing but a

complementary technology designed to tackle specific problems more efficiently,
leveraging hybrid quantum-classical approaches. Ethical considerations, security
implications, and the need for quantum-safe cryptography highlight the broader
societal impact of quantum technologies as they mature.

●​ The road to practical, fault-tolerant, large-scale quantum computers is challenging and

uncertain but holds immense promise to revolutionize computation, communication,
and scientific discovery. Continuing investment in education, research infrastructure,
and policy development is essential to fostering innovation and preparing a skilled
workforce equipped for the quantum era. Quantum computing embodies the
intersection of physics, computer science, and engineering, exemplifying human
ingenuity in pushing the boundaries of what is computationally achievable.

●​ In summary, while the full potential of quantum computing is yet to be realized, its
evolution marks one of the most exciting frontiers in technology, poised to
fundamentally change our approach to complex problem-solving in the future.
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