I Year B.

Tech I Sem L T/P/D C

3 ‐/‐/‐ 3

(R18A0501) PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING SYLLABUS

Course Objectives

• To understand the various steps in Program development.

• To understand the basic concepts in C Programming Language.

• To learn how to write modular and readable C Programs

• To learn to write programs (using structured programming approach) in C to solve problems.

UNIT ‐ I

Introduction to Computing – Computer Systems-Hardware and Software, Computer Languages, Algorithm,

Flowchart, Representation of Algorithm and Flowchart with examples.

Introduction to C– History of C, Features of C, Structure of C Program, Character Set, C Tokens-Keywords,

Identifiers, Constants, Variables, Data types, Operators.

UNIT‐II

Statements‐Selection statements (Decision Making)- if and switch statements with examples, Repetition
statements (loops)- while, for, do‐while statements with examples, Unconditional statements- break,
continue, goto statements with examples.

UNIT – III

Functions‐Designing Structured Programs, Types of Functions-User defined functions, Standard functions,

Categories of functions, Parameter Passing techniques, Storage classes, Recursion.

UNIT‐IV

Arrays- Declaration and Initialization, One dimensional Arrays, Two dimensional Arrays.

Strings- Declaration and Initialization, String Input / Output functions, String manipulation functions.

UNIT-V

Pointers- Introduction, Definition and Declaration of pointers, address operator, Pointer variables, Pointers
with Arrays.

Structures- Introduction, Declaration and Initialization, Array of Structures, Unions.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Computer Programming with C, Special Edition‐MRCET, Mc Graw Hill Publishers 2017.

2. Computer Science: A Structured Programming Approach Using C, B.A.Forouzan and R.F. Gilberg,

Third Edition, Cengage Learning.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. The C Programming Language, B.W. Kernighan and Dennis M.Ritchie, PHI.

2. Computer Programming, E.Balagurusamy, First Edition, TMH.

3. C and Data structures – P. Padmanabham, Third Edition, B.S. Publications.

4. Programming in C, Ashok Kamthane. Pearson Education India.

5. Let us C ,Yashwanth Kanethkar, 13th Edition, BPB Publications.

Course Outcomes:

 Demonstrate the basic knowledge of computer hardware and software.

 To formulate simple algorithms for arithmetic and logical problems.
 To translate the algorithms to programs (in C language).
 To test and execute the programs and correct syntax and logical errors.
 Ability to apply solving and logical skills to programming in C language and also in other
languages.
UNIT - I
Introduction to Computing:
Computer Systems:
A computer is a system made of two major components: hardware and software. The computer
hardware is the physical equipment. The software is the collection of programs (instructions)
that allow the hardware to do its job.

Computer
System

Hardware Software

Computer Hardware
The hardware component of the computer system consists of five parts: input devices, central
processing unit (CPU) ,primary storage, output devices, and auxiliary storage devices.
The input device is usually a keyboard where programs and data are entered into the
computers. Examples of other input devices include a mouse, a pen or stylus, a touch screen, or
an audio input unit.

The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for executing instructions such as arithmetic
calculations,comparisons among data, and movement of data inside the system. Today’s
computers may have one ,two, or more CPUs .Primary storage ,also known as main memory, is
a place where the programs and data are stored temporarily during processing. The data in
primary storage are erased when we turn off a personal computer or when we log off from a
time-sharing system.

The output device is usually a monitor or a printer to show output. If the output is shown on
the monitor, we say we have a soft copy. If it is printed on the printer, we say we have a hard
copy.

Auxiliary storage, also known as secondary storage, is used for both input and output. It is the
place where the programs and data are stored permanently. When we turn off the computer,
or programs and data remain in the secondary storage, ready for the next time we need them.

Computer Software
Computer software is divided in to two broad categories: system software and application
software .System software manages the computer resources .It provides the interface between
the hardware and the users. Application software, on the other hand is directly responsible for
helping users solve their problems.

Software

System Application
software software

System System General Application

Operating support Developmen Purpose Specific
Systems t

Fig: Types of software

System Software:

System software consists of programs that manage the hardware resources of a computer and
perform required information processing tasks. These programs are divided into three classes:
the operating system, system support, and system development.

The operating system provides services such as a user interface, file and database access, and
interfaces to communication systems such as Internet protocols. The primary purpose of this
software is to keep the system operating in an efficient manner while allowing the users access
to the system.

System support software provides system utilities and other operating services. Examples of
system utilities are sort programs and disk format programs. Operating services consists of
programs that provide performance statistics for the operational staff and security monitors to
protect the system and data.

The last system software category ,system development software, includes the language
translators that convert programs into machine language for execution ,debugging tools to
ensure that the programs are error free and computer –assisted software engineering(CASE)
systems.

Application software

Application software is broken in to two classes :general-purpose software and application –

specific software. General purpose software is purchased from a software developer and can
be used for more than one application. Examples of general purpose software include word
processors ,database management systems ,and computer aided design systems. They are
labeled general purpose because they can solve a variety of user computing problems.

Application –specific software can be used only for its intended purpose.

A general ledger system used by accountants and a material requirements planning system
used by a manufacturing organization are examples of application-specific software. They can
be used only for the task for which they were designed they cannot be used for other
generalized tasks.

The relation ship between system and application software is shown in fig-2.In this figure, each
circle represents an interface point .The inner core is hard ware. The user is represented by the
out layer. To work with the system,the typical user uses some form of application software. The
application software in turn interacts with the operating system ,which is apart of the system
software layer. The system software provides the direct interaction with the hard ware. The
opening at the bottom of the figure is the path followed by the user who interacts directly with
the operating system when necessary.
Computer Languages:
To write a program for a computer, we must use a computer language. Over the years
computer languages have evolved from machine languages to natural languages.

1940’s Machine level Languages

1950’s Symbolic Languages

1960’s High-Level Languages

Machine Languages

In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages available were machine
languages. Each computer has its own machine language, which is made of streams of 0’s and
1’s.

Instructions in machine language must be in streams of 0’s and 1’s because the internal circuits
of a computer are made of switches transistors and other electronic devices that can be in one
of two states: off or on. The off state is represented by 0 , the on state is represented by 1.

The only language understood by computer hardware is machine language.

Symbolic Languages:

In early 1950’s Admiral Grace Hopper, A mathematician and naval officer developed the
concept of a special computer program that would convert programs into machine language.
The early programming languages simply mirror to the machine languages using symbols of
mnemonics to represent the various machine language instructions because they used symbols,
these languages were known as symbolic languages.

Computer does not understand symbolic language it must be translated to the machine
language. A special program called assembler translates symbolic code into machine language.
Because symbolic languages had to be assembled into machine language they soon became
known as assembly languages.

Symbolic language uses symbols or mnemonics to represent the various ,machine language
instructions.

High Level Languages:

Symbolic languages greatly improved programming effificiency; they still required programmers
to concentrate on the hardware that they were using. Working with symbolic languages was
also very tedious because each machine instruction has to be individually coded. The desire to
improve programmer efficiency and to change the focus from the computer to the problem
being solved led to the development of high-level language.

High level languages are portable to many different computers, allowing the programmer to
concentrate on the application problem at hand rather than the intricacies of the computer.
High-level languages are designed to relieve the programmer from the details of the assembly
language. High level languages share one thing with symbolic languages, They must be
converted into machine language. The process of converting them is known as compilation.

The first widely used high-level languages, FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation)was created by
John Backus and an IBM team in 1957;it is still widely used today in scientific and engineering
applications. After FORTRAN was COBOL(Common Business-Oriented Language). Admiral
Hopper was played a key role in the development of the COBOL Business language.

C is a high-level language used for system software and new application code.

ALGORITHM:

Algorithms was developed by an Arab mathematician. It is chalked out step-by-step

approach to solve a given problem. It is represented in an English like language and has some
mathematical symbols like ->, >, <, = etc. To solve a given problem or to write a program you
approach towards solution of the problem in a systematic, disciplined, non-adhoc, step-by-step
way is called Algorithmic approach. Algorithm is a penned strategy(to write) to find a solution.
Example: Algorithm/pseudo code to add two numbers

Step 1: Start
Step 2:Read the two numbers in to a,b
Step 3: c=a+b
Step 4: write/print c
Step 5: Stop.

FLOW CHART :
A Flow chart is a Graphical representation of an Algorithm or a portion of an Algorithm.
Flow charts are drawn using certain special purpose symbols such as Rectangles, Diamonds,
Ovals and small circles. These symbols are connected by arrows called flow lines.

(or)

The diagrammatic representation of way to solve the given problem is called flow chart.

The following are the most common symbols used in Drawing flowcharts:

Oval Terminal start/stop/begin/end.

Parallelogram Input/output Making data available

For processing(input) or
recording of the process
information(output).

Rectangle Process Any processing to be

Done .A process changes or

moves data.An assignment
operation.
Diamond Decision Decision or switching

type of operations.

Circle Connector Used to connect

Different parts of flowchart.

Arrow Flow Joins two symbols

and also represents flow of

execution.

INTRODUCTION TO ‘C’ LANGUAGE:

C language facilitates a very efficient approach to the development and implementation
of computer programs. The History of C started in 1972 at the Bell Laboratories, USA where
Dennis M. Ritchie proposed this language. In 1983 the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) established committee whose goal was to produce “an unambiguous and machine
independent definition of the language C “ while still retaining it’s spirit .

C is the programming language most frequently associated with UNIX. Since the 1970s, the bulk
of the UNIX operating system and its applications have been written in C. Because the C
language does not directly rely on any specific hardware architecture, UNIX was one of the first
portable operating systems. In other words, the majority of the code that makes up UNIX does
not know and does not care which computer it is actually running on. Machine-specific features
are isolated in a few modules within the UNIX kernel, which makes it easy for you to modify
them when you are porting to a different hardware architecture.
C was first designed by Dennis Ritchie for use with UNIX on DEC PDP-11 computers. The
language evolved from Martin Richard's BCPL, and one of its earlier forms was the B language,
which was written by Ken Thompson for the DEC PDP-7. The first book on C was The C
Programming Language by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, published in 1978.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to

standardize the definition of C. The resulting standard is known as ANSI C, and it is the
recognized standard for the language, grammar, and a core set of libraries. The syntax is slightly
different from the original C language, which is frequently called K&R for Kernighan and Ritchie.
There is also an ISO (International Standards Organization) standard that is very similar to the
ANSI standard.

It appears that there will be yet another ANSI C standard officially dated 1999 or in the early
2000 years; it is currently known as "C9X."

BASIC STRUCTURE OF C LANGUAGE:

The program written in C language follows this basic structure. The sequence of sections
should be as they are in the basic structure. A C program should have one or more sections but
the sequence of sections is to be followed.

1. Documentation section

2. Linking section

3. Definition section

4. Global declaration section

5. Main function section

Declaration section

Executable section

6. Sub program or function section

1. DOCUMENTATION SECTION : comes first and is used to document the use of logic or reasons
in your program. It can be used to write the program's objective, developer and logic details.
The documentation is done in C language with /* and */ . Whatever is written between
these two are called comments.

2. LINKING SECTION : This section tells the compiler to link the certain occurrences of keywords
or functions in your program to the header files specified in this section.

e.g. #include <stdio.h>

3. DEFINITION SECTION : It is used to declare some constants and assign them some value.

e.g. #define MAX 25

Here #define is a compiler directive which tells the compiler whenever MAX is found in
the program replace it with 25.

4. GLOBAL DECLARATION SECTION : Here the variables which are used through out the
program (including main and other functions) are declared so as to make them global(i.e
accessible to all parts of program)

e.g. int i; (before main())

5. MAIN FUNCTION SECTION : It tells the compiler where to start the execution from

main()

point from execution starts

main function has two sections

1. declaration section : In this the variables and their data types are declared.

2. Executable section : This has the part of program which actually performs the task we
need.

6. SUB PROGRAM OR FUNCTION SECTION : This has all the sub programs or the functions
which our program needs.
SIMPLE ‘C’ PROGRAM:
/* simple program in c */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

printf(“welcome to c programming”);

} /* End of main */

C-TOKENS :
Tokens are individual words and punctuations marks in English language sentence. The
smallest individual units are known as C tokens.

OPERATORS
E.g. +, -, *

E.g. [ ], { }
SPECIAL SYMBOLS

E.g. “asifia”
STRINGS
C TOKENS

CONSTANTS
E.g. -15.4, ‘a’, 200

IDENTIFIERS
E.g. rate,no_of_hours

KEY WORDS E.g. int, printf

A C program can be divided into these tokens. A C program contains minimum 3 c
tokens no matter what the size of the program is.

KEYWORDS :
There are certain words, called keywords (reserved words) that have a
predefined meaning in ‘C’ language. These keywords are only to be used for their intended
purpose and not as identifiers.

The following table shows the standard ‘C’ keywords

Auto Break Case Char Const Continue

Default Do Double Else Enum Extern

Float For Goto If Int Long

Register Return Short Signed Sizeof Static

Struct Switch Typedef Union Unsigned void

Volatile While

IDENTIFIERS :
Names of the variables and other program elements such as functions, array,etc,are
known as identifiers.

There are few rules that govern the way variable are named(identifiers).

1. Identifiers can be named from the combination of A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _(Underscore).

2. The first alphabet of the identifier should be either an alphabet or an underscore.

digit are not allowed.

3. It should not be a keyword.

Eg: name,ptr,sum

After naming a variable we need to declare it to compiler of what data type it is .

The format of declaring a variable is

Data-type id1, id2,.....idn;

where data type could be float, int, char or any of the data types.

id1, id2, id3 are the names of variable we use. In case of single variable no commas are
required.

eg float a, b, c;

int e, f, grand total;

char present_or_absent;

ASSIGNING VALUES :

When we name and declare variables we need to assign value to the variable. In some
cases we assign value to the variable directly like

a=10;

in our program.

In some cases we need to assign values to variable after the user has given input for
that.

eg we ask user to enter any no and input it

/* write a program to show assigning of values to variables */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a;

float b;

printf("Enter any number\n");

b=190.5;

scanf("%d",&a);

printf("user entered %d", a);

printf("B's values is %f", b);

CONSTANTS :
A quantity that does not vary during the execution of a program is known as a constant
supports two types of constants namely Numeric constants and character constants.

NUMERIC CONSTANTS:

1. Example for an integer constant is 786,-127

2. Long constant is written with a terminal ‘l’or ‘L’,for example 1234567899L is a Long

constant.

3. Unsigned constants are written with a terminal ‘u’ or ‘U’,and the suffix ‘ul’ and ‘UL’

indicates unsigned long. for example 123456789u is a Unsigned constant and

1234567891ul is an unsigned long constant.

4. The advantage of declaring an unsigned constant is to increase the range of storage.

5. Floating point constants contain a decimal point or an exponent or both. For Eg :

123.4,1e-2,1.4E-4,etc.The suffixes f or F indicate a float constant while the absence of

f or F indicate the double, l or L indicate long double.

CHARACTER CONSTANTS:

A character constant is written as one character with in single quotes such as ‘a’. The
value of a character constant is the numerical value of the character in the machines character
set. certain character constants can be represented by escape sequences like ‘\n’. These
sequences look like two characters but represent only one.

The following are the some of the examples of escape sequences:

Escape sequence Description

\a Alert

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n New Line

\r Carriage return

\t Horizontal Tab

\v Vertical Tab

String constants or string literal is a sequence of zero or more characters surrounded by

a double quote. Example , “ I am a little boy”. quotes are not a part of the string.

To distinguish between a character constant and a string that contains a single character
ex: ‘a’ is not same as “a”. ‘a’ is an integer used to produce the numeric value of letter a in the
machine character set, while “a” is an array of characters containing one character and a ‘\0’ as
a string in C is an array of characters terminated by NULL.

There is one another kind of constant i.e Enumeration constant , it is a list of constant
integer values.

Ex.: enum color { RED, Green, BLUE }

The first name in the enum has the value 0 and the next 1 and so on unless explicit
values are specified.

If not all values specified , unspecified values continue the progression from the last
specified value. For example

Enum months { JAN=1, FEB,MAR, …, DEC -

Where the value of FEB is 2 and MAR is 3 and so on.

Enumerations provide a convenient way to associate constant values with names.

VARIABLES :
A quantity that can vary during the execution of a program is known as a variable. To
identify a quantity we name the variable for example if we are calculating a sum of two
numbers we will name the variable that will hold the value of sum of two numbers as 'sum'.

DATA TYPES :
To represent different types of data in C program we need different data types. A data type
is essential to identify the storage representation and the type of operations that can be
performed on that data. C supports four different classes of data types namely

1. Basic Data types

2. Derives data types
3. User defined data types
4. Pointer data types

BASIC DATA TYPES:

All arithmetic operations such as Addition , subtraction etc are possible on basic data
types.

E.g.: int a,b;

Char c;

The following table shows the Storage size and Range of basic data types:

TYPE LENGTH RANGE

Unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255

Char 8 bits -128 to 127

Short int 16 bits -32768 to 32767

Unsigned int 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295

Int 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

Unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295

Enum 16 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

Long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

Float 32 bits 3.4*10E-38 to 3.4*10E38

Double 64 bits 1.7*10E-308 to 1.7*10E308

Long double 80 bits 3.4*10E-4932 to 1.1*10E4932

DERIVED DATA TYPES:

Derived datatypes are used in ‘C’ to store a set of data values. Arrays and Structures are
examples for derived data types.

Ex: int a[10];

Char name[20];

USER DEFINED DATATYPES:

C Provides a facility called typedef for creating new data type names defined by the
user. For Example ,the declaration ,

typedef int Integer;

makes the name Integer a synonym of int.Now the type Integer can be used in declarations
,casts,etc,like,

Integer num1,num2;

Which will be treated by the C compiler as the declaration of num1,num2as int variables.

“typedef” ia more useful with structures and pointers.

POINTER DATA TYPES:

Pointer data type is necessary to store the address of a variable.

INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS :

The simplest of input operator is getchar to read a single character from the input
device.

varname=getchar();

you need to declare varname.

The simplest of output operator is putchar to output a single character on the output
device.

putchar(varname)

The getchar() is used only for one input and is not formatted. Formatted input refers to an input
data that has been arranged in a particular format, for that we have scanf.

scanf("control string", arg1, arg2,...argn);

Control string specifies field format in which data is to be entered.

arg1, arg2... argn specifies address of location or variable where data is stored.

eg scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

%d used for integers

%f floats

%l long

%c character

for formatted output you use printf

printf("control string", arg1, arg2,...argn);

/* program to exhibit i/o */

#include<stdio.h>
main()

int a,b;

float c;

printf("Enter any number");

a=getchar();

printf("the char is ");

putchar(a);

printf("Exhibiting the use of scanf");

printf("Enter three numbers");

scanf("%d%d%f",&a,&b,&c);

printf("%d%d%f",a,b,c);

OPERATORS :

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform certain mathematical or

logical manipulations. They form expressions.

C operators can be classified as

1. Arithmetic operators

2. Relational operators

3. Logical operators

4. Assignment operators

5. Increment or Decrement operators

6. Conditional operator
7. Bit wise operators

8. Special operators

1. ARITHMETIC OPERATORS : All basic arithmetic operators are present in C.

operator meaning

+ add

- subtract

* multiplication

/ division

% modulo division(remainder)

An arithmetic operation involving only real operands(or integer operands) is called real
arithmetic(or integer arithmetic). If a combination of arithmetic and real is called mixed mode
arithmetic.

2. RELATIONAL OPERATORS : We often compare two quantities and depending on their

relation take certain decisions for that comparison we use relational operators.

operator meaning

< is less than

> is greater than

<= is less than or equal to

>= is greater than or equal to

== is equal to

!= is not equal to
It is the form of

ae-1 relational operator ae-2

3. LOGICAL OPERATORS : An expression of this kind which combines two or more relational
expressions is termed as a logical expressions or a compound relational expression. The
operators and truth values are

op-1 op-2 op-1 && op-2 op-1 || op-2

non-zero non-zero 1 1

non-zero 0 0 1

0 non-zero 0 1

0 0 0 0

op-1 !op-1

non-zero zero

zero non-zero

5. ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS : They are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable.
The assignment operator is '='.

v op=exp

v is variable

op binary operator

exp expression

op= short hand assignment operator

short hand assignment operators

use of simple assignment operators use of short hand assignment operators

a=a+1 a+=1

a=a-1 a-=1

a=a%b a%=b

6. INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS :

++ and == are called increment and decrement operators used to add or subtract.

Both are unary and as follows

++m or m++

--m or m--

The difference between ++m and m++ is

if m=5; y=++m then it is equal to m=5;m++;y=m;

if m=5; y=m++ then it is equal to m=5;y=m;m++;

7. CONDITIONAL OPERATOR : A ternary operator pair "?:" is available in C to construct

conditional expressions of the form

exp1 ? exp2 : exp3;

It work as

if exp1 is true then exp2 else exp3

8. BIT WISE OPERATORS : C supports special operators known as bit wise operators for
manipulation of data at bit level. They are not applied to float or double.

operator meaning

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

<< left shift

>> right shift

~ one's complement

9. SPECIAL OPERATORS : These operators which do not fit in any of the above classification are
,(comma), sizeof, Pointer operators(& and *) and member selection operators (. and ->). The
comma operator is used to link related expressions together.

sizeof operator is used to know the sizeof operand.

/* programs to exhibit the use of operators */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int sum, mul, modu;

float sub, divi;

int i,j;

float l, m;

printf("Enter two integers ");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

printf("Enter two real numbers");

scanf("%f%f",&l,&m);

sum=i+j;

mul=i*j;
modu=i%j;

sub=l-m;

divi=l/m;

printf("sum is %d", sum);

printf("mul is %d", mul);

printf("Remainder is %d", modu);

printf("subtraction of float is %f", sub);

printf("division of float is %f", divi);

/* program to implement relational and logical */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int i, j, k;

printf("Enter any three numbers ");

scanf("%d%d%d", &i, &j, &k);

if((i<j)&&(j<k))

printf("k is largest");

else if i<j || j>k

if i<j && j >k

printf("j is largest");

else

printf("j is not largest of all");

}

/* program to implement increment and decrement operators */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int i;

printf("Enter a number");

scanf("%d", &i);

i++;

printf("after incrementing %d ", i);

i--;

printf("after decrement %d", i);

/* program using ternary operator and assignment */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int i,j,large;

printf("Enter two numbers ");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

large=(i>j)?i:j;

printf("largest of two is %d",large);

}
UNIT - II

SELECTION STATEMENTS(DECISION MAKING):

IF AND SWITCH STATEMENTS :
We have a number of situations where we may have to change the order of execution of
statements based on certain conditions or repeat a group of statements until certain specified
conditions are met.

The if statement is a two way decision statement and is used in conjunction with an
expression. It takes the following form

If(test expression)

If the test expression is true then the statement block after if is executed otherwise it is not
executed

if (test expression)

statement block;

statement–x ;

only statement–x is executed.

/* program for if */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a,b;

printf(“Enter two numbers”);

scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b):

if a>b

printf(“ a is greater”);

if b>a

printf(“b is greater”);

The if –else statement:

If your have another set of statement to be executed if condition is false then if-else is
used

if (test expression)

statement block1;

else

statement block2;

statement –x ;

/* program for if-else */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a,b;
printf(“Enter two numbers”);

scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b):

if a>b

printf(“ a is greater”)

else

printf(“b is greater”);

Nesting of if..else statement :

If more than one if else statement

if(text cond1)

if (test expression2

statement block1;

else

statement block 2;

else

statement block2;
}

statement-x ;

if else ladder

if(condition1)

statement1;

else if(condition2)

statement 2;

else if(condition3)

statement n;

else

default statement.

statement-x;

The nesting of if-else depends upon the conditions with which we have to deal.

THE SWITCH STATEMENT:

If for suppose we have more than one valid choices to choose from then we can use
switch statement in place of if statements.

switch(expression)

{.

case value-1
block-1

break;

case value-2

block-2

break;

--------

--------

default:

default block;

break;

statement–x

In case of

if(cond1)

statement-1

if (cond2)

statement 2

}
/* program to implement switch */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int marks,index;

char grade[10];

printf(“Enter your marks”);

scanf(“%d”,&marks);

index=marks/10;

switch(index)

case 10 :

case 9:

case 8:

case 7:

case 6: grade=”first”;

break;

case 5 : grade=”second”;

break;

case 4 : grade=”third”;

break;

default : grade =”fail”;

break;

}
printf(“%s”,grade);

LOOPING :

Some times we require a set of statements to be executed repeatedly until a

condition is met.

We have two types of looping structures. One in which condition is tested before
entering the statement block called entry control.

The other in which condition is checked at exit called exit controlled loop.

WHILE STATEMENT :

While(test condition)

body of the loop

It is an entry controlled loop. The condition is evaluated and if it is true then body of
loop is executed. After execution of body the condition is once again evaluated and if is true
body is executed once again. This goes on until test condition becomes false.

/* program for while */

#include<stdio.h>
main()

int count,n;

float x,y;

printf(“Enter the values of x and n”);

scanf(“%f%d”,&x,&n);

y=1.0;

count=1;

while(count<=n)

y=y*x;

count++;
}

printf(“x=%f; n=%d; x to power n = %f”,x,n,y);

DO WHILE STATEMENT :

The while loop does not allow body to be executed if test condition is false. The do while
is an exit controlled loop and its body is executed at least once.

do

body

}while(test condition);

/* printing multiplication table */

#include<stdio.h>

#define COL 10

#define ROW 12

main()
{

int row,col,y;

row=1;

do

col=1;

do

y=row*col;

printf(“%d”,y);

col=col+1;

}while(col<=COL);

printf(“\n”);

row=row+1;

}while(row<=ROW);

THE FOR LOOP :

It is also an entry control loop that provides a more concise structure

for(initialization; test control; increment)

body of loop

}
/* program of for loop */

#include<stdio.h>
main()

long int p;

int n;

double q;

printf(“2 to power n “);

p=1;

for(n=0;n<21;++n)

if(n==0)

p=1;

else

p=p*2;

q=1.0/(double)p;

printf(“%101d%10d”,p,n);

UNCONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:

BREAK STATEMENT:

This is a simple statement. It only makes sense if it occurs in the body of a switch, do,
while or for statement. When it is executed the control of flow jumps to the statement
immediately following the body of the statement containing the break. Its use is widespread in
switch statements, where it is more or less essential to get the control .
The use of the break within loops is of dubious legitimacy. It has its moments, but is really
only justifiable when exceptional circumstances have happened and the loop has to be
abandoned. It would be nice if more than one loop could be abandoned with a single break but
that isn't how it works. Here is an example.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
main(){
int i;

for(i = 0; i < 10000; i++){

if(getchar() == 's')
break;
printf("%d\n", i);
}
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}

It reads a single character from the program's input before printing the next in a sequence of
numbers. If an „s‟ is typed, the break causes an exit from the loop.

If you want to exit from more than one level of loop, the break is the wrong thing to use.

CONTINUE STATEMENT:
This statement has only a limited number of uses. The rules for its use are the same as for
break, with the exception that it doesn't apply to switch statements. Executing a continue
starts the next iteration of the smallest enclosing do, while or for statement immediately. The
use of continue is largely restricted to the top of loops, where a decision has to be made
whether or not to execute the rest of the body of the loop. In this example it ensures that division
by zero (which gives undefined behaviour) doesn't happen.

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
main(){
int i;

for(i = -10; i < 10; i++){

if(i == 0)
continue;
printf("%f\n", 15.0/i);
/*
* Lots of other statements .....
*/
}
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}

The continue can be used in other parts of a loop, too, where it may occasionally help to
simplify the logic of the code and improve readability. continue has no special meaning to a
switch statement, where break does have. Inside a switch, continue is only valid if there is a
loop that encloses the switch, in which case the next iteration of the loop will be started.

There is an important difference between loops written with while and for. In a while, a
continue will go immediately to the test of the controlling expression. The same thing in a for
will do two things: first the update expression is evaluated, then the controlling expression is
evaluated.

GOTO AND LABELS:

In C, it is used to escape from multiple nested loops, or to go to an error handling exit at
the end of a function. You will need a label when you use a goto; this example shows both.

goto L1;
/* whatever you like here */
L1: /* anything else */

A label is an identifier followed by a colon. Labels have their own „name space‟ so they
can't clash with the names of variables or functions. The name space only exists for the function
containing the label, so label names can be re-used in different functions. The label can be used
before it is declared, too, simply by mentioning it in a goto statement.

Labels must be part of a full statement, even if it's an empty one. This usually only matters
when you're trying to put a label at the end of a compound statement—like this.

label_at_end: ; /* empty statement */

}

The goto works in an obvious way, jumping to the labelled statements. Because the name of
the label is only visible inside its own function, you can't jump from one function to another one.

It's hard to give rigid rules about the use of gotos but, as with the do, continue and the
break (except in switch statements), over-use should be avoided. More than one goto every 3–5
functions is a symptom that should be viewed with deep suspicion.
UNIT – III

FUNCTIONS-DESIGNING STRUCTURED PROGRAMS:

The planning for large programs consists of first understanding the problem as a whole, second
breaking it into simpler, understandable parts. We call each of these parts of a program a
module and the process of subdividing a problem into manageable parts top-down design.

The principles of top-down design and structured programming dictate that a program
should be divided into a main module and its related modules. Each module is in turn divided
into sub-modules until the resulting modules are intrinsic; that is, until they are implicitly
understood without further division.

Top-down design is usually done using a visual representation of the modules known as
a structure chart. The structure chart shows the relation between each module and its sub-
modules. The structure chart is read top-down, left-right. First we read Main Module. Main
Module represents our entire set of code to solve the problem.

Structure Chart

Moving down and left, we then read Module 1. On the same level with Module 1 are
Module 2 and Module 3. The Main Module consists of three sub-modules. At this level,
however we are dealing only with Module 1. Module 1 is further subdivided into three
modules, Module 1a, Module 1b, and Module 1c. To write the code for Module 1, we need to
write code for its three sub-modules.

The Main Module is known as a calling module because it has sub-modules. Each of the
sub-modules is known as a called module. But because Modules 1, 2, and 3 also have sub-
modules, they are also calling modules; they are both called and calling modules.

Communication between modules in a structure chart is allowed only through a calling

module. If Module 1 needs to send data to Module 2, the data must be passed through the
calling module, Main Module. No communication can take place directly between modules that
do not have a calling-called relationship.

How can Module 1a send data to Module 3b?

It first sends data to Module 1, which in turn sends it to the Main Module, which passes
it to Module 3, and then on to Module 3b.

The technique used to pass data to a function is known as parameter passing. The
parameters are contained in a list that is a definition of the data passed to the function by the
caller. The list serves as a formal declaration of the data types and names.

FUNCTIONS :
A function is a self contained program segment that carries out some specific well
defined tasks.

Advantages of functions:

1. Write your code as collections of small functions to make your program modular

2.Structured programming

3.Code easier to debug

4.Easier modification

5.Reusable in other programs

Function Definition :

type func_name( parameter list )

declarations;

statements;

FUNCTION HEADER :
FUNCTION PROTOTYPES

If a function is not defined before it is used, it must be declared by specifying the return
type and the types of the parameters.

double sqrt(double);

Tells the compiler that the function sqrt() takes an argument of type double and returns
a double. This means, incidentally, that variables will be cast to the correct type; so sqrt(4) will
return the correct value even though 4 is int not double. These function prototypes are placed
at the top of the program, or in a separate header file, file.h, included as

#include "file.h"

Variable names in the argument list of a function declaration are optional:

void f (char, int);

void f (char c, int i); /*equivalent but makes code more readable */

If all functions are defined before they are used, no prototypes are needed. In this case, main()
is the last function of the program.

SCOPE RULES FOR FUNCTIONS :

Variables defined within a function (including main) are local to this function and no
other function has direct access to them. The only way to pass variables to function is as
parameters. The only way to pass (a single) variable back to the calling

function is via the return statement

Ex:

int func (int n)

printf(“%d\n”,b);

return n;

}//b not defined locally!

int main (void)

int a = 2, b = 1, c;

c = func(a);

return 0;

FUNCTION CALLS :

When a function is called, expressions in the parameter list are evaluated (in no
particular order!) and results are transformed to the required type. Parameters are copied to
local variables for the function and function body is executed when return is encountered, the
function is terminated and the result (specified in the return statement) is passed to the calling
function (for example main).

Ex:

int fact (int n)

int i, product = 1;

for (i = 2; i <= n; ++i)

product *= i;

return product;

int main (void)

int i = 12;

printf(“%d”,fact(i));

return 0;

}
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS:
USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS:

Every program must have a main function to indicate where the program has to begin
its execution. While it is possible to code any program utilizing only main function, it leads to a
number of problems. The program may become too large and complex and as a result task of
debugging, testing and maintaining becomes difficult. If a program is divided into functional
parts, then each part may be independently coded and later combined into a single unit, these
subprograms called “functions” are much easier to understand debug and test.

There are times when some types of operation for calculation is repeated many times at
many points through out a program. For instance, we might use the factorial of a number at
several points in the program. In such situations, we may repeat the program statements
whenever they are needed. Another approach is to design a function that can be called and
used whenever required.

The advantages of using functions are

1. It facilitates top-down modular programming.

2. The length of a source program can be reduced by using functions at appropriate
places.
3. It is easy to locate and isolate a faculty function for further investigations.
4. A function may be used by many other programs.

A function is a self-contained block of code that performs a particular task. Once a

function has been designed and packed it can be treated as a “black box” that takes some data
from main program and returns a value. The inner details of the program are invisible to the
rest of program.

The form of the C functions.

function-name ( argument list )

argument declaration;

local variable declarations;

executable statement 1;
executabie statement 2;

----------

----------

----------

return (expression) ;

The return statement is the mechanism for returning a value to the calling function. All
functions by default returns int type data. we can force a function to return a particular type of
data by using a type specifier in the header.

A function can be called by simply using the function name in the statement.

STANDARD LIBRARY FUNCTIONS AND HEADER FILES:

C functions can be classified into two categories, namely, library functions and user-
defined functions .Main is the example of user-defined functions.Printf and scanf belong to the
category of library functions. The main difference between these two categories is that library
functions are not required to be written by us where as a user-defined function has to be
developed by the user at the time of writing a program.However, a user-defined function can
later become a part of the c program library.

ANSI C Standard Library Functions :

The C language is accompanied by a number of library functions that perform various tasks.The
ANSI committee has standardized header files which contain these functions.

Some of the Header files are:

<ctype.h> character testing and conversion functions.

<math.h> Mathematical functions

<stdio.h> standard I/O library functions

<stdlib.h> Utility functions such as string conversion routines memory

allocation routines , random number generator,etc.

<string.h> string Manipulation functions

<time.h> Time Manipulation functions

MATH.H

The math library contains functions for performing common mathematical operations.
Some of the functions are :

abs : returns the absolute value of an integer x

cos : returns the cosine of x, where x is in radians

exp: returns "e" raised to a given power

fabs: returns the absolute value of a float x

log: returns the logarithm to base e

log10: returns the logarithm to base 10

pow : returns a given number raised to another number

sin : returns the sine of x, where x is in radians

sqrt : returns the square root of x

tan : returns the tangent of x, where x is in radians

ceil : The ceiling function rounds a number with a decimal part up to the next highest
integer (written mathematically as ⌈x⌉)

floor : The floor function rounds a number with a decimal part down to the next lowest

integer (written mathematically as ⌊x⌋)

STRING.H

There are many functions for manipulating strings. Some of the more useful are:

strcat : Concatenates (i.e., adds) two strings

strcmp: Compares two strings

strcpy: Copies a string

strlen: Calculates the length of a string (not including the null)

strstr: Finds a string within another string

strtok: Divides a string into tokens (i.e., parts)

STDIO.H

Printf: Formatted printing to stdout

Scanf: Formatted input from stdin

Fprintf: Formatted printing to a file

Fscanf: Formatted input from a file

Getc: Get a character from a stream (e.g, stdin or a file)

putc: Write a character to a stream (e.g, stdout or a file)

fgets: Get a string from a stream

fputs: Write a string to a stream

fopen: Open a file

fclose: Close a file

STDLIB.H

Atof: Convert a string to a double (not a float)

Atoi: Convert a string to an int

Exit: Terminate a program, return an integer value

free: Release allocated memory

malloc: Allocate memory

rand: Generate a pseudo-random number

system: Execute an external command

TIME.H

This library contains several functions for getting the current date and time.

Time: Get the system time

Ctime: Convert the result from time() to something meaningful

The following table contains some more header files:

Contains the assert macro, used to assist with detecting logical errors and other
<assert.h>
types of bug in debugging versions of a program.

<complex.h> A set of functions for manipulating complex numbers. (New with C99)

Contains functions used to classify characters by their types or to convert

between upper and lower case in a way that is independent of the used character
<ctype.h>
set (typically ASCII or one of its extensions, although implementations utilizing
EBCDIC are also known).

<errno.h> For testing error codes reported by library functions.

<fenv.h> For controlling floating-point environment. (New with C99)

Contains defined constants specifying the implementation-specific properties of

the floating-point library, such as the minimum difference between two different
<float.h>
floating-point numbers (_EPSILON), the maximum number of digits of accuracy
(_DIG) and the range of numbers which can be represented (_MIN, _MAX).

<inttypes.h> For precise conversion between integer types. (New with C99)
<iso646.h> For programming in ISO 646 variant character sets. (New with NA1)

Contains defined constants specifying the implementation-specific properties of

<limits.h> the integer types, such as the range of numbers which can be represented (_MIN,
_MAX).

For setlocale() and related constants. This is used to choose an appropriate

<locale.h>
locale.

<math.h> For computing common mathematical functions

<setjmp.h> Declares the macros setjmp and longjmp, which are used for non-local exits

<signal.h> For controlling various exceptional conditions

<stdarg.h> For accessing a varying number of arguments passed to functions.

<stdbool.h> For a boolean data type. (New with C99)

<stdint.h> For defining various integer types. (New with C99)

<stddef.h> For defining several useful types and macros.

Provides the core input and output capabilities of the C language. This file
<stdio.h>
includes the venerable printf function.

<stdlib.h> For performing a variety of operations, including conversion, pseudo-random

numbers, memory allocation, process control, environment, signalling, searching,
and sorting.

<string.h> For manipulating several kinds of strings.

<tgmath.h> For type-generic mathematical functions. (New with C99)

<time.h> For converting between various time and date formats.

For manipulating wide streams and several kinds of strings using wide characters
<wchar.h>
- key to supporting a range of languages. (New with NA1)

<wctype.h> For classifying wide characters. (New with NA1)

CATEGORIES OF FUNCTIONS :

A function depending on whether arguments are present or not and whether a value is
returned or not may belong to.

1. Functions with no arguments and no return values.

2. Functions with arguments and no return values.
3. Functions with arguments and return values.

1. Functions with no arguments and no return values :

When a function has no arguments, it does not receive any data from calling function.
In effect, there is no data transfer between calling function and called function.

#include<stdio.h>

main()

{
printline();

value();

printline();

printline()

int i;

for(i=1;i<=35;i++0)

printf(“%c”,”-“);

printf(“\n”);

value()

int year, period;

float inrate,sum,principal;

printf(“Enter Principal, Rate,Period”);

scanf(“%f%f%f”,&principal,&inrate,&period);

sum=principal;

year=1;

while(year<=period)

sum=sum*(1+inrate);

year=year+1;

}
printf(“%f%f%d%f”,principal,inrate,period,sum);

2. Arguments but no return values :

The function takes argument but does not return value.

The actual (sent through main) and formal(declared in header section) should match in number,
type and order.

In case actual arguments are more than formal arguments, extra actual arguments are
discarded. On other hand unmatched formal arguments are initialized to some garbage values.

#include<stdio.h>

main()

float prin,inrate;

int period;

printf(“Enter principal amount, interest”);

printf(“rate and period\n”);

scanf(“%f%f%d”,&principal,&inrate,&period);

printline(‘z’);

value(principal, inrate, peiod);

printline(‘c’);

printline(ch)

char ch;

int i;
for(i=1;i<=52;i++)

printf(“%c”,ch);

printf(“\n”);

PARAMETER PASSING TECHNIQUES:

Parameter passing mechanism in „C‟ is of two types.

1. Call by Value
2. Call by Reference.

The process of passing the actual value of variables is known as Call by Value.
The process of calling a function using pointers to pass the addresses of variables is
known as Call by Reference. The function which is called by reference can change the value
of the variable used in the call.

Example of Call by Value:

#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int,int);
main()
{
int a,b;
printf(“Enter the Values of a and b:”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
printf(“Before Swapping \n”);
printf(“a = %d \t b = %d”, a,b);
swap(a,b);
printf(“After Swapping \n”);
printf(“a = %d \t b = %d”, a,b);
}

void swap(int a, int b)

{
int temp;
temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
}

Example of Call by Reference:

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a,b;
a = 10;
b = 20;
swap (&a, &b);
printf(“After Swapping \n”);
printf(“a = %d \t b = %d”, a,b);
}
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int temp;
temp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = temp;
}

STORAGE CLASSES :

In ‘C’ a variable can have any one of four Storage Classes.

1. Automatic Variables
2. External Variables
3. Static Variables
4. Register Variables

SCOPE :

The Scope of variable determines over what parts of the program a variable is actually
available for use.

LONGEVITY :

Longevity refers to period during which a variable retains a given value during execution
of a program (alive). So Longevity has a direct effect on utility of a given variable.

The variables may also be broadly categorized depending on place of their declaration as
internal(local) or external(global). Internal variables are those which are declared within a
particular function, while external variables are declared outside of any function.
AUTOMATIC VARIABLES :

They are declared inside a function in which they are to be utilized. They are created
when function is called and destroyed automatically when the function is exited, hence the
name automatic. Automatic Variables are therefore private (or local) to the function in which
they are declared. Because of this property, automatic variables are also referred to as local or
internal variables.

By default declaration is automatic. One important feature of automatic variables is

that their value cannot be changed accidentally by what happens in some other function in the
program.

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int m=1000;

func2();

printf(“%d\n”,m);

func1()

int m=10;

printf(“%d\n”,m);

}
func2()

int m=100;

func1();

printf(“%d”,m);

First, any variable local to main will normally live throughout the whole program, although it is
active only in main.

Secondly, during recursion, nested variables are unique auto variables, a situation similar to
function nested auto variables with identical names.

EXTERNAL VARIABLES :

Variables that are both alive and active throughout entire program are known as
external variables. They are also known as Global Variables. In case a local and global have
same name local variable will have precedence over global one in function where it is declared.

#include<stdio.h>

int x;

main()

x=10;

printf(“%d”,x);

printf(“x=%d”,fun1());

printf(“x=%d”,fun2());
printf(“x=%d”,fun3());

fun1()

x=x+10;

return(x);

fun2()

int x;

x=1;

return(x);

fun3()

x=x+10;

return(x);

An extern within a function provides the type information to just that one function.

STATIC VARIABLES :
The value of Static Variable persists until the end of program. A variable can be
declared Static using Keyword Static like Internal & External Static Variables are differentiated
depending whether they are declared inside or outside of auto variables, except that they
remain alive throughout the remainder of program.

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int I;

for (I=1;I<=3;I++)

stat();

stat()

static int x=0;

x=x+1;

printf(“x=%d\n”,x);

REGISTER VARIABLES :

We can tell the Compiler that a variable should be kept in one of the machines registers,
instead of keeping in the memory. Since a register access is much faster than a memory
access, keeping frequently accessed variables in register will lead to faster execution

Syntax:

register int Count.

RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS:
Recursion is a repetitive process in which a function calls itself (or) A function is called
recursive if it calls itself either directly or indirectly. In C, all functions can be used recursively.

Example: Fibonacci Numbers

A recursive function for Fibonacci numbers (0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13...)

/* Function with recursion*/

int fibonacci(int n)

if (n <= 1)

return n;

else

return (fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2));

With recursion 1.4 x 10 9 function calls needed to find the 43rd Fibonacci number(which
has the value 433494437) .If possible, it is better to write iterative functions.

int factorial (int n) /* iterative version */

for ( ; n > 1; --n)

product *= n;

return product;

}
UNIT – IV

ARRAYS :
An array is a group of related data items that share a common name.

Ex:- Students

The complete set of students are represented using an array name students. A
particular value is indicated by writing a number called index number or subscript in brackets
after array name. The complete set of value is referred to as an array, the individual values are
called elements.

ONE – DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS :

A list of items can be given one variable index is called single subscripted variable or a
one-dimensional array.

The subscript value starts from 0. If we want 5 elements the declaration will be

int number[5];

The elements will be number[0], number[1], number[2], number[3], number[4]

There will not be number[5]

Declaration of One - Dimensional Arrays :

Type variable – name [sizes];

Type – data type of all elements Ex: int, float etc.,

Variable – name – is an identifier

Size – is the maximum no of elements that can be stored.

Ex:- float avg[50]

This array is of type float. Its name is avg. and it can contains 50 elements only. The
range starting from 0 – 49 elements.

Initialization of Arrays :

Initialization of elements of arrays can be done in same way as ordinary variables are
done when they are declared.

Type array name[size] = {List of Value};

Ex:- int number[3]={0,0,0};

If the number of values in the list is less than number of elements then only that elements will
be initialized. The remaining elements will be set to zero automatically.

Ex:- float total[5]= {0.0,15.75,-10};

The size may be omitted. In such cases, Compiler allocates enough space for all initialized
elements.

int counter[ ]= {1,1,1,1};

/* Program Showing one dimensional array */

#include<stdio.h>
main()

int i;

float x[10],value,total;

printf(“Enter 10 real numbers\n”);

for(i=0;i<10;i++)

scanf(“%f”,&value);

x[i]=value;

total=0;

for(i=0;i<10;i++)

total=total+x[i]

for(i=0;i<10;i++)

printf(“x*%2d+=%5.2f\n”,I+1,x*I+);

printf(“total=%0.2f”,total);

TWO – DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

To store tables we need two dimensional arrays. Each table consists of rows and
columns. Two dimensional arrays are declare as

type array name [row-size][col-size];

/* Write a program Showing 2-DIMENSIONAL ARRAY */

/* SHOWING MULTIPLICATION TABLE */

#include<stdio.h>

#include<math.h>

#define ROWS 5

#define COLS 5

main()

int row,cols,prod[ROWS][COLS];

int i,j;

printf(“Multiplication table”);

for(j=1;j< =COLS;j++)

printf(“%d”,j);

for(i=0;i<ROWS;i++)

row = i+1;

printf(“%2d|”,row);

for(j=1;j < = COLS;j++)

COLS=j;

prod[i][j]= row * cols;

printf(“%4d”,prod*i+*j+);

}
}

INITIALIZING TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

They can be initialized by following their declaration with a list of initial values enclosed
in braces.

Ex:- int table[2][3] = {0,0,0,1,1,1};

Initializes the elements of first row to zero and second row to one. The initialization is done by
row by row. The above statement can be written as

int table[2][3] = {{0,0,0},{1,1,1}};

When all elements are to be initialized to zero, following short-cut method may be used.

int m[3][5] = {{0},{0},{0}};

STRINGS(CHARACTER ARRAYS) :
A String is an array of characters. Any group of characters (except double quote sign
)defined between double quotes is a constant string.

Ex: “C is a great programming language”.

If we want to include double quotes.

Ex: “\”C is great \” is norm of programmers “.

Declaring and initializing strings :-

A string variable is any valid C variable name and is always declared as an array.
char string name [size];

size determines number of characters in the string name. When the compiler assigns a
character string to a character array, it automatically supplies a null character (‘\0’) at end of
String. Therefore, size should be equal to maximum number of character in String plus one.

String can be initialized when declared as

1. char city*10+= “NEW YORK’;

2. char city[10]= ,‘N’,’E’,’W’,’ ‘,’Y’,’O’,’R’,’K’,’/0’-;
3.
C also permits us to initializing a String without specifying size.

Ex:- char Strings* += ,‘G’,’O’,’O’,’D’,’\0’-;

READING STRINGS FROM USER:

%s format with scanf can be used for reading String.

char address[15];

scanf(“%s”,address);

The problem with scanf function is that it terminates its input on first white space it finds. So
scanf works fine as long as there are no spaces in between the text.

Reading a line of text :

If we are required to read a line of text we use getchar(). which reads a single
characters. Repeatedly to read successive single characters from input and place in character
array.

/* Program to read String using scanf & getchar */

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{

char line[80],ano_line[80],character;

int c;

c=0;

printf(“Enter String using scanf to read \n”);

scanf(“%s”, line);

printf(“Using getchar enter new line\n”);

do

character = getchar();

ano_line[c] = character;

c++;

- while(character !=’\n’);

c=c-1;

ano_line*c+=’\0’;

STRING INPUT/OUTPUT FUNCTIONS:

C provides two basic ways to read and write strings.First we can read and write strings with the
formatted input/output functions,scanf/fscanf and prinf/fprinf.Second we can use a special set
of strin only functions ,get string(gets/fgets)and put string(puts/fputs).

Formatted string Input/Output:

Formatted String Input:scanf/fscanf:

Declarations:

int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);

int scanf(const char *format, ...);

The ..scanf functions provide a means to input formatted information from a stream

fscanf reads formatted input from a stream

scanf reads formatted input from stdin

These functions take input in a manner that is specified by the format argument and store each
input field into the following arguments in a left to right fashion.

Each input field is specified in the format string with a conversion specifier which specifies how
the input is to be stored in the appropriate variable. Other characters in the format string
specify characters that must be matched from the input, but are not stored in any of the
following arguments. If the input does not match then the function stops scanning and returns.
A whitespace character may match with any whitespace character (space, tab, carriage return,
new line, vertical tab, or formfeed) or the next incompatible character.

Formatted String Output:printf/fprintf:

Declarations:

int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);

int printf(const char *format, ...);

The ..printf functions provide a means to output formatted information to a stream.

fprintf sends formatted output to a stream

printf sends formatted output to stdout

These functions take the format string specified by the format argument and apply each
following argument to the format specifiers in the string in a left to right fashion. Each
character in the format string is copied to the stream except for conversion characters which
specify a format specifier.
String Input/Output

In addition to the Formatted string functions,C has two sets of string functions that read and
write strings without reformatting any data.These functions convert text file lines to strings and
strings to text file lines.

gets():

Declaration:

char *gets(char *str);

Reads a line from stdin and stores it into the string pointed to by str. It stops when either the
newline character is read or when the end-of-file is reached, whichever comes first. The
newline character is not copied to the string. A null character is appended to the end of the
string.

On success a pointer to the string is returned. On error a null pointer is returned. If the end-of-file
occurs before any characters have been read, the string remains unchanged.

puts:

Declaration:

int puts(const char *str);

Writes a string to stdout up to but not including the null character. A newline character is
appended to the output.

On success a nonnegative value is returned. On error EOF is returned.

STRING HANDLING/MANIPULATION FUNCTIONS:

strcat( ) Concatenates two Strings

strcmp( ) Compares two Strings

strcpy( ) Copies one String Over another

strlen( ) Finds length of String

strcat() function:

This function adds two strings together.

Syntax: char *strcat(const char *string1, char *string2);

strcat(string1,string2);

string1 = VERY

string2 = FOOLISH

strcat(string1,string2);

string1=VERY FOOLISH

string2 = FOOLISH

Strncat: Append n characters from string2 to stringl.

char *strncat(const char *string1, char *string2, size_t n);

strcmp() function :
This function compares two strings identified by arguments and has a value 0 if they are
equal. If they are not, it has the numeric difference between the first non-matching characters
in the Strings.

Syntax: int strcmp (const char *string1,const char *string2);

strcmp(string1,string2);

Ex:- strcmp(name1,name2);

strcmp(name1,”John”);

strcmp(“ROM”,”Ram”);

Strncmp: Compare first n characters of two strings.

int strncmp(const char *string1, char *string2, size_t n);

strcpy() function :

It works almost as a string assignment operators. It takes the form

Syntax: char *strcpy(const char *string1,const char *string2);

strcpy(string1,string2);

string2 can be array or a constant.

Strncpy: Copy first n characters of string2 to stringl .

char *strncpy(const char *string1,const char *string2, size_t n);

strlen() function :
Counts and returns the number of characters in a string.

Syntax:int strlen(const char *string);

n= strlen(string);

n integer variable which receives the value of length of string.

/* Illustration of string-handling */

#include<stdio.h>

#include<string.h>

main()

char s1[20],s2[20],s3[20];

int X,L1,L2,L3;

printf(“Enter two string constants\n”);

scanf(“%s %s”,s1,s2);

X=strcmp(s1,s2);

if (X!=0)

printf(“Strings are not equal\n”);

strcat(s1,s2);
}

else

printf(“Strings are equal \n”);

strcpy(s3,s1);

L1=strlen(s1);

L2=strlen(s2);

L3=strlen(s3);

printf(“s1=%s\t length=%d chars \n”,s1,L1);

printf(“s2=%s\t length=%d chars \n”,s2,L2);

printf(“s3=%s\t length=%d chars \n”,s3,L3);

}
UNIT – V

POINTERS:
One of the powerful features of C is ability to access the memory variables by their
memory address. This can be done by using Pointers. The real power of C lies in the proper use
of Pointers.
A pointer is a variable that can store an address of a variable (i.e., 112300).We say that a
pointer points to a variable that is stored at that address. A pointer itself usually occupies 4
bytes of memory (then it can address cells from 0 to 232-1).

Advantages of Pointers:

1. A pointer enables us to access a variable that is defined out side the function.
2. Pointers are more efficient in handling the data tables.
3. Pointers reduce the length and complexity of a program.
4. They increase the execution speed.

Definition :

A variable that holds a physical memory address is called a pointer variable or Pointer.

Declaration :

Datatype * Variable-name;

Eg:- int *ad; /* pointer to int */

char *s; /* pointer to char */

float *fp; /* pointer to float */

char **s; /* pointer to variable that is a pointer to char */

A pointer is a variable that contains an address which is a location of another variable in

memory.

Consider the Statement

p=&i;
Here „&‟ is called address of a variable.
„p‟ contains the address of a variable i.

The operator & returns the memory address of variable on which it is operated, this is
called Referencing.
The * operator is called an indirection operator or dereferencing operator which is used to
display the contents of the Pointer Variable.

Consider the following Statements :

int *p,x;
x =5;
p= &x;

Assume that x is stored at the memory address 2000. Then the output for the following
printf statements is :

Output
Printf(“The Value of x is %d”,x); 5
Printf(“The Address of x is %u”,&x); 2000
Printf(“The Address of x is %u”,p); 2000
Printf(“The Value of x is %d”,*p); 5
Printf(“The Value of x is %d”,*(&x)); 5

POINTERS WITH ARRAYS :

When an array is declared, elements of array are stored in contiguous locations. The
address of the first element of an array is called its base address.

Consider the array

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

The name of the array is called its base address.

i.e., a and k& a[20] are equal.

Now both a and a[0] points to location 2000. If we declare p as an integer pointer, then we can
make the pointer P to point to the array a by following assignment
P = a;

We can access every value of array a by moving P from one element to another.
i.e., P points to 0th element
P+1 points to 1st element
P+2 points to 2nd element
P+3 points to 3rd element
P +4 points to 4th element

Reading and Printing an array using Pointers :

main()
{
int *a,i;
printf(“Enter five elements:”);
for (i=0;i<5;i++)
scanf(“%d”,a+i);
printf(“The array elements are:”);
for (i=0;i<5;i++)
printf(“%d”, *(a+i));
}

In one dimensional array, a[i] element is referred by

(a+i) is the address of ith element.
* (a+i) is the value at the ith element.

In two-dimensional array, a[i][j] element is represented as

*(*(a+i)+j)

STRUCTURES :
A Structure is a collection of elements of dissimilar data types. Structures provide the
ability to create user defined data types and also to represent real world data.
Suppose if we want to store the information about a book, we need to store its name
(String), its price (float) and number of pages in it(int). We have to store the above three items
as a group then we can use a structure variable which collectively store the information as a
book.
Structures can be used to store the real world data like employee, student, person etc.

Declaration :
The declaration of the Structure starts with a Key Word called Struct and ends with ; .
The Structure elements can be any built in types.

struct <Structure name>

{
Structure element 1;
Structure element 2;
-
-
-
Structure element n;
};

Then the Structure Variables are declared as

struct < Structure name > <Var1,Var2>;

Eg:- struct emp

{
int empno.
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
struct emp e1,e2,e3;

The above Structure can also be declared as :

struct emp struct

{ {
int empno; int empno;
char ename[20]; (or) char ename[20];
float sal; float sal;
}e1,e2,e3; }e1,e2,e3;

Initialization :

Structure Variables can also be initialised where they are declared.

struct emp
{
int empno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
struct emp e1 = { 123,”Kumar”,5000.00};
To access the Structure elements we use the .(dot) operator.
To refer empno we should use e1.empno
To refer sal we whould use e1.sal

Structure elements are stored in contiguous memory locations as shown below. The
above Structure occupies totally 26 bytes.

e1.empno E1.ename E1.sal

123 Kumar 5000.00
2000 2002 2022

1. Program to illustrate the usage of a Structure.

main()
{
struct emp
{
int empno;
char ename[20];
float sal;
};
struct emp e;
printf (“ Enter Employee number: \n”);
scanf(“%d”,&e.empno);
printf (“ Enter Employee Name: \n”);
scanf(“%s”,&e.empname);
printf (“ Enter the Salary: \n”);
scanf(“%f”,&e.sal);
printf (“ Employee No = %d”, e.empno);
printf (“\n Emp Name = %s”, e.empname);
printf (“\n Salary = %f”, e.sal);
}

/* Program to read Student Details and Calculate total and average using structures */

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
struct stud
{
int rno;
char sname[20];
int m1,m2,m3;
};
struct stud s;
int tot;
float avg;

printf(“Enter the student roll number: \n”);

scanf(“%d”,&s.rno);
printf(“Enter the student name: \n”);
scanf(“%s”,&s.sname);
printf(“Enter the three subjects marks: \n”);
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&s.m1,&s.m2,&s.m3);

tot = s.m1 + s.m2 +s.m3;

avg = tot/3.0;

printf(“Roll Number : %d\n”,s.rno);

printf(“Student Name: %s\n”,s.sname);
printf(“Total Marks : %d\n”,tot);
printf(“Average : %f\n”,avg);
}

/* Program to read Item Details and Calculate Total Amount of Items*/

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
struct item
{
int itemno;
char itemname[20];
float rate;
int qty;
};
struct item i;
float tot_amt;

printf(“Enter the Item Number \n”);

scanf(“%d”,&i.itemno);
printf(“Enter the Item Name \n”);
scanf(“%s”,&i.itemname);
printf(“Enter the Rate of the Item \n”);
scanf(“%f”,&i.rate);
printf(“Enter the number of %s purchased ”,i.itemname);
scanf(“%d”,&i.qty);

tot_amt = i.rate * i.qty;

printf(“Item Number: %d\n”,i.itemno);

printf(“Item Name: %s\n”,i.itemname);
printf(“Rate: %f\n”,i.rate);
printf(“Number of Items: %d\n”,i.qty);
printf(“Total Amount: %f”,tot_amt);
}

ARRAY OF STRUCTURES :
To store more number of Structures, we can use array of Structures. In array of
Structures all elements of the array are stored in adjacent memory location.

/* Program to illustrate the usage of Array of Structures.

main()
{
struct book
{
char name[20];
float price;
int pages;
};
struct book b[10];
int i;
for (i=0;i<10;i++)
{
print(“\n Enter Name, Price and Pages”);
scanf(“%s%f%d”, b[i].name,&b[i].price,&b[i].pages);
}
for (i i=0;i<10;i++)
printf(“ \n%s%f%d”, b[i].name,b[i].price,b[i].pages);
}

UNIONS :
Union, similar to Structures, are collection of elements of different data types. However,
the members within a union all share the same storage area within the computer‟s memory,
whereas each member within a Structure is assigned its own unique Storage area.
Structure enables us to treat a member of different variables stored at different places in
memory, a union enables us to treat the same space in memory as a number of different
variables. That is, a union offers a way for a section of memory to be treated as a variable of one
type on one occasion and as a different variable of a different type on another occasion.

Unions are used to conserve memory. Unions are useful for applications involving
multiple members, where values need not be assigned to all of the members at any given time.
An attempt to access the wrong type of information will produce meaningless results.

The union elements are accessed exactly the same way in which the structure elements
are accessed using dot(.) operator.

The difference between the structure and union in the memory representation is as
follows.

struct cx

int i;

char ch[2];

};

struct cx s1;

The Variable s1 will occupy 4 bytes in memory and is represented as

 ---------- s.i -------  s.ch[0]  s.ch[1]

4002 4003 4004 4005

The above datatype, if declared as union then

union ex

int i;

char ch[2];

union ex u;

--------u.i ---------------

 u.ch[0]  u.ch[0]

/* Program to illustrate the use of unions */

main()
{

union example

int i;

char ch[2];

};
union exaple u;

u.i = 412;

print(“\n u.i = %d”,u.i);

print(“\n u.ch*0+ = %d”,u.ch*0+);

print(“\n u.ch*1+ = %d”,u.ch*1+);

u.ch[0] = 50; /* Assign a new value */

print(“\n\n u.i = %d”,u.i);

print(“\n u.ch*0+ = %d”,u.ch[0]);

print(“\n u.ch*1+ = %d”,u.ch*1+);

Output :

u.i = 512

u.ch[0] = 0

u.ch[1] =2

u.i = 562

u.ch[0] = 50

u.ch[1] =2

A union may be a member of a structure, and a structure may be a member of a union. And
also structures and unions may be freely mixed with arrays.
/* Program to illustrate union with in a Structure */

main()
{

union id

char color;

int size;

};

struct {

char supplier[20];

float cost;

union id desc;

}pant, shirt;

printf(“%d\n”, sizeof(union id));

shirt.desc.color = ‘w’;

printf(“%c %d\n”, shirt.desc.color, shirt.desc.size);

shirt.desc.size = 12;

printf(“%c %d\n”, shirt.desc.color, shirt.desc.size);

}
VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS)
Shamshabad – 501 218, Hyderabad

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

C
PROGRAMMING

C PROGRAMMING Page 1
UNIT I

Computer systems:
A Computer is an electronic device which performs operations such as accepts data
As an input, store the data, manipulate or process the data and produce the results an output.
Main task performed by a computer
• Accept the data
• Process or manipulate the data
• Display or store the result in the form of human understanding
• Store the data, instructions and results.

A computer system consists of hardware and software.

Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that comprise a computer system.

Computer software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the
instructions for a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer
programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purpose

C PROGRAMMING Page 2
Basically computer software is of three main types

System Software: System software is responsible for managing a variety of

independent hardware components, so that they can work together. Its purpose is
to unburden the application software programmer from the often complex details of
the particular computer being used, including such accessories as communications
devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the
computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable
manner.
• Device drivers
• Operating systems
• Servers
• Utilities
• Window systems

Programming Software: Programming Software usually provides tools to assist a

programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different
programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include:
• Compilers
• Debuggers
• Interpreters
• Linkers
• Text editors

Application Software: Application software is developed to aid in any task that

benefits from computation. It is a broad category, and encompasses Software of
many kinds, including the internet browser being used to display this page. This
category includes:
• Business software
• Computer aided design
• Databases
• Decision making software
• Educational software
• Image editing

Computing Environment:

Computing Environment is a collection of computers / machines, software, and networks that

support the processing and exchange of electronic information meant to support various types of
computing solutions.

Types of Computing Environments:

 Personal Computing Environment

C PROGRAMMING Page 3
 Client Server Environment
 Time sharing Environment
 Distributed Environment

Personal Computing Environment:

All of the computer hardware components are tied together in our personal
computer. A personal computer (PC) is a computer whose original sales price,
size, and capabilities make it useful for individuals, and intended to be operated
directly by an end user, with no intervening computer operator. People generally
relate this term with Microsoft‟s Windows Operating system. Personal computers
generally run on Windows, Mac or some version of Linux operating system.
Desktop: Desktop computer is just another version of Personal Computer intended
for regular use from a single use. A computer that can be fit on a desk can also be
called as desktop.

Time-Sharing Environment:

In the time-sharing environment, all computing must be done by the central computer. The
central computer the shared resources, it manage the shared data and printing. Employees in
large companies often work in what is known as time sharing environment. In the time sharing
environment, many users are connected to one or more computers. These computers may be mini
computers and central mainframes. In this environment the output devices, auxiliary storage
devices are shared by all the users.

C PROGRAMMING Page 4
Client/Server Environment
Client/Server computing environment splits the computing function between a
central computer and user‟s computers. The users are given personal computers or
work stations so that some of the computation responsibility can be moved from
the central computer and assigned to the workstations. In the client/server
environment the users micro computers or work stations are called the client. The
central computer which may be a powerful micro computer, minicomputer or
central mainframe system is known as server.

Distributed Computing Environment

A distributed computing environment provides a seamless integration of computing
functions between different servers and clients. The internet provides connectivity
to different servers throughout the world. This environment provides reliable,
scalable and highly available network.

C PROGRAMMING Page 5
COMPUTER LANGUAGES
In order to communicate with the computer user also needs to have a language that should be
understood by the computer. For this purpose, different languages are developed for performing
different types of work on the computer. Basically, languages are divided into two categories
according to their interpretation.

1. Low Level Languages.

2. High Level Languages.
Low Level Languages
Low level computer languages are machine codes or close to it. Computer cannot understand
instructions given in high level languages or in English. It can only understand and execute
instructions given in the form of machine language i.e. language of 0 and 1. There are two types
of low level languages:
 Machine Language.
 Assembly Language
Machine Language: It is the lowest and most elementary level of Programming language and
was the first type of programming language to be Developed. Machine Language is basically the
only language which computer Can understand. In fact, a manufacturer designs a computer to
obey just one Language, its machine code, which is represented inside the computer by a String
of binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. The symbol 0 stands for the absence of Electric pulse and 1 for the

C PROGRAMMING Page 6
presence of an electric pulse . Since a computer is Capable of recognizing electric signals,
therefore, it understand machine Language.

Advantages of Machine Language

i) It makes fast and efficient use of the computer.
ii) It requires no translator to translate the code i.e. Directly understood by the computer
Disadvantages of Machine Language:
i) All operation codes have to be remembered
iv) These languages are machine dependent i.e. a particular
Machine language can be used on only one type of computer
Assembly Language
It was developed to overcome some of the many inconveniences of machine language. This is
another low level but a very important language in which operation codes and operands are given
in the form of alphanumeric symbols instead of 0‟s and l‟s. These alphanumeric symbols will be
known as mnemonic codes and can have maximum up to 5 letter combination e.g. ADD for
addition, SUB for subtraction, START,LABEL etc. Because of this feature it is also known as
„Symbolic Programming Language‟. This language is also very difficult and needs a lot of
practice to master it because very small
English support is given to this language. The language mainly helps in compiler orientations.
The instructions of the Assembly language will also be converted to machine codes by language
translator to be executed by the computer.

C PROGRAMMING Page 7
Advantages of Assembly Language
i) It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.
ii)It is easy to locate and correct errors.
iii) It is modified easily
Disadvantages of Assembly Language
i) Like machine language it is also machine dependent.
ii) Since it is machine dependent therefore programmer Should have the knowledge of the
hardware also.
High Level Languages
High level computer languages give formats close to English language and the purpose of
developing high level languages is to enable people to write programs easily and in their own
native language environment (English). High-level languages are basically symbolic languages
that use English words and/or mathematical symbols rather than mnemonic codes. Each
instruction in the high level language is translated into many machine language instructions thus
showing one-to-many translation
Types of High Level Languages
Many languages have been developed for achieving different variety of tasks, some are fairly
specialized others are quite general purpose.
These are categorized according to their use as
a) Algebraic Formula-Type Processing. These languages are oriented towards the
computational procedures for solving mathematical and statistical problem
Examples are
 BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code).
 FORTRAN (Formula Translation).
 PL/I (Programming Language, Version 1).
 ALGOL (Algorithmic Language).

C PROGRAMMING Page 8
 APL (A Programming Language).
b) Business Data Processing:
 These languages emphasize their capabilities for maintaining data processing procedures
and files handling problems. Examples are:
 COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language).
 RPG (Report Program Generator
b) String and List Processing: These are used for string manipulation including search for
patterns, inserting and deleting characters. Examples are:
 LISP (List Processing).
 Prolog (Program in Logic).
Object Oriented Programming Language
In OOP, the computer program is divided into objects. Examples are:
 C++
 Java
e) Visual programming language: these are designed for building Windows-based applications
Examples are:
 Visual Basic
 Visual Java
 Visual C

Advantages of High Level Language

C PROGRAMMING Page 9
Following are the advantages of a high level language:
 User-friendly
 Similar to English with vocabulary of words and symbols
 Therefore it is easier to learn.
 They are easier to maintain.
Disadvantages of High Level Language

 A high-level language has to be translated into the machine language by a translator and
thus a price in computer time is paid.
 The object code generated by a translator might be inefficient Compared to an equivalent
assembly language program

Creating and Running Programs:

There are four steps in this process.

1. Writing and editing the program using Text editor (source code).
2. Compile the program using any C compiler.(.bak file)
3. Linking the program with the required library modules(object file)
4. Executing the program. (.Exe file)

Creating and Editing a C Program in C Programming Language compiler:

Writing or creating and editing source program is a first step in c language. Source
code is written in c programming language according to the type of problem or
requirement, in any text editor.

Saving C Program in C Programming Language: Source code is saved on the

secondary storage. Source code is saved as text file. The extension of file must be
".c". Example the file name is "learn c programming language.c"

Compiling C program in C Programming Language: Computer does not

understand c programming language. It understands only 0 and 1 means machine
language. So c programming language code is converted into machine language.
The process of converting source code in to machine code is called compiling.
Compiler is a program that compiles source code. Compiler also detects errors in source
program. If compiling is successful source program is converted into object program. Object
program is saved on disk. The extension of file is ".obj"
Linking in C programming Language: There are many built in functions
available in c programming language. These functions are also called library
functions. These functions are stored in different header files.

Loading program: The process of transferring a program from secondary storage

to main memory for execution is called loading a program. A program called loader

C PROGRAMMING Page 10
does loading.

Executing program: Execution is the last step. In this step program starts
execution. Its instructions start working and output of the program display on the
screen.

Pseudocode: is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop

algorithms. Pseudocode is very similar to everyday English.

Algorithm:
An algorithm is a description of a procedure which terminates with a result. Algorithm is a
step-by-step method of solving a problem.

Properties of an Algorithm:
1) Finiteness: - An algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.
2) Definiteness: - Each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that the action
specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning of) in multiple ways & can
be performed without any confusion.
3) Input: - An algorithm accepts zero or more inputs
4) Output:- An algorithm should produce at least one output.

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5) Effectiveness: - It consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This means that the
instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a finite amount of time.

Writing an algorithm
An algorithm can be written in English, like sentences and using mathematical
formulas. Sometimes algorithm written in English like language is Pseudo code.
Examples
1) Finding the average of three numbers
1. Let a,b,c are three integers
2. Let d is float
3. Display the message “Enter any three integers:”
4. Read three integers and stores in a,b,c
5. Compute the d = (a+b+c)/3.0
6. Display “The avg is:” , d
7. End.

 Example 1: Write an algorithm to determine a student‟s final grade and indicate whether
it is passing or failing. The final grade is calculated as the average of four marks.

Pseudocode::
 Input a set of 4 marks
 Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4
 if average is below 50
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”

 Detailed Algorithm :
 Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4
Step 2: GRADE  (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
endif

Flowcharts :
The pictorial representation of algorithm is called flowchart.

Uses of flow chart:

1 : flow chart helps to understand the program easily.

2 : as different symbols are used to specify the type of operation performed, it is easier to
understand the complex programs with the help of flowcharts.

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Flowchart Symbols

S.NO Description Symbols

1 Flowlines : These are the left to right or top to

bottom lines connection symbols. These lines
shows the flow of control through the program.

2 Terminal Symbol : The oval shaped symbol

Start
always begins and ends the flowchart. Every
flow chart starting and ending symbol is End
terminal symbol.

3 Input / Output symbol : The parallelogram is

used for both input (Read) and Output (Write)
is called I/O symbol. This symbol is used to
denote any function of an I/O device in the
program.

4 Process Symbol : The rectangle symbol is called

process symbol. It is used for calculations and
initialization of memory locations.

5 Decision symbol : The diamond shaped symbol

is called decision symbol. This box is used for
decision making. There will be always two
exists from a decision symbol one is labeled YES
and other labeled NO.

6 Connectors : The connector symbol is

represented by a circle. Whenever a complex
flowchart is morethan one page, in such a
situation, the connector symbols are used to
connect the flowchart.

Algorithm to find whether a number even or odd:

Step1: Begin Step1: START

Step2: Take a number Step2: Read num
Step3: if the number is divisible by2 then Step3: if(num%2=0) then
print that number is even print num is even
otherwise print that number is odd otherwise

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print num is odd
Step4: End Step4: STOP
(Algorithm in natural language) (Algorithm by using pseudo code)

FLOWCHART : start

read num

If
num%2=0

print num print num

is even is odd

stop

System Development:

C PROGRAMMING Page 14
Or

Systems Requirements

Analysis

Design

Coding

System Test

Maintenance

1. Statement of Problem

a) Working with existing system and using proper questionnaire, the problem should be
explained
clearly.
b) What inputs are available, what outputs are required and what is needed for creating workable
solution, should be understood clearly.

C PROGRAMMING Page 15
2. Analysis
a) The method of solutions to solve the problem can be identified.
b) We also judge that which method gives best results among different methods of solution.

3. Design
a) Algorithms and flow charts will be prepared.
b) Focus on data, architecture, user interfaces and program components.

4. System Test
The algorithms and flow charts developed in the previous steps are converted into actual
programs in the high level languages like C.

a. Compilation
The process of translating the program into machine code is called as Compilation. Syntactic
errors are found quickly at the time of compiling the program. These errors occur due to the
usage of wrong syntaxes for the statements.
Eg: x=a*y+b
There is a syntax error in this statement, since, each and every statement in C language ends with
a semicolon (;).

b. Execution
The next step is Program execution. In this phase, we may encounter two types of errors.
Runtime Errors: these errors occur during the execution of the program and terminate the
program abnormally.
Logical Errors: these errors occur due to incorrect usage of the instructions in the program. These
errors are neither detected during compilation or execution nor cause any stoppage to the
program execution but produces incorrect output.

5. Maintenance
We are maintenance the software by updating the information, providing the security and license
for the software.

What is C?
C is a programming language developed at AT & T‟s Bell Laboratories of USA in 1972. It
was designed and written by Dennis Ritche. Dennis Ritchie is known as the founder of c
language.

It was developed to overcome the problems of previous languages such as B, BCPL etc.

Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX operating system.

Features of C
1. Portability or machine independent
C PROGRAMMING Page 16
2. Sound and versatile language
3. Fast program execution.
4. An extendible language.
5. Tends to be a structured language.
Historical developments of C(Background)
Year Language Developed by Remarks

1960 ALGOL International committee Too general, too abstract

1967 BCPL Martin Richards at Could deal with only specific

Cambridge university problems

1970 B Ken Thompson at AT & Could deal with only specific

T problems

1972 C Dennis Ritche at AT & T Lost generality of BCPL and B

restored

General Structure of a C program:

/* Documentation section */
/* Link section */
/* Definition section */
/* Global declaration section */
main()
{
Declaration part
Executable part (statements)
}
/* Sub-program section */

The documentation section is used for displaying any information about the
program like the purpose of the program, name of the author, date and time written
etc, and this section should be enclosed within comment lines. The statements in
the documentation section are ignored by the compiler.
The link section consists of the inclusion of header files.

C PROGRAMMING Page 17
The definition section consists of macro definitions, defining constants etc,.
Anything declared in the global declaration section is accessible throughout
the program, i.e. accessible to all the functions in the program.
main() function is mandatory for any program and it includes two parts, the
declaration part and the executable part.

The last section, i.e. sub-program section is optional and used when we require
including user defined functions in the program.

First C Program
Before starting the abcd of C language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run the first
c program.

To write the first c program, open the C console and write the following code:

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. printf("Hello C Language");
5. getch();
6. }

#include <stdio.h> includes the standard input output library functions. The printf() function
is defined in stdio.h .

#include <conio.h> includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is
defined in conio.h file.

void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in c language. The void
keyword specifies that it returns no value.

printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.

getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it blocks the
screen.

C TOKENS: The smallest individual units are known as tokens. C has six types of tokens.
1: Identifiers

C PROGRAMMING Page 18
2: Keywords

3: Constants

4: Strings

5: Special Symbols

6: Operators

Identifiers:
Identifiers refer to the names of variables, constants, functions and arrays. These are user-defined
names is called Identifiers. These identifier are defined against a set of rules.
Rules for an Identifier
1. An Identifier can only have alphanumeric characters( a-z , A-Z , 0-9 ) and underscore( _
).

2. The first character of an identifier can only contain alphabet( a-z , A-Z ) or underscore ( _
).

3. Identifiers are also case sensitive in C. For example name and Name are two different
identifier in C.

4. Keywords are not allowed to be used as Identifiers.

5. No special characters, such as semicolon, period, whitespaces, slash or comma are

permitted to be used in or as Identifier.

6. C‟ compiler recognizes only the first 31 characters of an identifiers.

Ex : Valid Invalid

STDNAME Return

SUB $stay

TOT_MARKS 1RECORD

_TEMP STD NAME.

Y2K

C PROGRAMMING Page 19
Keywords: A keyword is a reserved word. All keywords have fixed meaning that means we
cannot change. Keywords serve as basic building blocks for program statements. All keywords
must be written in lowercase. A list of 32 keywords in c language is given below:

auto break case char

const continue default do

double enum else extern

float for goto if

int long return register

signed short static sizeof

struct switch typedef union

unsigned void volatile while

Note: Keywords we cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.

Data Types/Types:
 To store data the program must reserve space which is done using datatype. A datatype is a
keyword/predefined instruction used for allocating memory for data. A data type specifies
the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating, character etc . It used for
declaring/defining variables or functions of different types before to use in a program.

There are 4 types of data types in C language.

C PROGRAMMING Page 20
Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

Note: We call Basic or Primary data type.

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both signed
and unsigned literals. The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system. Let‟s see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit
architecture.

Size and Ranges of Data Types with Type Qualifiers

Type Size (bytes) Range Control String

char or signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c

unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c

C PROGRAMMING Page 21
int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767 %d or %i

unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u

short int or signed short 1 -128 to 127 %d or %i

int

unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 %d or %i

long int or signed long 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647 %ld

int

unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu

float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 %f or %g

double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 %lf

long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 %Lf

Variables
A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Variables are changeable,
we can change value of a variable during execution of a program. . It can be reused many
times.

Note: Variable are nothing but identifiers.

Rules to write variable names:

1. A variable name contains maximum of 30 characters/ Variable
name must be upto 8 characters.
2. A variable name includes alphabets and numbers, but it must start
with an alphabet.
3. It cannot accept any special characters, blank spaces except under
score( _ ).
4. It should not be a reserved word.

Ex : i rank1 MAX min Student_name

StudentName class_mark

C PROGRAMMING Page 22
Declaration of Variables : A variable can be used to store a value of any data type. The
declaration of variables must be done before they are used in the program. The general format
for declaring a variable.

Syntax : data_type variable-1,variable-2,------, variable-n;

Variables are separated by commas and declaration statement ends with a semicolon.

Ex : int x,y,z;
float a,b;
char m,n;

Assigning values to variables : values can be assigned to variables using the assignment
operator (=). The general format statement is :

Syntax : variable = constant;

Ex : x=100;
a= 12.25;
m=‟f‟;

we can also assign a value to a variable at the time of the variable is declared. The general format
of declaring and assigning value to a variable is :

Syntax : data_type variable = constant;

Ex ; int x=100;
float a=12.25;
char m=‟f‟;

Types of Variables in C

There are many types of variables in c:

1. local variable
2. global variable
3. static variable

Constants
Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.

Note: constants are also called literals.

C PROGRAMMING Page 23
C supports several kinds of constants.

CONSTANTS

Numeric Constants Character Constants

Integer Constants Real Constants Single Character Constants String Constants

TYPES OF C CONSTANT:
1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Character constants
4. String constants
5. Backslash character constants

Integer constants:
An integer constant is a numeric constant (associated with number) without any fractional or
exponential part. There are three types of integer constants in C programming:

 decimal constant(base 10)

 octal constant(base 8)
 hexadecimal constant(base 16)

For example:

 Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc

 Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc
 Hexadecimal constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc

 In C programming, octal constant starts with a 0 and hexadecimal constant starts with a
0x.

C PROGRAMMING Page 24
1: Decimal Integer : the rules for represent decimal integer.
a) Decimal Integer value which consist of digits from 0-9.
b) Decimal Integer value with base 10.
c) Decimal Integer should not prefix with 0.
d) It allows only sign (+,-).
e) No special character allowed in this integer.

Ex : valid invalid

7 $77

77 077

+77 7,777

-77

2 : Octal : An integer constants with base 8 is called octal. These rules are :
a) it consist of digits from 0 to 7.
b) It should prefix with 0.
c) It allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.

EX : VALID INVALID
0123 123 -> it because no prefix with 0
+0123 0128 -> because digits from 0 to 7.
-0123

3 : Hexadecimal : An integer constant with base value 16 is called Hexadecimal.

a) It consist of digits from 0-9,a-f(capital letters & small leters.

Ex : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b) it should prefix with 0X or 0x.
c) it allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.

EX : OX1a, ox2f

Floating point/Real constants:

A floating point constant is a numeric constant that has either a fractional form or an exponent
form. For example:

C PROGRAMMING Page 25
-2.0

0.0000234

-0.22E-5

Note: E-5 = 10-5

Real Constants : Real constant is base 10 number, which is represented in decimal 0r

scientific/exponential notation.

Real Notation : The real notation is represented by an integer followed by a decimal point and
the fractional(decimal) part. It is possible to omit digits before or after the decimal point.

Ex : 15.25
.75
30
-9.52
-92
+.94

Scientific/Exponential Notation: The general form of Scientific/Exponential notation is

mantisha e exponent

The mantisha is either a real/floating point number expressed in decimal notation or an integer
and the exponent is an integer number with an optional sign. The character e separating the
mantisha and the exponent can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.

Ex : 1.5E-2
100e+3
-2.05e2

Character Constant:

Single Character Constant : A character constant is either a single alphabet, a single digit, a
single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.

a) it is value represent in „ „ (single quote).

b) The maximam length of a character constant can be 1 character.
EX : VALID INVALID
„a‟ “12”

C PROGRAMMING Page 26
„A‟ „ab‟
String constant : A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quote, the
characters may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space etc

EX : “rama” , “a” , “+123” , “1-/a”

"good" //string constant

"" //null string constant

" " //string constant of six white space

"x" //string constant having single character.

"Earth is round\n" //prints string with newline

Escape characters or backslash characters:

a) \n newline
b) \r carriage return
c) \t tab
d) \v vertical tab
e) \b backspace
f) \f form feed (page feed)
g) \a alert (beep)
h) \‟ single quote(„)
i) \” double quote(“)
j) \? Question mark (?)
k) \\ backslash (\)

Two ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.
1. const keyword
2. #define preprocessor
3.
1) C const keyword
The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.
1. const float PI=3.14;
Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. const float PI=3.14;
5. clrscr();
6. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);

C PROGRAMMING Page 27
7. getch();
8. }
Output:
The value of PI is: 3.140000

2) C #define preprocessor
The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.
C#define
The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can use any
basic data type.
Syntax:
#define token value
Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.
#include <stdio.h>
1. #define PI 3.14
2. main() {
3. printf("%f",PI);
4. }
Output:
3.140000

Formatted and Unformatted Console I/O Functions.

Input / Output (I/O) Functions : In „C‟ language, two types of Input/Output functions are
available, and all input and output operations are carried out through function calls. Several
functions are available for input / output operations in „C‟. These functions are collectively
known as the standard i/o library.
Input: In any programming language input means to feed some data into program. This can be
given in the form of file or from command line.
Output: In any programming language output means to display some data on screen, printer or
in any file.
The Standard Files
C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in the
same way as files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program
executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.

Standard File File Pointer Device

Standard input stdin Keyboard

C PROGRAMMING Page 28
Standard output stdout Screen

Standard error stderr Your screen

Input / Output functions are classified into two types

I / O Functions

Formated I/O Functions Unformated I/O Functions

Input Output Input Output

scanf() print() getc() putc()

fscanf() fprintf() getchar() putchar()

gets() puts()

getch()

getche()

. Formated I/O Functions : formatted I/O functions operates on various types of data.

1 : printf() : output data or result of an operation can be displayed from the computer to a
standard output device using the library function printf(). This function is used to print any
combination of data.

Syntax : printf(“control string “, variable1, variable2, -----------, variablen);

Ex : printf(“%d”,3977); // Output: 3977

printf() statement another syntax :

Syntax : printf(“fomating string”);

Formating string : it prints all the character given in doublequotes (“ “) except formatting
specifier.

C PROGRAMMING Page 29
Ex : printf(“ hello “);-> hello
printf(“a”); -> a
printf(“%d”, a); -> a value
printf(“%d”); -> no display

scanf() : input data can be entered into the computer using the standard input „C‟ library
function called scanf(). This function is used to enter any combination of input.

Syntax : scanf(“control string “,&var1, &var2,----, &varn);

The scanf() function is used to read information from the standard input device (keyboard).

Ex : scanf(“ %d “,&a);-> hello

Each variable name (argument) must be preceeded by an ampersand (&). The (&) symbol gives
the meaning “address of “ the variable.

Unformatted I/O functions:

a) Character I/O
b) String I/O

a) character I/O:

1. getchar(): Used to read a character from the standard input

2. putchar(): Used to display a character to standard output
3. getch() and getche(): these are used to take the any alpha numeric characters
from the standard input
getche() read and display the character
getch() only read the single character but not display
4. putch(): Used to display any alpha numeric characters to standard output

a) String I/O:

1. gets(): Used for accepting any string from the standard input(stdin)
eg:gets()

2. puts(): Used to display a string or character array Eg:puts()

3. Cgets():read a string from the console eg; cgets(char *st)
4. Cputs():display the string to the console eg; cputs(char *st)

C PROGRAMMING Page 30
OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS:
Operators : An operator is a Symbol that performs an operation. An operators acts some
variables are called operands to get the desired result.

Ex : a+b;
Where a,b are operands and + is the operator.

Types of Operator :
1) Arithmetic Operators.
2) Relational Operators.
3) Logical Operators.
4) Assignment Operators.
5). Unary Operators.
6) Conditional Operators.
7) Special Operators.
8) Bitwise Operators.
9) Shift Operators.

Arithmetic Operators
An arithmetic operator performs mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction and
multiplication on numerical values (constants and variables).
C Program to demonstrate the working of arithmetic operators
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a = 9,b = 4, c;

c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n",c);

c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n",c);

c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n",c);

c=a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n",c);

c=a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);

C PROGRAMMING Page 31
Output
a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1

Relational Operators. A relational operator checks the relationship between two operands.
If the relation is true, it returns 1; if the relation is false, it returns value 0.
Operands may be variables, constants or expressions.

Relational operators are used in decision making and loops.

Operator Meaning Example Return value

< is less than 2<9 1
<= is less than or equal to 2<=2 1
> is greater than 2>9 0
>= is greater than or equal to 3>=2 1
== is equal to 2==3 0
!= is not equal to 2!=2 0

// C Program to demonstrate the working of relational operators

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;

printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, b, a == b); // true

printf("%d == %d = %d \n", a, c, a == c); // false

printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, b, a > b); //false

printf("%d > %d = %d \n", a, c, a > c); //false

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printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, b, a < b); //false

printf("%d < %d = %d \n", a, c, a < c); //true

printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, b, a != b); //false

printf("%d != %d = %d \n", a, c, a != c); //true

printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, b, a >= b); //true

printf("%d >= %d = %d \n", a, c, a >= c); //false

printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, b, a <= b); //true

printf("%d <= %d = %d \n", a, c, a <= c); //true

return 0;

Output

5 == 5 = 1

5 == 10 = 0

5>5=0

5 > 10 = 0

5<5=0

5 < 10 = 1

5 != 5 = 0

5 != 10 = 1

5 >= 5 = 1

5 >= 10 = 0

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5 <= 5 = 1

5 <= 10 = 1

Logical Operators.

These operators are used to combine the results of two or more conditions. An expression
containing logical operator returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether expression results true
or false. Logical operators are commonly used in decision making in C programming.

Operator Meaning Example Return value

&& Logical AND (9>2)&&(17>2) 1
|| Logical OR (9>2) || (17 = = 7) 1
! Logical NOT 29!=29 0
Logical AND : If any one condition false the complete condition becomes false.

Truth Table
Op1 Op2 Op1 && Op2
true true true
true false false
false true false
false false false

Logical OR : If any one condition true the complete condition becomes true.

Truth Table
Op1 Op2 Op1 // Op2
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false

Logical Not : This operator reverses the value of the expression it operates on i.e, it makes a
true expression false and false expression true.

Op1 Op1 !
true false
false true

// C Program to demonstrate the working of logical operators

#include <stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 34
int main()

int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;

result = (a = b) && (c > b);

printf("(a = b) && (c > b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a = b) && (c < b);

printf("(a = b) && (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a = b) || (c < b);

printf("(a = b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = (a != b) || (c < b);

printf("(a != b) || (c < b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = !(a != b);

printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);

result = !(a == b);

printf("!(a == b) equals to %d \n", result);

return 0;

Output

(a = b) && (c > b) equals to 1

(a = b) && (c < b) equals to 0

(a = b) || (c < b) equals to 1

C PROGRAMMING Page 35
(a != b) || (c < b) equals to 0

!(a != b) equals to 1

!(a == b) equals to 0

Assignment Operators. Assignment operators are used to assign a value (or) an expression
(or) a value of a variable to another variable.

Syntax : variable name=expression (or) value (or) variable

Ex : x=10;
y=a+b;
z=p;

Compound assignment operator:

„C‟ provides compound assignment operators to assign a value to variable in order to assign a
new value to a variable after performing a specified operation.

Operator Example Meaning

+= x+=y x=x+y
-= x-=y x=x-y
*= x*=y x=x*y
/= x/=y x=x/y
%= x%=y X=x%y

// C Program to demonstrate the working of assignment operators

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 5, c;

c = a;

C PROGRAMMING Page 36
printf("c = %d \n", c);

c += a; // c = c+a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c -= a; // c = c-a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c *= a; // c = c*a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c /= a; // c = c/a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

c %= a; // c = c%a

printf("c = %d \n", c);

return 0;

Output

c=5

c = 10

c=5

c = 25

c=5

c=0

Increment and Decrement Operators /Unary Operators:

C PROGRAMMING Page 37
Unary operators are having higher priority than the other operators. Unary operators, meaning
they only operate on a single operand.

Increment Operator in C Programming

1. Increment operator is used to increment the current value of variable by adding integer 1.

2. Increment operator can be applied to only variables.

3. Increment operator is denoted by ++.

We have two types of increment operator i.e Pre-Increment and Post-Increment Operator.

Pre-Increment

Pre-increment operator is used to increment the value of variable before using in the expression. In
the Pre-Increment value is first incremented and then used inside the expression.

b = ++y;

In this example suppose the value of variable „y‟ is 5 then value of variable „b‟ will be 6 because
the value of „y‟ gets modified before using it in a expression.

Post-Increment

Post-increment operator is used to increment the value of variable as soon as after executing
expression completely in which post increment is used. In the Post-Increment value is first used
in a expression and then incremented.

b = x++;

In this example suppose the value of variable „x‟ is 5 then value of variable „b‟ will be 5 because
old value of „x‟ is used.

Note :

We cannot use increment operator on the constant values because increment operator operates on
only variables. It increments the value of the variable by 1 and stores the incremented value back
to the variable

C PROGRAMMING Page 38
b = ++5;

or

b = 5++;

The syntax of the operators is given below.

++<variable name> --<variable name>
<variable name>++ <variable name>--
The operator ++ adds 1 to the operand and – subtracts 1 from the operand. These operators in
two forms : prefix (++x) and postfix(x++).

Operator Meaning
++x Pre increment
- -x Pre decrement
x++ Post increment
x-- Post decrement

Where
1 : ++x : Pre increment, first increment and then do the operation.
2 : - -x : Pre decrement, first decrements and then do the operation.
3 : x++ : Post increment, first do the operation and then increment.
4 : x- - : Post decrement, first do the operation and then decrement.

// C Program to demonstrate the working of increment and decrement operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;
printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);
printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);
return 0;
}

Output
++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
++d = 99.500000

C PROGRAMMING Page 39
Multiple increment operators inside printf
#include<stdio.h>
void main() {
int i = 1;
printf("%d %d %d", i, ++i, i++);
}
Output : 3 3 1

Pictorial representation

Explanation of program

I am sure you will get confused after viewing the above image and output of program.
1. Whenever more than one format specifiers (i.e %d) are directly or indirectly related with
same variable (i,i++,++i) then we need to evaluate each individual expression from right
to left.
2. As shown in the above image evaluation sequence of expressions written inside printf
will be – i++,++i,i
3. After execution we need to replace the output of expression at appropriate place
No Step Explanation

Evaluate
1 At the time of execution we will be using older value of i = 1
i++

Evaluate At the time of execution we will be increment value already modified after
2
++i step 1 i.e i = 3

2 Evaluate i At the time of execution we will be using value of i modified in step 2

C PROGRAMMING Page 40
Postfix and Prefix Expression in Same Statement
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main() {
int i = 0, j = 0;
j = i++ + ++i;
printf("%d\n", i);
printf("%d\n", j);
}

Output :
2
2

Explanation of Program

Conditional Operator/ Ternary operator:

conditional operator checks the condition and executes the statement depending of the condition.
A conditional operator is a ternary operator, that is, it works on 3 operands.
Conditional operator consist of two symbols.

1 : question mark (?).

2 : colon ( : ).

C PROGRAMMING Page 41
Syntax : condition ? exp1 : exp2;

It first evaluate the condition, if it is true (non-zero) then the “exp1” is

evaluated, if the condition is false (zero) then the “exp2” is evaluated.

#include <stdio.h>
int main(){
char February;
int days;
printf("If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: ");
scanf("%c",&February);
// If test condition (February == 'l') is true, days equal to 29.
// If test condition (February =='l') is false, days equal to 28.
days = (February == '1') ? 29 : 28;
printf("Number of days in February = %d",days);
return 0;
}

Output
If this year is leap year, enter 1. If not enter any integer: 1
Number of days in February = 29

Bitwise Operators:
Bitwise operators are used to manipulate the data at bit level. It operates on integers only. It
may not be applied to float.In arithmetic-logic unit (which is within the CPU), mathematical
operations like: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are done in bit-level which
makes processing faster and saves power. To perform bit-level operations in C programming,
bitwise operators are used.

Operator Meaning
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
<< Shift left
>> Shift right
~ One‟s complement.

Bitwise AND operator &

The output of bitwise AND is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands is 1. If either bit of an
operand is 0, the result of corresponding bit is evaluated to 0.
Let us suppose the bitwise AND operation of two integers 12 and 25.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
C PROGRAMMING Page 42
Bit Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
& 00011001
________
00001000 = 8 (In decimal)
Example #1: Bitwise AND
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a&b);
return 0;
}
Output
Output =8

Bitwise OR operator |
The output of bitwise OR is 1 if at least one corresponding bit of two operands is 1. In C
Programming, bitwise OR operator is denoted by |.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise OR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00011101 = 29 (In decimal)

Example #2: Bitwise OR

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a|b);
return 0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 43
}
Output
Output =29

Bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) operator ^

The result of bitwise XOR operator is 1 if the corresponding bits of two operands are opposite. It
is denoted by ^.
12 = 00001100 (In Binary)
25 = 00011001 (In Binary)
Bitwise XOR Operation of 12 and 25
00001100
| 00011001
________
00010101 = 21 (In decimal)

Example #3: Bitwise XOR

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 12, b = 25;
printf("Output = %d", a^b);
return 0;
}

Output
Output = 21

Bitwise complement operator ~

Bitwise compliment operator is an unary operator (works on only one operand). It changes 1 to 0
and 0 to 1. It is denoted by ~.
35 = 00100011 (In Binary)
Bitwise complement Operation of 35

C PROGRAMMING Page 44
~ 00100011
________
11011100 = 220 (In decimal)
Twist in bitwise complement operator in C Programming

The bitwise complement of 35 (~35) is -36 instead of 220, but why?

For any integer n, bitwise complement of n will be -(n+1). To understand this, you should have
the knowledge of 2's complement.

2's Complement

Two's complement is an operation on binary numbers. The 2's complement of a number is equal
to the complement of that number plus 1. For example:

Decimal Binary 2's complement

0 00000000 -(11111111+1) = -00000000 = -0(decimal)

1 00000001 -(11111110+1) = -11111111 = -256(decimal)

12 00001100 -(11110011+1) = -11110100 = -244(decimal)

220 11011100 -(00100011+1) = -00100100 = -36(decimal)

Note: Overflow is ignored while computing 2's complement.

The bitwise complement of 35 is 220 (in decimal). The 2's complement of 220 is -36. Hence, the
output is -36 instead of 220.

Bitwise complement of any number N is -(N+1). Here's how:

bitwise complement of N = ~N (represented in 2's complement form)

2'complement of ~N= -(~(~N)+1) = -(N+1)

Example #4: Bitwise complement

#include <stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 45
int main()

printf("complement = %d\n",~35);

printf("complement = %d\n",~-12);

return 0;

Output

Complement = -36

Complement = 11

There are two Bitwise shift operators in C programming:

 Right shift operator

 Left shift operator.

Right Shift Operator

Right shift operator shifts all bits towards right by certain number of specified bits. It is denoted
by >>.

Left Shift Operator

Left shift operator shifts all bits towards left by certain number of specified bits. It is denoted by
<<.

Special Operators

1 ) Comma Operator :The comma operator is used to separate the statement elements such as
variables, constants or expressions, and this operator is used to link the related expressions
together, such expressions can be evaluated from left to right and the value of right most
expressions is the value of combined expressions

Ex : val(a=3, b=9, c=77, a+c)

First signs the value 3 to a, then assigns 9 to b, then assigns 77 to c, and finaly80(3+77) to
value.

C PROGRAMMING Page 46
2 ) Sizeof Operator : The sizeof() is a unary operator, that returns the length in bytes o the
specified variable, and it is very useful to find the bytes occupied by the specified variable in the
memory.

Syntax : sizeof(variable-name);

int a;
Ex : sizeof(a); //OUTPUT-----2bytes

Example #6: sizeof Operator

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, e[10];
float b;
double c;
char d;
printf("Size of int=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(a));
printf("Size of float=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(b));
printf("Size of double=%lu bytes\n",sizeof(c));
printf("Size of char=%lu byte\n",sizeof(d));
printf("Size of integer type array having 10 elements = %lu bytes\n", sizeof(e));
return 0;
}
Output

Size of int = 4 bytes

Size of float = 4 bytes
Size of double = 8 bytes
Size of char = 1 byte
Size of integer type array having 10 elements = 40 bytes

Expressions

Expressions : An expression is a combination of operators and operands which reduces to a

single value. An operator indicats an operation to be performed on data that yields a value. An
operand is a data item on which an operation is performed.

A simple expression contains only one operator.

Ex : 3+5 is a simple expression which yields a value 8, -a is also a single expression.

A complex expression contain more than one operator.

C PROGRAMMING Page 47
Ex : complex expression is 6+8*7.

Ex ; Algeberic Expressions C-expression

1 : ax2+bx+c 1: a*x*x+b*x+c
2 : a+bx 2 : a+b*x.
3 : 4ac/b 3 : 4*a*c/b.
4 : x2/y2-1 4 : x*x/y*y-1

Operator Precedence : Arithmetic Operators are evaluvated left to right using the
precedence of operator when the expression is written without the paranthesis.They are two
levels of arithmetic operators in C.

1 : High Priority * / %
2 : Low Priority + -.

Arithmetic Expression evaluation is carried out using the two phases from left to right.

1 : First phase : The highest priority operator are evaluated in the 1st phase.
2 : Second Phase : The lowest priority operator are evaluated in the 2nd phase.

Ex : a=x-y/3+z*2+p/4.
x=7, y=9, z=11, p=8.
a= 7-9/3+11*2+8/4.

1st phase :
1 : a = 7-3+11*2+8/4
2 : a = 7-3+22+8/4
3 : a = 7-3+22+2
2nd phase :
1 : a = 4+22+2
2 : a = 26+2
3 : a = 28

The order of evaluation can be changed by putting paranthesis in an expression.

Ex : 9-12/(3+3)*(2-1)

Whenever parentheses are used, the expressions within parantheses highest priority. If two or
more sets of paranthesis appear one after another. The expression contained in the left-most set is
evaluated first and the right-most in the last.
1st phase :
1 : 9-12/6*(2-1)
2 : 9-12/6*1
nd
2 phase :
1 : 9-2*1
2 : 9-2.
3rd phase :

C PROGRAMMING Page 48
1 : 7.

Rules for Evaluation of Expression :

1 : Evaluate the sub-expression from left to right. If parenthesized.

2 : Evaluate the arithemetic Expression from left to right using the rules of precedence.
3 : The highest precedence is given to the expression with in paranthesis.
4 : When parantheses are used, the expressions within parantheses assume highest priority.
5 : Apply the associative rule, if more operators of the same precedence occurs.

Operator Precedence and Associativity :

Every operator has a precedence value. An expression containing more than one
oerator is known as complex expression. Complex expressions are executed according to
precedence of operators.

Associativity specifies the order in which the operators are evaluated with the same
precedence in a complex expression. Associativity is of two ways, i.e left to ringht and right to
left. Left to right associativity evaluates an expression starting from left and moving towards
right. Right to left associativity proceds from right to left.

The precedence and associativity of various operators in C.

Operator Description Precedence Associativity
() Function call 1 L-R (left to right)
[] Square brackets.
+ Unary plus 2 R-L (right to left)
- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
! Not operator
~ Complement
* Pointer operator
& Address operator
sizeof Sizeof operator
* Multiplication 3 L-R (left to right)
/ Division
% Modulo division
+ Addition 4 L-R (left to right)
- Subtraction
<< Left shift 5 L-R (left to right)
>> Right shift

C PROGRAMMING Page 49
< <= > >= Relational Operator 6 L-R (left to right)
== Equality 7 L-R (left to right)
!= Inequality
& Bitwise AND 8 L-R (left to right)
^ Bitwise XOR 9 L-R (left to right)
| Bitwise OR 10 L-R (left to right)
&& Logical AND 11 L-R (left to right)
|| Logical OR 12 L-R (left to right)
?: Conditional 13 R-L (right to left)
= *= /= %= += Assignment operator 14 R-L (right to left)
-= &= ^= <<=
>>=
, Comma operator 15 L-R (left to right)

Type Conversion/Type casting:

Type conversion is used to convert variable from one data type to another data type, and after
type casting complier treats the variable as of new data type.
For example, if you want to store a 'long' value into a simple integer then you can type cast
'long' to 'int'. You can convert the values from one type to another explicitly using the cast
operator. Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler automatically,
or it can be specified explicitly through the use of the cast operator.

Syntax:
(type_name) expression;

Without Type Casting:

1. int f= 9/4;
2. printf("f : %d\n", f );//Output: 2

With Type Casting:

1. float f=(float) 9/4;

2. printf("f : %f\n", f );//Output: 2.250000

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 50
{

printf( "%c\n", (char)65 );

getchar();

or
Type Casting - C Programming

Type casting refers to changing an variable of one data type into another. The compiler will
automatically change one type of data into another if it makes sense. For instance, if you assign
an integer value to a floating-point variable, the compiler will convert the int to a float. Casting
allows you to make this type conversion explicit, or to force it when it wouldn‟t normally
happen.

Type conversion in c can be classified into the following two types:

1. Implicit Type Conversion

When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without programmers
intervention, such type of conversion is known as implicit type conversion or type promotion.

int x;

for(x=97; x<=122; x++)

printf("%c", x); /*Implicit casting from int to char thanks to %c*/

2. Explicit Type Conversion

The type conversion performed by the programmer by posing the data type of the expression of
specific type is known as explicit type conversion. The explicit type conversion is also known as
type casting.

C PROGRAMMING Page 51
Type casting in c is done in the following form:

(data_type)expression;

where, data_type is any valid c data type, and expression may be constant, variable or
expression.

For example,

int x;

for(x=97; x<=122; x++)

printf("%c", (char)x); /*Explicit casting from int to char*/

The following rules have to be followed while converting the expression from one type to
another to avoid the loss of information:

All integer types to be converted to float.

All float types to be converted to double.

All character types to be converted to integer.

Example

Consider the following code:

int x=7, y=5 ;

float z;

z=x/y; /*Here the value of z is 1*/

If we want to get the exact value of 7/5 then we need explicit casting from int to float:

C PROGRAMMING Page 52
int x=7, y=5;

float z;

z = (float)x/(float)y; /*Here the value of z is 1.4*/

Integer Promotion

Integer promotion is the process by which values of integer type "smaller" than int or unsigned
int are converted either to int or unsigned int. Consider an example of adding a character with an
integer −

#include <stdio.h>

main()

int i = 17;

char c = 'c'; /* ascii value is 99 */

int sum;

sum = i + c;

printf("Value of sum : %d\n", sum );

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −

Value of sum : 116

Here, the value of sum is 116 because the compiler is doing integer promotion and
converting the value of 'c' to ASCII before performing the actual addition operation.

Usual Arithmetic Conversion

C PROGRAMMING Page 53
The usual arithmetic conversions are implicitly performed to cast their values to a common
type. The compiler first performs integer promotion; if the operands still have different types,
then they are converted to the type that appears highest in the following hierarchy –

UNIT II

STATEMENTS

A statement causes the computer to carry out some definite action. There are three different
classes of statements in C:

Expression statements, Compound statements, and Control statements.

C PROGRAMMING Page 54
Null statement

A null statement consisting of only a semicolon and performs no operations. It can appear
wherever a statement is expected. Nothing happens when a null statement is executed.

Syntax: - ;

Statements such as do, for, if, and while require that an executable statement appear as the
statement body. The null statement satisfies the syntax requirement in cases that do not need a
substantive statement body.

The Null statement is nothing but, there is no body within loop or any other statements in
C.

Example illustrates the null statement:

for ( i = 0; i < 10; i++) ;

or

for (i=0;i<10;i++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 55
//empty body

Expression

Most of the statements in a C program are expression statements. An expression statement is

simply an expression followed by a semicolon. The lines

i = 0;

i = i + 1;

and printf("Hello, world!\n");

are all expression statements. In C, however, the semicolon is a statement terminator. Expression
statements do all of the real work in a C program. Whenever you need to compute new values for
variables, you'll typically use expression statements (and they'll typically contain assignment
operators). Whenever you want your program to do something visible, in the real world, you'll
typically call a function (as part of an expression statement). We've already seen the most basic
example: calling the function printf to print text to the screen.

Note -If no expression is present, the statement is often called the null statement.

Return

The return statement terminates execution of a function and returns control to the calling
function, with or without a return value. A function may contain any number
of return statements. The return statement has

syntax: return expression(opt);

If present, the expression is evaluated and its value is returned to the calling function. If
necessary, its value is converted to the declared type of the containing function's return value.

A return statement with an expression cannot appear in a function whose return type is void . If
there is no expression and the function is not defined as void , the return value is undefined. For
example, the following main function returns an unpredictable value to the operating
system:

main ( )

C PROGRAMMING Page 56
return;

Compound statements

A compound statement (also called a "block") typically appears as the body of another statement,
such as the if statement, for statement, while statement, etc

A Compound statement consists of several individual statements enclosed within a pair of

braces { }. The individual statements may themselves be expression statements, compound
statements or control statements. Unlike expression statements, a compound statement does not
end with a semicolon. A typical Compound statement is given below.

pi=3.14;

area=pi*radius*radius;

The particular compound statement consists of two assignment-type expression

statements.

Example:

C PROGRAMMING Page 57
Selection Statement/Conditional Statements/Decision Making Statements

A selection statement selects among a set of statements depending on the value of a controlling
expression. Or

Moving execution control from one place/line to another line based on condition

Or

Conditional statements control the sequence of statement execution, depending on the value of a
integer expression

C‟ language supports two conditional statements.

1: if

2: switch.

1: if Statement: The if Statement may be implemented in different forms.

1: simple if statement.

2: if –else statement

3: nested if-else statement.

4: else if ladder.

if statement.

The if statement controls conditional branching. The body of an if statement is executed if the
value of the expression is nonzero. Or if statement is used to execute the code if condition
is true. If the expression/condition is evaluated to false (0), statements inside the body of if is
skipped from execution.

Syntax : if(condition/expression)

true statement;

C PROGRAMMING Page 58
}

statement-x;

If the condition/expression is true, then the true statement will be executed otherwise the true
statement block will be skipped and the execution will jump to the statement-x. The „true
statement‟ may be a single statement or group of statement.

If there is only one statement in the if block, then the braces are optional. But
if there is more than one statement the braces are compulsory

Flowchart

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a=15,b=20;

C PROGRAMMING Page 59
if(b>a)

printf("b is greater");

Output

b is greater

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number;

printf("Enter an integer: ");

scanf("%d", &number);

// Test expression is true if number is less than 0

if (number < 0)
{
printf("You entered %d.\n", number);
}

printf("The if statement is easy.");

return 0;
}
Output 1
Enter an integer: -2
You entered -2.
The if statement is easy.

Output 2
Enter an integer: 5
The if statement in C programming is easy.

If-else statement : The if-else statement is an extension of the simple if statement. The
general form is. The if...else statement executes some code if the test expression is true (nonzero)
and some other code if the test expression is false (0).

C PROGRAMMING Page 60
Syntax : if (condition)
{
true statement;
}
else
{
false statement;
}
statement-x;

If the condition is true , then the true statement and statement-x will be executed and if the
condition is false, then the false statement and statement-x is executed.
Or
If test expression is true, codes inside the body of if statement is executed and, codes inside the
body of else statement is skipped.
If test expression is false, codes inside the body of else statement is executed and, codes inside
the body of if statement is skipped.

Flowchart

Example:
// Program to check whether an integer entered by the user is odd or even

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{

C PROGRAMMING Page 61
int number;
printf("Enter an integer: ");
scanf("%d",&number);

// True if remainder is 0
if( number%2 == 0 )
printf("%d is an even integer.",number);
else
printf("%d is an odd integer.",number);
return 0;
}
Output
Enter an integer: 7
7 is an odd integer.

Nested if-else statement

When a series of decisions are involved, we may have to use more than on if-else statement in
nested form. If –else statements can also be nested inside another if block or else block or both.

Syntax : if(condition-1)
{ {
if (condition-2)
{
statement-1;
}
else
{
statement-2;
}
}
else
{
statement-3;

C PROGRAMMING Page 62
}
statement-x;
If the condition-1 is false, the statement-3 and statement-x will be executed. Otherwise it
continues to perform the second test. If the condition-2 is true, the true statement-1 will be
executed otherwise the statement-2 will be executed and then the control is transferred to the
statement-x
Flowchart

Example
#include<stdio.h>
int var1, var2;
printf("Input the value of var1:");
scanf("%d", &var1);
printf("Input the value of var2:");
scanf("%d",&var2);
if (var1 !=var2)
{
printf("var1 is not equal to var2");
//Below – if-else is nested inside another if block
if (var1 >var2)
{
printf("var1 is greater than var2");
}
else
{
printf("var2 is greater than var1");
}
}
else

C PROGRAMMING Page 63
{
printf("var1 is equal to var2");
}
…

Else if ladder.
The if else-if statement is used to execute one code from multiple conditions.
Syntax : if( condition-1)
{
statement-1;
}
else if(condition-2)
{
statement-2;
}
else if(condition-3)
{
statement-3;
}
else if(condition-n)
{
statement-n;
}
else
{
default-statement;
}
statement-x;

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 64
Example

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(){
int number=0;
clrscr();
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
printf("number is equal to 100");
}
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
getch();
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 65
Points to Remember

1. In if statement, a single statement can be included without enclosing it into curly braces { }
2. int a = 5;

3. if(a > 4)

4. printf("success");

No curly braces are required in the above case, but if we have more than one statement

inside if condition, then we must enclose them inside curly braces.

5. == must be used for comparison in the expression of if condition, if you use = the expression will

always return true, because it performs assignment not comparison.

6. Other than 0(zero), all other values are considered as true.

7. if(27)

8. printf("hello");

In above example, hello will be printed.

Switch statement : when there are several options and we have to choose only one option
from the available ones, we can use switch statement. Depending on the selected option, a
particular task can be performed. A task represents one or more statements.

Syntax:
switch(expression)
{
case value-1:
statement/block-1;
break;
case value-2:
statement/block t-2;
break;
case value-3:
statement/block -3;
break;
case value-4:
statement/block -4;
break;
default:
default- statement/block t;
break;

C PROGRAMMING Page 66
}

The expression following the keyword switch in any „C‟ expression that must yield an integer
value. It must be ab integer constants like 1,2,3 .

The keyword case is followed by an integer or a character constant, each constant in each
must be different from all the other.

First the integer expression following the keyword switch is evaluated. The value it gives
is searched against the constant values that follw the case statements. When a match is found, the
program executes the statements following the case. If no match is found with any of the case
statements, then the statements follwing the default are executed.

Rules for writing switch() statement.

1 : The expression in switch statement must be an integer value or a character constant.
2 : No real numbers are used in an expression.
3 : The default is optional and can be placed anywhere, but usually placed at end.
4 : The case keyword must terminate with colon ( : ).
5 : No two case constants are identical.
6 : The case labels must be constants.

Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case

switch(x) switch(f) case 3; case 2.5;
switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a'; case x;
switch(a+b-2) case 1+2; case x+2;
switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;

Example
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
printf("Please enter a no between 1 and 5: ");
scanf("%d",&a);
switch(a)
{
case 1:
printf("You chose One");
break;
case 2:

C PROGRAMMING Page 67
printf("You chose Two");
break;
case 3:
printf("You chose Three");
break;
case 4:
printf("You chose Four");
break;
case 5: printf("You chose Five.");
break;
default :
printf("Invalid Choice. Enter a no between 1 and 5"); break;
}
}

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 68
Points to Remember

It isn't necessary to use break after each block, but if you do not use it, all the consecutive block

of codes will get executed after the matching block.

1. int i = 1;

2. switch(i)

3. {

4. case 1:

5. printf("A"); // No break

6. case 2:

7. printf("B"); // No break

8. case 3:

9. printf("C");

10. break;

11. }

Output : A B C

The output was supposed to be only A because only the first case matches, but as there is no

break statement after the block, the next blocks are executed, until the cursor encounters a

break.

default case can be placed anywhere in the switch case. Even if we don't include the default case

switch statement works.

Iteration Statements/ Loop Control Statements

How it Works

C PROGRAMMING Page 69
A sequence of statements are executed until a specified condition is true. This sequence of
statements to be executed is kept inside the curly braces { } known as the Loop body. After
every execution of loop body, condition is verified, and if it is found to be true the loop body is
executed again. When the condition check returns false, the loop body is not executed.

The loops in C language are used to execute a block of code or a part of the program several
times. In other words, it iterates/repeat a code or group of code many times.

Or Looping means a group of statements are executed repeatedly, until some logical condition
is satisfied.

Why use loops in C language?

Suppose that you have to print table of 2, then you need to write 10 lines of code.By using the
loop statement, you can do it by 2 or 3 lines of code only.

A looping process would include the following four steps.

1 : Initialization of a condition variable.

2 : Test the condition.

3 : Executing the body of the loop depending on the condition.

4 : Updating the condition variable.

C PROGRAMMING Page 70
C language provides three iterative/repetitive loops.

1 : while loop

2 : do-while loop

3 : for loop

While Loop: Syntax :

variable initialization ;

while (condition)

statements ;

variable increment or decrement ;

while loop can be addressed as an entry control loop. It is completed in 3 steps.

 Variable initialization.( e.g int x=0; )

 condition( e.g while( x<=10) )

 Variable increment or decrement ( x++ or x-- or x=x+2 )

The while loop is an entry controlled loop statement, i.e means the condition is evaluated
first and it is true, then the body of the loop is executed. After executing the body of the loop,
the condition is once again evaluated and if it is true, the body is executed once again, the
process of repeated execution of the loop continues until the condition finally becomes false and
the control is transferred out of the loop.

Example : Program to print first 10 natural numbers

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main( )

C PROGRAMMING Page 71
int x;

x=1;

while(x<=10)

printf("%d\t", x);

x++;

getch();

Output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

C Program to reverse number

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

main()

int n, reverse=0, rem;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d", &n);

C PROGRAMMING Page 72
while(n!=0)

rem=n%10;

reverse=reverse*10+rem;

n/=10;

printf("Reversed Number: %d",reverse);

getch();

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 73
do-while loop
Syntax : variable initialization ;

do{

statements ;

variable increment or decrement ;

}while (condition);

The do-while loop is an exit controlled loop statement The body of the loop are executed first
and then the condition is evaluated. If it is true, then the body of the loop is executed once again.
The process of execution of body of the loop is continued until the condition finally becomes
false and the control is transferred to the statement immediately after the loop. The statements
are always executed at least once.

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 74
Example : Program to print first ten multiple of 5

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int a,i;

a=5;

i=1;

do

printf("%d\t",a*i);

i++;

}while(i <= 10);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 75
Output

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Example

main()

int i=0

do

printf("while vs do-while\n");

}while(i= =1);

printf("Out of loop");

Output:

while vs do-while

Out of loop

For Loop:
 This is an entry controlled looping statement.

 In this loop structure, more than one variable can be initialized.

 One of the most important features of this loop is that the three actions can be taken at a
time like variable initialization, condition checking and increment/decrement.

 The for loop can be more concise and flexible than that of while and do-while loops.

Syntax : for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

Statements;

C PROGRAMMING Page 76
Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main( )

int x;

for(x=1; x<=10; x++)

printf("%d\t",x);

getch();

Output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Various forms of FOR LOOP

I am using variable num in all the below examples –

1) Here instead of num++, I‟m using num=num+1 which is nothing but same as num++.

for (num=10; num<20; num=num+1)

2) Initialization part can be skipped from loop as shown below, the counter variable is declared
before the loop itself.

int num=10;

for (;num<20;num++)

Must Note: Although we can skip init part but semicolon (;) before condition is must, without
which you will get compilation error.

C PROGRAMMING Page 77
3) Like initialization, you can also skip the increment part as we did below. In this case
semicolon (;) is must, after condition logic. The increment part is being done in for loop body
itself.

for (num=10; num<20; )

//Code

num++;

4) Below case is also possible, increment in body and init during declaration of counter variable.

int num=10;

for (;num<20;)

//Statements

num++;

5) Counter can be decremented also, In the below example the variable gets decremented each
time the loop runs until the condition num>10 becomes false.

for(num=20; num>10; num--)

Program to calculate the sum of first n natural numbers

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int num, count, sum = 0;

printf("Enter a positive integer: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

// for loop terminates when n is less than count

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for(count = 1; count <= num; ++count)

sum += count;

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;

Output

Enter a positive integer: 10

Sum = 55

Factorial Program using loop

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int i,fact=1,number;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d",&number);

for(i=1;i<=number;i++){

fact=fact*i;

printf("Factorial of %d is: %d",number,fact);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 79
Output:

Enter a number: 5

Factorial of 5 is: 120

Flow Chart of for Loop :

C PROGRAMMING Page 80
Infinitive for loop in C

If you don't initialize any variable, check condition and increment or decrement variable in for
loop, it is known as infinitive for loop. In other words, if you place 2 semicolons in for loop, it is
known as infinitive for loop.

for(; ;){

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printf("infinitive for loop example by javatpoint");

Basis of Difference For Loop While Loop Do While Loop

The for loop is

appropriate
The other two loops i.e. while and do
when we know in
while loops are more suitable in the
advance
situations where it is not known before
how many times the
hand when the loop will terminate.
loop
will be executed.

In case if the
Where to
test condition In case if the test
Use for Loop, while Loop
fails at the condition fails at the
and do while Loop
beginning, and beginning, and you
you may not may want to execute
want to execute the body of the loop
the body of the atleast once even in
loop even once the failed condition,
if it fails, then then the do while
the while loop loop should be
should be preferred.
preferred.

A for loop initially A while loop A do while loop will

initiates a counter will always always executed the
variable (initialization- evaluate the code in the do {} i.e.
expression), then it test-expression body of the loop
checks the initially. It the block first and then
How all the three loops
test-expression, and test-expression evaluates the
works?
executes the body of becomes true, condition. In this
the loop if the test then the body of case also, the counter
expression is true. the loop will be variable is initialized
After executing the executed. The outside the body of
body of the loop, update the loop.

C PROGRAMMING Page 82
the update-expression expression
is executed which should be
updates the value of updated inside
counter variable. the body of the
while. However,
the counter
variable is
initialized
outside the body
of the loop.

Position of the statements

:
In for loop, all the
 Initialization In while and do while loop, they are
three statements are
placed in different position.
 test-expression placed in one position

 update-expression

for (

initialization-
exp.(s);
while(test- do {
test-expression(s); expression)
body-of-the-
update- { loop;
expression(s)
body-of-the- update-
Syntax of Loops
) loop; expression(s);

{ update- }
expression(s);
body-of-the-loop while (test-
; } expression);

C PROGRAMMING Page 83
do while loop is an
exit controlled loop,
Which one is Entry
Both loops i.e. for loop and while loop are means means that
Controlled Loop
entry controlled loop, means condition is condition is placed
and
checked first and if the condition is true after the body of the
Which one is Exit
then the body of the loop will executes. loop and is evaluated
Controlled Loop ?
before exiting from
the loop.

int i = 1; int i = 1;

: :
:
: :
Conversion of one Loop :
to another Loop do
while (i<=10)
or for (int i=1; i<=10;
Example : Print numbers i++) { {
from 1 to 10 using all the
{ Printf(“%d”,i);
three loops.
Printf(“%d”,i); ++i;
Printf(“%d”,i); }
++i }
} while (i<=10)

Nested for loop

We can also have nested for loops, i.e one for loop inside another for loop. nesting is often used
for handling multidimensional arrays.

Syntax:

for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

C PROGRAMMING Page 84
{

statement ;

Example:

main()

for (int i=0; i<=5; i++)

for (int j=0; j<=5; j++)

printf("%d, %d",i ,j);

Example : Program to print half Pyramid of numbers

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main( )

int i,j;

for(i=1;i<5;i++)

printf("\n");

C PROGRAMMING Page 85
for(j=i;j>0;j--)

printf("%d",j);

getch();

Output

21

321

4321

54321

Jump Statements
Jumping statements are used to transfer the program‟s control from one location to another, these
are set of keywords which are responsible to transfer program‟s control within the same block or
from one function to another.

There are four jumping statements in C language:

 goto statement

 return statement

 break statement

 continue statement

goto statement : goto statement doesnot require any condition. This statement passes control
anywhere in the program i.e, control is transferred to another part of the program without testing
any condition.

C PROGRAMMING Page 86
Syntax : goto label;

.....

.....

label:

statements;

Inthissyntax, label isan identifier.

When, the control of program reaches to goto statement, the control of the program will jump to
the label: and executes the code below it.

Or

The goto statement requires a label to identify the place to move the execution. A label is a valid
variable/identifier name and must be ended with colon ( : )

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 87
Example
int main()

int age;

Vote:

printf("you are eligible for voting");

NoVote:

printf("you are not eligible to vote");

printf("Enter you age:");

scanf("%d", &age);

if(age>=18)

goto Vote;

else

goto NoVote;

return 0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 88
}

Output

Enter you age:19

you are eligible for voting

Enter you age:15

you are not eligible to vote

Break Statement

Break is a keyword. The break statement terminates the loop (for, while and do...while loop)
immediately when it is encountered. The break statement is used/ associated with decision
making statement such as if ,if-else.

Syntax of break statement

break;

Flowchart

C PROGRAMMING Page 89
How break statement works?

C PROGRAMMING Page 90
Example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main(){

int i=1;//initializing a local variable

clrscr();

//starting a loop from 1 to 10

for(i=1;i<=10;i++){

C PROGRAMMING Page 91
printf("%d \n",i);

if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will break the loop

break;

}//end of for loop

getch();

Output

12345

Continue Statement

Continue is keyword exactly opposite to break. The continue statement is used for continuing
next iteration of loop statements. When it occurs in the loop it does not terminate, but it skips
some statements inside the loop / the statements after this statement. . The continue statement is
used/ associated with decision making statement such as if ,if-else.

Syntax of continue Statement

continue;

Flowchart of continue Statement

C PROGRAMMING Page 92
How continue statement works?

Example

C PROGRAMMING Page 93
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. int i=1;//initializing a local variable
5. clrscr();
6. //starting a loop from 1 to 10
7. for(i=1;i<=10;i++){
8. if(i==5){//if value of i is equal to 5, it will continue the loop
9. continue;
10. }
11. printf("%d \n",i);
12. }//end of for loop
13. getch();
14. }

Output
1234678910

Comparision between break and continue statements

Break Continue

1 : break statement takes the control to the 1 :continue statement takes the control to
ouside of the loop the beginning of the loop..

2 : it is also used in switch statement. 2 : This can be used only in loop

statements.

3 : Always associated with if condition in 3 : This is also associated with if

loops. condition.

ARRAYS
Using Arrays in C

C PROGRAMMING Page 94
C supports a derived data type known as array that can be used to handle large amounts of data
(multiple values) at a time.

Definition:

An array is a group (or collection) of same data types.

Or

An array is a collection of data that holds fixed number of values of same type.

Or

Array is a collection or group of elements (data). All the elements of array

are homogeneous (similar). It has contiguous memory location.

Or

An array is a data structured that can store a fixed size sequential collection of elements of same
data type.

What‟s the need of an array?

Suppose you have to store marks of 50 students, one way to do this is allotting 50
variables. So it will be typical and hard to manage. For example we can not access the
value of these variables with only 1 or 2 lines of code.

Another way to do this is array. By using array, we can access the elements easily. Only
few lines of code is required to access the elements of array.

Where arrays are used

 to store list of Employee or Student names,

 to store marks of a students,
 or to store list of numbers or characters etc.

Advantage of C Array

1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.

2) Easy to traverse data: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the elements of an array easily.

C PROGRAMMING Page 95
3) Easy to sort data: To sort the elements of array, we need a few lines of code only.

4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the array.

Disadvantage of Array

Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of array, we can't exceed the
limit. So, it doesn't grow the size dynamically like LinkedList

Declaration of an Array
data-type variable-name[size/length of array];

For example:

int arr[10];

int arr[ 5];

Here int is the data type, arr is the name of the array and 10 is the size of array. It means
array arr can only contain 10 elements of int type. Index of an array starts from 0 to size-1 i.e
first element of arr array will be stored at arr[0] address and last element will occupy arr[9].

Initialization of an Array

C PROGRAMMING Page 96
After an array is declared it must be initialized. Otherwise, it will contain garbage value(any
random value). An array can be initialized at either compile time or at runtime.

Compile time Array initialization

Compile time initializtion of array elements is same as ordinary variable initialization.

Syntax : data_type array_name[size]={v1,v2,…vn/list of values ;

Example

int age[5]={22,25,30,32,35};

int marks[4]={ 67, 87, 56, 77 }; //integer array initialization

float area[5]={ 23.4, 6.8, 5.5 }; //float array initialization

int marks[4]={ 67, 87, 56, 77, 59 }; //Compile time error

Different ways of initializing arrays :

1 : Initilizing all specified memory locations

2 : Partial array initialization.

3 : Intilization without size.

4 : String initialization.

1 : Initilizing all specified memory locations : If the number of values to be initialized is equal
to size of array. Arrays can be initialized at the time of declaration. Array elements can be
initialized with data items of type int,float,char, etc.

Ex : consider integer initialization

int a[5]={10,20,30,40,50};

C PROGRAMMING Page 97
During compilation, 5 contiguous memory locations are reserved by the compiler for the
variable a and all these locations are initialized.

The array a is initialized as

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

10 20 30 40 50

1000 1002 1004 1006 1008

If the size of integer is 2 bytes, 10 bytes will be allocated for the variable a.

Ex : consider character initialization

char b[8] = {„C‟,‟O‟,‟M‟,‟P‟,‟U‟,‟T‟,‟E‟,‟R‟};

The array b is initialized as

b[0] b[1] b[2] b[3] b[4] b[5] b[6] b[7]

C O M P U T E R

Other Examples : char b[5]={„J‟,‟B‟,‟R‟,‟E‟,‟C‟,‟B‟};

//error : number of initial values are more than the size of array.

Other Example : int a[5]={10,20,30,40,50,60};

C PROGRAMMING Page 98
//error : Number of initial values are more than the size of array.

2 : Partial Array Initilization : partial array initialization is possible in C language. If the

number of values to be initialized is less than the size of the array, then the elements are
initialized in the order from 0th location. The remaining locations will be initialized to zero
automatically.

Ex : Consider the partial initilization

int a[5]={10,15};

Eventhough compiler allocates 5 memory locations, using this declaration

statement, the compiler initializes first two locations with 10 and 15, the next set of memory
locations are automatically initialized to zero.

The array a is partial initialization as

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]

10 15 0 0 0

1000 1002 1004 1006 1008

How to access the elements of an array?

You can access elements of an array by indices/index. You can use array subscript (or index) to
access any element stored in array. Subscript starts with 0, which means array_name[0] would be
used to access first element in an array.

In general array_name[n-1] can be used to access nth element of an array. where n is any integer
number.

Example

float mark[5];

Suppose you declared an array mark as above. The first element is mark[0], second element
is mark[1] and so on.

C PROGRAMMING Page 99
Few key notes:

 Arrays have 0 as the first index not 1. In this example, mark[0]

 If the size of an array is n, to access the last element, (n-1) index is used. In this
example, mark[4]
 Suppose the starting address of mark[0] is 2120d. Then, the next address, a[1], will be
2124d, address of a[2] will be 2128d and so on. It's because the size of a float is 4 bytes.

Input data into array

As you can see, in above example that I have used „for loop‟ and „scanf statement‟ to enter data
into array. You can use any loop for data input.

Code:

for (x=0; x<=19;x++)

printf("enter the integer number %d\n", x);

scanf("%d", &num[x]);

Reading out data from an array

For example you want to read and display array elements, you can do it just by using any
loop. Suppose array is mydata[20].

for (int i=0; i<20; i++)

printf("%d\n", mydata[x]);

C PROGRAMMING Page 100

Exmaple

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int i;

int arr[]={2,3,4}; //Compile time array initialization

for(i=0 ; i<3 ; i++) {

printf("%d\t",arr[i]);

getch();

Output

2 3 4

Exmaple

1. include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. int i=0;
5. int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array
6. clrscr();
7.
8. //traversal of array
9. for(i=0;i<5;i++){
10. printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
11. }
12.
13. getch();
14. }

C PROGRAMMING Page 101

Output
20
30
40
50
60

Runtime Array initialization

An array can also be initialized at runtime using scanf() function. This approach is usually
used for initializing large array, or to initialize array with user specified values.

Example

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int arr[4];

int i, j;

printf("Enter array element");

for(i=0;i<4;i++)

scanf("%d",&arr[i]); //Run time array initialization

for(j=0;j<4;j++)

printf("%d\n",arr[j]);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 102

}

Two‐Dimensional Arrays

The two dimensional array in C language is represented in the form of rows and columns,
also known as matrix. It is also known as array of arrays or list of arrays.

The two dimensional, three dimensional or other dimensional arrays are also known
as multidimensional arrays.

Declaration of two dimensional Array

data_type array_name[size1][size2];

Example

int twodimen[4][3];

Example :

int a[3][4];

Initialization of 2D Array

int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};

C PROGRAMMING Page 103

Accessing Two-Dimensional Array Elements

An element in a two-dimensional array is accessed by using the subscripts, i.e., row index
and column index of the array.

Example

1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. int i=0,j=0;
5. int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
6. clrscr();
7. //traversing 2D array
8. for(i=0;i<4;i++){
9. for(j=0;j<3;j++){
10. printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);
11. }//end of j
12. }//end of i
13. getch();
14. }

Output
arr[0][0] = 1
arr[0][1] = 2
arr[0][2] = 3
arr[1][0] = 2
arr[1][1] = 3
arr[1][2] = 4
arr[2][0] = 3
arr[2][1] = 4
arr[2][2] = 5
arr[3][0] = 4
arr[3][1] = 5
arr[3][2] = 6

Example Write a C program Addition of Two Matrices

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 104

void main()

int a[25][25],b[25][25],c[25][25],i,j,m,n;

clrscr();

printf("enter the rows and colums of two matrics:\n");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

printf("\nenter the elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&a[i][j]);

printf("\nenter the elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&b[i][j]);

printf("\nThe elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 105

printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);

printf("\nThe elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);

printf("\nThe additon of two matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];

printf("\t%d",c[i][j]);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 106

Write a C program Multiplication of Two Matrices.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

int a[25][25],b[25][25],c[25][25],i,j,m,n,k,r,s;

clrscr();

printf("enter the rows and colums of A matrics:\n");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

printf("enter the rows and colums of B matrics:\n");

scanf("%d%d",&r,&s);

printf("\nenter the elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&a[i][j]);

printf("\nenter the elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

scanf("\t%d",&b[i][j]);

C PROGRAMMING Page 107

}

printf("\nThe elements of A matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",a[i][j]);

printf("\nThe elements of B matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",b[i][j]);

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

c[i][j]=0;

for(k=0;k<m;k++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 108

c[i][j]=c[i][j]+a[i][k]*b[k][j];

printf("\nThe Multiplication of two matrics");

for(i=0;i<m;i++)

printf("\n");

for(j=0;j<n;j++)

printf("\t%d",c[i][j]);

getch();

Multidimensional Arrays
How to initialize a multidimensional array?

Initialization of a three dimensional array.

You can initialize a three dimensional array in a similar way like a two dimensional array. Here's
an example

int test[2][3][4] = {

{ {3, 4, 2, 3}, {0, -3, 9, 11}, {23, 12, 23, 2} },

{ {13, 4, 56, 3}, {5, 9, 3, 5}, {3, 1, 4, 9} }

};

Example

C PROGRAMMING Page 109

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

// this array can store 12 elements

int i, j, k, test[2][3][2];

printf("Enter 12 values: \n");

for(i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {

for (j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {

for(k = 0; k < 2; ++k ) {

scanf("%d", &test[i][j][k]);

// Displaying values with proper index.

printf("\nDisplaying values:\n");

for(i = 0; i < 2; ++i) {

for (j = 0; j < 3; ++j) {

for(k = 0; k < 2; ++k ) {

printf("test[%d][%d][%d] = %d\n", i, j, k, test[i][j][k]);

return 0;

Output

C PROGRAMMING Page 110

Enter 12 values:

123456789101112

Displaying Values:

test[0][0][0] = 1

test[0][0][1] = 2

test[0][1][0] = 3

test[0][1][1] = 4

test[0][2][0] = 5

test[0][2][1] = 6

test[1][0][0] = 7

test[1][0][1] = 8

test[1][1][0] = 9

test[1][1][1] = 10

test[1][2][0] = 11

test[1][2][1] = 12

STRINGS:
String Concepts

String is an array of characters that is terminated by \0 (null character). This null

character indicates the end of the string. Strings are always enclosed by double quotes ( "
" ). Whereas, character is enclosed by single quotes.

Or

C PROGRAMMING Page 111

In „C‟ language the group of characters, digits, and symbols enclosed within double
quotation ( " " ) marks are called as string otherwise a string is an array of characters and
terminated by NULL character which is denoted by the escape sequence „\0‟.

C Strings

Declaration of String: C does not support string as a data type. However, it allows us to
represent strings as character arrays. In C, a string variable is any valid C variable name and it is
always declared as an array of characters.

The general form of declaration of a string variable is :

Syntax: char string_name[size];

The size determines the number of characters in the string name.

Note: In declaration of string size must be required to mention otherwise it gives an error.

Ex: char str[]; // Invalid

char str[0]; // Invalid

char str[-1]; // Invalid

char str[10]; // Valid

char a[9]; //Valid

Using this declaration the compiler allocates 9 memory locations for the variable a
ranging from 0 to 8.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Here, the string variable a can hold maximum of 9 characters including NULL(\0)
character.

Initializing Array string

Syntax : char string_name[size]={“string” };

Note: In Initialization of the string if the specific number of character is not initialized it then
rest of all character will be initialized with NULL.

C PROGRAMMING Page 112

char str[5]={'5','+','A'};

str[0]; ---> 5

str[1]; ---> +

str[2]; ---> A

str[3]; ---> NULL

str[4]; ---> NULL

Note: In initialization of the string we can not initialized more than size of string elements.

Ex:

char str[2]={'5','+','A','B'}; // Invalid

Different ways of initialization can be done in various ways :

1 : Initilizing locations character by character.

2 : Partial array initialization.

3 : Intilization without size.

4 : Array initialization with a string .

1 : Initilizing locations character by character

Consider the following declaration with initialization,

Char b[9]={„C‟,‟O‟,‟M‟,‟P‟,‟U‟,‟T‟,‟E‟,‟R‟};

The compiler allocates 9 memory locations ranging from 0 to 8 and these locations are
initialized with the characters in the order specified. The remaining locations are automatically
initialized to null characters.

C O M P U T E R \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 : Partial Array Initilization : If the characters to be initialized is less than the size of the
array, then the characters are stored sequentially from left to right.The remaining locations will
be initialized to NULL characters automatically.
C PROGRAMMING Page 113
Ex : Consider the partial initilization

int a[10]={„R‟,‟A‟,‟M‟,‟A‟ };

The compiler allocates 10 bytes for the variable a ranging from 0 to 9 and
initializes first four locations with the ASCII characters of „R‟, „A‟, „M‟, „A‟.The remaining
locations are automatically filled with NULL characters (i.e,\0).

R A M A \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3 : Initilization without size : consider the declaration along with the initialization

char b[]={„C‟,‟O‟,‟M‟,‟P‟,‟U‟,‟T‟,‟E‟,‟R‟};

In this declaration, The compiler will set the array size to the total number of
initial values i.e 8. The character will be stored in these memory locations in the order specified.

b[0] b[1] b[2] b[3] b[4] b[5] b[6] b[7]

C O M P U T E R

4) Array Initilization with a String : consider the declaration with string initialization.

char b[ ] = “COMPUTER”;

Here, the string length is 8 bytes. But , string size is 9 bytes. So the compiler reserves
8+1 memory locations and these locations are initialized with the characters in the order
specified. The string is terminated by \0 by the compiler.

C O M P U T E R \0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The string “COMPUTER” contin 8 charactes, because it is a string. It always ends with
null character. So, the array is 9 bytes (i.e string length+1 byte for null character).

C PROGRAMMING Page 114

Reading and Writing Strings : The „%s‟ control string can be used in scanf() statement to read
a string from the teriminal and the same may be used to write string to the terminal in printf()
statement.

Example : char name[10];

scanf(“%s”,name);

printf(“%s”,name);

Example:

1. #include <stdio.h>

2. void main ()

3. {

4. char ch[13]={'c', 'p', 'r', 'o', 'g', 'r', 'a', 'm', 'm', i', „n‟, „g‟, „\0‟};

5. char ch2[13]="cprogramming";

6.

7. printf("Char Array Value is: %s\n", ch);

8. printf("String Literal Value is: %s\n", ch2);

9. }

Output

Char Array Value is: cprogramming

String Literal Value is: cprogramming

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

char name[20];

printf("Enter name: ");

scanf("%s", name);

C PROGRAMMING Page 115

printf("Your name is %s.", name);

return 0;

Output

Enter name: Dennis Ritchie

Your name is Dennis.

String Input/output Functions

The strings can be read from the keyboard and can be displayed onto the monitor
using various functions.

The various input and output functions that are associated with can be classified
as

I / O Functions

Formated I/O Functions Unformated I/O Functions

Input Output
Input Output

scanf() print()
getc() putc()
fscanf() fprintf()
getchar() putchar()

gets() puts()

getch()

getche()

C PROGRAMMING Page 116

Unformated I/O Functions

1 : getchar() function : A single character can be given to the computer using „C‟ input library

function getchar().

Syntax : char variable=getchar();

The getchar() function is written in standared I/O library. It reads a single character from a
standared input device. This function do not require any arguments, through a pair of
parantheses, must follow the statements getchar().

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<ctype.h>

void main()

char ch;

clrscr();

printf("Enter any character/digit:");

ch=getchar();

if(isalpha(ch)>0)

printf("it is a alphabet:%c\n",ch);

else if(isdigit(ch)>0)

printf("it is a digit:%c\n",ch);

else

printf("it is a alphanumeric:%c\n",ch);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 117

}.

OUTPUT : Enter any character/Digit : abc

it is a alphabet:a

2 : putchar() function :The putchar() function is used to display one character at a time on the
standared output device. This function does the reverse operation of the single character input
function.

Syntax : putchar(character varaiable);

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<ctype.h>

void main()

char ch;

printf("Enter any alphabet either in lower or uppercase:");

ch=getchar();

if(islower(ch))

putchar(toupper(ch));

else

putchar(tolower(ch));

getch();

OUTPUT :Enter any alphabet either in lower or uppercase :a

C PROGRAMMING Page 118

3 : gets() : The gets() function is used to read the string (String is a group of characters) from the
standard input device (keyboard).

Syntax : gets(char type of array variable);

Ex :#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[40];

clrscr();

printf("Enter String name:");

gets(str);

printf("Print the string name%s:",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string : reddy

Print the string :reddy

4 : puts() :The puts() function is used to display the string to the standared output device
(Monitor).

Syntax : puts(char type of array variable);

Program using gets() function and puts() function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[40];

C PROGRAMMING Page 119

puts("Enter String name:");

gets(str);

puts("Print the string name:");

puts(str);

getch();

OUTPUT :Enter string name :

subbareddy

Print the string name

subbareddy

getch() function :The getch function reads a single character directly from the keyboard,
without echoing to the screen.

Syntax : int getch();

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

void main()

char c;

c=getch();

getche() function :The getche() function reads a single character from the keyboard and echoes
it to the current text window.

Syntax : int getche();

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 120

char c;

c=getche();

getc() function : This function is used to accept a single character from the standared input to a
character variable.

Syntax : character variable=getc();

putc() function :This function is used to display a single character in a character variable to
standared output device.

Syntax : putc(character variable);

Array of Strings

String Manipulation Functions/ String Handling Functions

The various string handling functions that are supported in C language are as shown

String Function Description

strlen(str) Returns the length of the string str.

strcpy(str1,str2) Copies the string str2 to string str1

strcat(str1,str2) Append string str2 to string str1.

strlwr(str) Converts the string str to lowercase

strupr(str) Converts the string str to uppercase.

strrev(str) Reverse the string str.

strcmp(str1,str2) Compare two strings str1 and str2.

All these functions are defined in string.h header file.

1 : strlen(string) – String Length : This function is used to count and return the number of
characters present in a string.

C PROGRAMMING Page 121

Syntax : var=strlen(string);

Ex : Progrm using strlen() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char name[]="JBREC";

int len1,len2;

clrscr();

len1=strlen(name);

len2=strlen("JBRECECE");

printf("The string length of %s is: %d\n",name,len1);

printf("The string length of %s is: %d","JBRECECE",len2);

getch();

OUTPUT :

The string length of JBREC is : 5

The string length of JBRECECE is :8

Write a program to find the length of string

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 122

char str[10];

int index;

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

for(index=0;str[index]!=0;index++);

printf("The length of string is:%d",index);

getch();

OUTPUT :

Enter the string : subbareddy

The length of string is :10

2 : strcpy(string1,string2) – String Copy : This function is used to copy the contents of one string
to another string.

Syntax : strcpy(string1,string2);

Where

string1 : is the destination string.

string 2: is the source string.

i.e the contents of string2 is assigned to the contents of string1.

Ex : Progrm using strcpy() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 123

char str1[]="REDDY";

char str2[10];

strcpy(str2,str1);

printf("The string1 is :%s\n",str1);

printf("The string2 is :%s\n",str2);

strcpy(str2,str1+1);

printf("The string1 is :%s\n",str1);

printf("The string2 is :%s",str2);

OUTPUT :

The string1 is : REDDY

The string2 is : REDDY

The string1 is : REDDY

The string2 is : EDDY

//Write a program to copy contents of one string to another string.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str1[10],str2[20];

int index;

printf("Enter the string\n");

scanf(“%s”,str1);

for(index=0;str1[index]!='\0';index++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 124

str2[index]=str1[index];

str2[index]='\0';

printf("String1 is :%s\n",str1);

printf("String2 is :%s\n",str2);

getch();

OUTPUT :

Enter the string : cprogramming

String1 is : cprogramming

String2 is : cprogramming

3 : strlwr(string) – String LowerCase : This function is used to converts upper case letters of the
string in to lower case letters.

Syntax : strlwr(string);

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str[]="JBREC";

clrscr();

strlwr(str);

printf("The lowercase is :%s\n",str);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 125

OUTPUT : The lowercase is : jbrec

Write a program to which converts given string in to lowercase.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[10];

int index;

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

for(index=0;str[index]!='\0';index++)

if(str[index]>='A' && str[index]<='Z')

str[index]=str[index]+32;

printf("After conversionis :%s",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string : SUBBAREDDY

After conversion string is :subbareddy

4 : strupr(string) – String UpperCase : This function is used to converts lower case letters of the
string in to upper case letters.

C PROGRAMMING Page 126

Syntax : strupr(string);

Program using strupr() function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str[]="jbrec";

strupr(str);

printf("UpperCase is :%s\n",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : UpperCase is : JBREC

Write a program to which converts given string in to uppercase.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

char str[10];

int index;

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

for(index=0;str[index]!='\0';index++)

C PROGRAMMING Page 127

if(str[index]>='a' && str[index]<='z')

str[index]=str[index]-32;

printf("After conversionis :%s",str);

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string : subbareddy

After conversion string is :SUBBAREDDY

5 : strcmp(string1,string2) – String Comparision : This function is used to compares two strings

to find out whether they are same or different. If two strings are compared character by character
until the end of one of the string is reached. If the two strings are same strcmp() returns a value
zero. If they are not equal, it returns the numeric difference between the first non-matching
characters.

Syntax : strcmp(string1,string2);

Program using strcmp() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str1[]="reddy";

char str2[]="reddy";

int i,j,k;

i=strcmp(str1,str2);

j=strcmp(str1,"subba");

k=strcmp(str2,"Subba");

printf("%5d%5d%5d\n",i,j,k);

C PROGRAMMING Page 128

}

OUTPUT : 0 -1 32

Write a C program to find the comparision of two strings.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str1[10],str2[20];

int index,l1,l2,flag=1;

printf("Enter first string:");

scanf("%s",str1);

printf("Enter second string:");

scanf("%s",str2);

l1=strlen(str1);

l2=strlen(str2);

printf("Length of string1:%d\n",l1);

printf("Length of string2:%d\n",l2);

if(l1==l2)

for(index=0;str1[index]!='\0';index++)

if(str1[index]!=str2[index])

flag=0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 129

break;

else

flag=0;

if(flag==1)

printf("Strings are equal");

else

printf("Strings are not equal");

OUTPUT : Enter the first string :jbrec

Enter the second string:jbrec

Length of string1 :5

Length of string2 :5

Strings are equal

6: strcat(string1,string2) – String Concatenation : This function is used to concatenate or

combine, two strings together and forms a new concatenated string.

Syntax : strcat(sting1,string2);

Where

string1 : is the firdt string1.

string2 : is the second string2

when the above function is executed, string2 is combined with string1 and it
removes the null character (\0) of string1 and places string2 from there.

C PROGRAMMING Page 130

Program using strcat() function.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

char str1[10]="jbrec";

char str2[]="ece";

strcat(str1,str2);

printf("%s\n",str1);

printf("%s\n",str2);

getch();

OUTPUT : jbrecece

ece

7 : strrev(string) - String Reverse :This function is used to reverse a string. This function takes
only one argument and return one argument.

Syntax : strrev(string);

Ex : Program using strrev() function

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

void main()

C PROGRAMMING Page 131

char str[20];

printf("Enter the string:");

scanf("%s",str);

printf("The string reversed is:%s",strrev(str));

getch();

OUTPUT : Enter the string :subbareddy

The string reversed is : ydderabbus

UNIT – III

FUNCTIONS:

User‐Defined Functions

Definition: A function is a block of code/group of statements/self contained block of statements/

basic building blocks in a program that performs a particular task. It is also known
as procedure or subroutine or module, in other programming languages.

To perform any task, we can create function. A function can be called many times. It
provides modularity and code reusability.

C PROGRAMMING Page 132

Advantage of functions

1) Code Reusability

By creating functions in C, you can call it many times. So we don't need to write the same code
again and again.

2) Code optimization

It makes the code optimized we don't need to write much code.

3) Easily to debug the program.

Example: Suppose, you have to check 3 numbers (781, 883 and 531) whether it is prime number or
not. Without using function, you need to write the prime number logic 3 times. So, there is repetition of
code.

But if you use functions, you need to write the logic only once and you can reuse it several times.

Types of Functions

There are two types of functions in C programming:

1. Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C header files such as
scanf(), printf(), gets(), puts(), ceil(), floor() etc. You just need to include appropriate
header files to use these functions. These are already declared and defined in C
libraries. oints to be Remembered

System defined functions are declared in header files

System defined functions are implemented in .dll files. (DLL stands for Dynamic Link
Library).

To use system defined functions the respective header file must be included.

2. User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C programmer, so
that he/she can use it many times. It reduces complexity of a big program and optimizes
the code. Depending upon the complexity and requirement of the program, you can create
as many user-defined functions as you want.

C PROGRAMMING Page 133

ELEMENTS OF USER-DEFINED FUNCTINS :

In order to write an efficient user defined function, the programmer must familiar with the
following three elements.

1 : Function Declaration. (Function Prototype).

2 : Function Call.

3 : Function Definition

Function Declaration. (Function Prototype).

A function declaration is the process of tells the compiler about a function name.

Syntax

return_type function_name(parameter/argument);

return_type function-name();

Ex : int add(int a,int b);

int add();

C PROGRAMMING Page 134

Note: At the time of function declaration function must be terminated with ;.

Calling a function/function call

When we call any function control goes to function body and execute entire code.

Syntax : function-name();

function-name(parameter/argument);

return value/ variable = function-name(parameter/argument);

Ex : add(); // function without parameter/argument

add(a,b); // function with parameter/argument

c=fun(a,b); // function with parameter/argument and return values

Defining a function.

Defining of function is nothing but give body of function that means write logic inside function
body.

Syntax

return_ type function-name(parameter list) // function header.

declaration of variables;

body of function; // Function body

return statement; (expression or value) //optional

Eg: int add( int x, int y) int add( int x, int y)

{ {

int z; ( or ) return ( x + y );

z = x + y; }

C PROGRAMMING Page 135

return z;

The execution of a C program begins from the main() function.

When the compiler encounters functionName(); inside the main function, control of the program
jumps to

void functionName()

And, the compiler starts executing the codes inside the user-defined function.

The control of the program jumps to statement next to functionName(); once all the codes inside
the function definition are executed.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 136

#include<conio.h>

void sum(); // declaring a function

clrsct();

int a=10,b=20, c;

void sum() // defining function

c=a+b;

printf("Sum: %d", c);

void main()

sum(); // calling function

Output

Sum:30

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int addNumbers(int a, int b); // function prototype

int main()

int n1,n2,sum;

printf("Enters two numbers: ");

scanf("%d %d",&n1,&n2);

sum = addNumbers(n1, n2); // function call

C PROGRAMMING Page 137

printf("sum = %d",sum);

return 0;

int addNumbers(int a,int b) // function definition

int result;

result = a+b;

return result; // return statement

Return Statement

C PROGRAMMING Page 138

Syntax of return statement

Syntax : return; // does not return any value

or

return(exp); // the specified exp value to calling function.

For example,

return a;

return (a+b);

The return statement terminates the execution of a function and returns a value to the calling
function. The program control is transferred to the calling function after return statement.

In the above example, the value of variable result is returned to the variable sum in
the main() function.

PARAMETERS :

parameters provides the data communication between the calling function and called function.

They are two types of parametes

C PROGRAMMING Page 139

1 : Actual parameters.

2 : Formal parameters.

1 : Actual Parameters : These are the parameters transferred from the calling function (main
program) to the called function (function).

2 : Formal Parameters :These are the parameters transferred into the calling function (main
program) from the called function(function).

 The parameters specified in calling function are said to be Actual Parameters.

 The parameters declared in called function are said to be Formal Parameters.

 The value of actual parameters is always copied into formal parameters.

Ex : main()

fun1( a , b ); //Calling function

fun1( x, y ) //called function

..... .

Where

a, b are the Actual Parameters

x, y are the Formal Parameters

Difference between Actual Parameters and Formal Parameters

Actual Parameters Formal Parameters

1 : Actual parameters are used in calling 1 : Formal parameters are used in the
function when a function is invoked. function header of a called function.

C PROGRAMMING Page 140

Ex : c=add(a,b); Ex : int add(int m,int n);

Here a,b are actual parameters. Here m,n are called formal parameters.

2 : Actual parameters can be constants, 2 : Formal parametes should be only

variables or expression. variable. Expression and constants are not
allowed.
Ex : c=add(a,b) //variable
Ex : int add(int m,n); //CORRECT
c=add(a+5,b); //expression.
int add(int m+n,int n) //WRONG
c=add(10,20); //constants.
int add(int m,10); //WRONG

3 : Actual parameters sends values to the 3 : Formal parametes receive values from
formal parameters. the actual parametes.

Ex : c=add(4,5); Ex : int add(int m,int n);

Here m will have the value 4 and n will

have the value 5.

4 : Address of actual parameters can be sent 4 : if formal parameters contains address,

to formal parameters they should be declared as pointers.

PASSING PARAMETERS TO FUNCTIONS :There are two ways to pass value or data to
function in C language: call by value and call by reference. Original value is not modified in

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call by value but it is modified in call by reference.

The called function receives the information from the calling function through the parameters.
The variables used while invoking the calling function are called actual parameters and the
variables used in the function header of the called function are called formal parameters.

C provides two mechanisms to pass parameters to a function.

1 : Pass by value (OR) Call by value.

2 : Pass by reference (OR) Call by Reference.

1 : Pass by value (OR) Call by value :

In call by value, value being passed to the function is locally stored by the function parameter in
stack memory location. If you change the value of function parameter, it is changed for the
current function only. It will not change the value of variable inside the caller method such as
main().

Or

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When a function is called with actual parameters, the values of actual parameters are copied into
formal parameters. If the values of the formal parametes changes in the function, the values of
the actual parameters are not changed. This way of passing parameters is called pass by value or
call by value.

Ex :

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void swap(int ,int );

void main()

int i,j;

printf("Enter i and j values:");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

printf("Before swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

swap(i,j);

printf("After swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

getch();

void swap(int a,int b)

int temp;

temp=a;

a=b;

b=temp;

Output

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Enter i and j values: 10 20

Before swapping: 10 20

After swapping: 10 20

2 : Pass by reference (OR) Call by Reference : In pass by reference, a function is called with
addresses of actual parameters. In the function header, the formal parameters receive the
addresses of actual parameters. Now the formal parameters do not contain values, instead they
contain addresses. Any variable if it contains an address, it is called a pointer variable. Using
pointer variables, the values of the actual parameters can be changed. This way of passing
parameters is called call by reference or pass by reference.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void swap(int *,int *);

void main()

int i,j;

printf("Enter i and j values:");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

printf("Before swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

swap(&i ,&j);

printf("After swapping:%d%d\n",i,j);

void swap(int *a,int *b)

int temp;

temp=*a;

*a=*b;

*b=temp;

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}

Output

Enter i and j values: 10 20

Before swapping:10 20

After swapping: 20 10

Differnce between Call by value and Call by reference

Call by value Call by Reference

1 : When a function is called the values of 1 : When a function is called the address of
variables are passed variables are passed.

2 : Change of formal parameters in the 2 : The actual parameters are changed since
function will not affect the actual the formal parameters indirectly manipulate
parameters in the calling function. the actual parametes.

3 : Execution is slower since all the values 3 : Execution is faster since only address
have to be copied into formal parameters. are copied.

1 : Functions with no Parameters and no Return Values.

2 : Functions with no Parameters and Return Values.

3 : Functions with Parameters and no Return Values.

4 : Functions with Parameters and Return Values.

1 : Functions with no Parameters and no Return Values :

1 : In this category, there is no data transfer between the calling function and called function.

2 : But there is flow of control from calling function to the called function.

3 : When no parameters are there , the function cannot receive any value from the calling
function.

4: When the function does not return a value, the calling function cannot receive any value from
the called function.

Ex #include<stdio.h>

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#include<conio.h>

void sum();

void main()

sum();

getch();

void sum()

int a,b,c;

printf("enter the values of a and b");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

c=a+b;

printf("sum=%d",c);

2 : Functions with no Parameters and Return Values.

1 : In this category, there is no data transfer between the calling function and called function.

2 : But there is data transfer from called function to the calling function.

3 : When no parameters are there , the function cannot receive any values from the calling
function.

4: When the function returns a value, the calling function receives one value from the called
function.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int sum();

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void main()

int c;

clrscr();

c=sum();

printf("sum=%d",c);

getch();

int sum()

int a,b,c;

printf("enter the values of a and b");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

c=a+b;

return c;

3 : Functions with Parameters and no Return Values.

1 : In this category, there is data transfer from the calling function to the called function using
parameters.

2 : But there is no data transfer from called function to the calling function.

3 : When parameters are there , the function can receive any values from the calling function.

4: When the function does not return a value, the calling function cannot receive any value from
the called function.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

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void sum(int a,int b);

void main()

int m,n;

clrscr();

printf("Enter m and n values:");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

sum(m,n);

getch();

void sum(int a,int b)

int c;

c=a+b;

printf("sum=%d",c);

4 : Functions with Parameters and Return Values.

1 : In this category, there is data transfer from the calling function to the called function using
parameters.

2 : But there is no data transfer from called function to the calling function.

3 : When parameters are there , the function can receive any values from the calling function.

4: When the function returns a value, the calling function receive a value from the called
function.

Ex : #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int sum(int a,int b);

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void main()

int m,n,c;

clrscr();

printf("Enter m and n values");

scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);

c=sum(m,n);

printf("sum=%d",c);

getch();

int sum(int a,int b)

int c;

c=a+b;

return c;

Inter‐Function Communication
When a function gets executed in the program, the execution control is transferred from calling
function to called function and executes function definition, and finally comes back to the calling
function. In this process, both calling and called functions have to communicate each other to
exchange information. The process of exchanging information between calling and called
functions is called as inter function communication.

In C, the inter function communication is classified as follows...

 Downward Communication

 Upward Communication

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 Bi-directional Communication

Downward Communication

In this type of inter function communication, the data is transferred from calling function to
called function but not from called function to calling function. The functions with parameters
and without return value are considered under downward communication. In the case of
downward communication, the execution control jumps from calling function to called function
along with parameters and executes the function definition,and finally comes back to the calling
function without any return value. For example consider the following program...

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int num1, num2 ;

void addition(int, int) ; // function declaration

clrscr() ;

num1 = 10 ;

num2 = 20 ;

printf("\nBefore swap: num1 = %d, num2 = %d", num1, num2) ;

addition(num1, num2) ; // calling function

getch() ;

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}

void addition(int a, int b) // called function

printf("SUM = %d", a+b) ;

Output

SUM=30

Upward Communication

In this type of inter function communication, the data is transferred from called function to
calling function but not from calling function to called function. The functions without
parameters and with return value are considered under upward communication. In the case of
upward communication, the execution control jumps from calling function to called function
without parameters and executes the function definition, and finally comes back to the calling
function along with a return value. For example consider the following program...

Exmaple:

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int result ;

int addition() ; // function declaration

clrscr() ;

result = addition() ; // calling function

printf("SUM = %d", result) ;

getch() ;

int addition() // called function

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{

int num1, num2 ;

num1 = 10;

num2 = 20;

return (num1+num2) ;

Output

SUM=30

Bi - Directional Communication

In this type of inter function communication, the data is transferred from calling function to
called function and also from called function to calling function. The functions with parameters
and with return value are considered under bi-directional communication. In the case of bi-
drectional communication, the execution control jumps from calling function to called function
along with parameters and executes the function definition, and finally comes back to the calling
function along with a return value. For example consider the following program...

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

int num1, num2, result ;

int addition(int, int) ; // function declaration

clrscr() ;

num1 = 10 ;

num2 = 20 ;

result = addition(num1, num2) ; // calling function

printf("SUM = %d", result) ;

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getch() ;

int addition(int a, int b) // called function

return (a+b) ;

Output

SUM=30

Standard Functions
The standard functions are built-in functions. In C programming language, the standard functions
are declared in header files and defined in .dll files. In simple words, the standard functions can
be defined as "the ready made functions defined by the system to make coding more easy". The
standard functions are also called as library functions or pre-defined functions.

In C when we use standard functions, we must include the respective header file
using #include statement. For example, the function printf() is defined in header
file stdio.h (Standard Input Output header file). When we use printf() in our program, we must
include stdio.h header file using #include<stdio.h> statement.

C Programming Language provides the following header files with standard functions.

Header
Purpose Example Functions
File

stdio.h Provides functions to perform standard I/O operations printf(), scanf()

conio.h Provides functions to perform console I/O operations clrscr(), getch()

math.h Provides functions to perform mathematical operations sqrt(), pow()

string.h Provides functions to handle string data values strlen(), strcpy()

stdlib.h Provides functions to perform general functions calloc(), malloc()

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Provides functions to perform operations on time and
time.h time(), localtime()
date

Provides functions to perform - testing and mapping of

ctype.h isalpha(), islower()
character data values

setjump(),
setjmp.h Provides functions that are used in function calls
longjump()

Provides functions to handle signals during program

signal.h signal(), raise()
execution

Provides Macro that is used to verify assumptions made

assert.h assert()
by the program

Defines the location specific settings such as date

locale.h setlocale()
formats and currency symbols

Used to get the arguments in a function if the arguments va_start(), va_end(),

stdarg.h
are not specified by the function va_arg()

errno.h Provides macros to handle the system calls Error, errno

float.h Provides constants related to floating point data values

Defines the maximum and minimum values of various

limits.h
variable types like char, int and long

stddef.h Defines various variable types

graphics.h Provides functions to draw graphics. circle(), rectangle()

STANDARD „C‟ LIBRARY FUNCTIONS

1 : stdio.h

2 : stdlib.h

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3 : string.h

4 : math.h

5 : ctype.h

6 : time.h

1 : STANDARD I/O LIBRARY FUNCTIONS <STDIO.H>

Functions DataType Purpose

printf() int Send data items to the standared output device.

scanf() int Enter data items from the standard input device.

gets(s) char Enter string s from the standard input device.

getc(f) int Enter a string character from file f.

getchar() int Enter a single character from the standard input device.

putc(c,f) int Send a single character to file f.

puts(s) int Send string s to the standard output device.

putchar(c) int Send a single character to the standard output device.

fgetc(f) int Enter a single character from file f.

fgets(s,I,f) char Enter string s, containing I characters, from file f.

fprintf(f) int Send data items to file f.

fscanf(f) int Enter data items from file f.

fputc(c,f) int Send a single character to file f.

fputs(s,f) int Send string s to file f.

fread(s,il,i2,f) int Enter i2 data items, each of size i1 bytes, from file f.

fclose(f) int Close file f, return 0 if file is successfully closed.

2 : STANDARD LIBRARY FUNCTIONS <STDLIB.H>

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Functions DataType Purpose

abs(i) int Return the absolute value of i.

atof(s) double Convert string s to a double-precesion quantity.

calloc(u1,u2) void* Allocate memory for an array having u1 elements, each of

length u2 bytes. Return a pointer to the beginning of the
allocated space.

exit(u) void Close all files and buffers, and terminate the program.

free(p) void Free a block of allocated memory whose beginning is

indicated by p.

malloc(u) void* Allocate u bytes of memory.

rand() int Return a random positive integer.

realloc(p,u) void* Allocate u bytes of new memory to the pointer variable p,

return a pointer to the beginning of the new memory space.

system(s) int Pass command string s to the operating system.

srand(u) void Initialize the random number generator.

3 : STRING LIBRARY FUNCTIONS <STRING.H>

Functions DataType Purpose

strlen() Finds length of string

strlwr() Converts a string to lowercase

strupr() Converts a string to uppercase

strcat() Appends one string at the end of another

strcpy() Copies a string into another

strcmp() Compares two strings

strrev() Reverses string

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4 : MATH LIBRARY FUNCTIONS <MATH.H>

Functions DataType Purpose

acos(d) double Return the arc cosine of d.

atan(d) double Return the arc tangent of d.

asin(d) double Return the arc sine of d.

ceil(d) double Return a value rounded up to the next higher integer.

cos(d) double Return the cosine of d.

cosh(d) double Return the hyperbolic cosine of d.

exp(d) double Raise e to the power d.

fabs(d) double Return the absolute value of d.

floor(d) double Return a value rounded down to the next lower integer.

labs(l) long int Return the absolute value of l.

log(d) double Return the natural logarithm of d.

pow(d1,d2) double Return d1 raised to the d2 power.

sin(d) double Return the sine of d.

sqrt(d) double Return squre root of d.

tan(d) double Return the tangent of d.

5 : CHARACTER LIBRARY FUNCTIONS <CTYPE.H>

Functions DataType Purpose

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isalnum(c) Int Determine if argument is alphanumeric. Return nonzero value
if true, 0 otherwise.

isalpha(c) Int Determine if argument is alphabetic. Return nonzero value if

true, 0 otherwise.

isascii(c) Int Determine if argument is an ASCII character,. Return nonzero

value if true, 0 otherwise.

isdigit(c) Int Determine if argument is a decimal digit. Return nonzero

value if true, 0 otherwise.

isgraph(c) Int Determine if argument is a graphic printing ASCII Character.

Return nonzero value if true, 0 otherwise.

islower(c) Int Determine if argument is lowercase. Return nonzero value if

true, 0 otherwise.

isprint(c) Int Determine if argument is a printing ASCII character. Return

nonzero value if true, 0 otherwise.

isspace(c) Int Determine if argument is a whitespace character. Return

nonzero value if true, 0 otherwise.

isupper(c) Int Determine if argument is uppercase. Return nonzero value if

true, 0 otherwise.

toascii(c) Int Convert value of argument to ASCII

tolower(c) Int Convert letter to lowercase

toupper(c) Int Convert letter to uppercase.

6 : TIME LIBRARY FUNCTIONS <TIME.H>

Functions DataType Purpose

difftime(11,12) double Return the time difference 11-12, where 11 and 12

represent elapsed time beyond a designated base time.

time(p) long int Return the number of seconds elapsed beyond a designated
base time.

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Storage Classes
In C language, each variable has a storage class which is used to define scope and life time of a
variable.

Storage: Any variable declared in a program can be stored either in memory or registers.
Registers are small amount of storage in CPU. The data stored in registers has fast access
compared to data stored in memory.

Storage class of a variable gives information about the location of the variable
in which it is stored, initial value of the variable, if storage class is not specified; scope of the
variable; life of the variable.

There are four storage classes in C programming.

1 : Automatic Storage class.

2 : Register Storage class.

3 : Static Storage class.

4 : External Storage class.

1: Automatic Storage class : To define a variable as automatic storage class, the keyword „auto‟
is used. By defining a variable as automatic storage class, it is stored in the memory. The default
value of the variable will be garbage value. Scope of the variable is within the block where it is
defined and the life of the variable is until the control remains within the block.

Syntax : auto data_type variable_name;

auto int a,b;

Example:

void main()

int detail;

or

auto int detail; //Both are same

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The variables a and b are declared as integer type and auto. The keyword auto is
not mandatory. Because the default storage class in C is auto.

Note: A variable declared inside a function without any storage class specification, is by default
an automatic variable. Automatic variables can also be called local variables because they
are local to a function.

Ex : void function1();

void function2(); OUTPUT

void main() 10

{ 0

int x=100; 100

function2();

printf(“%d”,x);

void function1()

int x=10;

printf(“%d”,x);

void function2()

int x=0;

function1();

printf(“%d”,x);

2: Register Storage class : To define a variable as register storage class, the keyword
„register‟ is used. If CPU cannot store the variables in CPU registers, then the variables are

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assumed as auto and stored in the memory. When a variable is declared as register, it is stored
in the CPU registers. The default value of the variable will be garbage value. Scope of the
variable within the block where it is defined and the life of the variables is until the control
remains within the block.

Register variable has faster access than normal variable. Frequently used variables are kept in
register. Only few variables can be placed inside register.

NOTE : We can't get the address of register variable

Sytax : register data_type variable_name;

Ex: register int i;

Ex : void demo(); OUTPUT

void main() 20

{ 20

demo(); 20

demo();

demo();

void demo()

register int i=20;

printf(“%d\n”,i);

i++;

3 : Static Storage class : When a variable is declared as static, it is stored in the memory. The
default value of the variable will be zero. Scope of the variable is within the block where it is
defined and the life of the variable persists between different function calls. To define a variable
as static storage class, the keyword „static‟ is used. A static variable can be initialized only
once, it cannot be reinitialized.

Syntax : static data_type variable_name;

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Ex: static int i;

Ex : void demo(); OUTPUT

void main() 20

{ 21

demo(); 22

demo();

demo();

void demo()

static int i=20;

printf(“%d”,i);

i++;

4 : External Storage class : When a variable is declared as extern, it is stored in the memory.
The default value is initialized to zero. The scope of the variable is global and the life of the
variable is until the program execution comes to an end. To define a variable as external storage
class, the keyword „extern‟ is used. An extern variable is also called as a global variable.
Global variables remain available throughout the entire program. One important thing to
remember about global variable is that their values can be changed by any function in the
program.

Systax : extern data_type variable_name;

extern int i;

Ex:

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int number;

void main()

number=10;

fun1()

number=20;

fun2()

number=30;

Here the global variable number is available to all three functions.

Ex : void fun1();

void fun2();

int e=20;

void main()

fun1();

fun2();

void fun1()

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{

extern int e;

printf(“e number is :%d”,e);

void fun2()

printf(“e number is :%d”,e);

extern keyword

The extern keyword is used before a variable to inform the compiler that this variable is declared
somewhere else. The extern declaration does not allocate storage for variables.

Problem when extern is not used

main()

a = 10; //Error:cannot find variable a

printf("%d",a);

Example Using extern in same file

main()

extern int x; //Tells compiler that it is defined somewhere else

x = 10;

printf("%d",x);

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int x; //Global variable x

Storage Storage Default Scope Life-time

Classes Place Value

auto RAM Garbage Local Within function

Value

extern RAM Zero Global Till the end of main program, May be
declared anywhere in the program

static RAM Zero Local Till the end of main program, Retains
value between multiple functions call

register Register Garbage Local Within function

Value

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Recursion
When function is called within the same function, it is known as recursion in C. The function
which calls the same function, is known as recursive function.

A function that calls itself, and doesn't perform any task after function call, is know as tail
recursion. In tail recursion, we generally call the same function with return statement.

Features :

 There should be at least one if statement used to terminate recursion.

 It does not contain any looping statements.

Advantages :

 It is easy to use.

 It represents compact programming structures.

Disadvantages :

 It is slower than that of looping statements because each time function is called.

Note: while using recursion, programmers need to be careful to define an exit condition from the
function, otherwise it will go into an infinite loop. Recursive functions are very useful to solve
many mathematical problems, such as calculating the factorial of a number, generating Fibonacci
series, etc.

Example of recursion.

recursionfunction(){

recursionfunction();//calling self function

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Example of tail recursion in C

// print factorial number using tail recursion

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

int factorial (int n)

if ( n < 0)

return -1; /*Wrong value*/

if (n == 0)

return 1; /*Terminating condition*/

return (n * factorial (n -1));

void main(){

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int fact=0;

clrscr();

fact=factorial(5);

printf("\n factorial of 5 is %d",fact);

getch(); } Outputfactorial of 5 is 120

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Preprocessor Commands

A program in C language involves into different processes. Below diagram will help you to
understand all the processes that a C program comes across.

The C Preprocessor is not a part of the compiler, but is a separate step in the compilation
process. In simple terms, a C Preprocessor is just a text substitution tool and it instructs the

C PROGRAMMING Page 169

compiler to do required pre-processing before the actual compilation. All preprocessor
commands begin with a hash symbol (#).

list of preprocessor directives.

o #include

o #define

o #undef

o #ifdef

o #ifndef

o #if

o #else

o #elif

o #endif

o #error

o #pragma

C Macros

A macro is a segment of code which is replaced by the value of macro. Macro is defined by
#define directive. There are two types of macros:

1. Object-like Macros

2. Function-like Macros

Object-like Macros

The object-like macro is an identifier that is replaced by value. It is widely used to represent
numeric constants. For example:

#define PI 3.14

Here, PI is the macro name which will be replaced by the value 3.14.

Function-like Macros

The function-like macro looks like function call. For example:

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#define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))

Here, MIN is the macro name.

Predefined Macros

There are some predefined macros which are readily for use in C programming.

No. Macro Description

1 _DATE_ represents current date in "MMM DD YYYY" format.

2 _TIME_ represents current time in "HH:MM:SS" format.

3 _FILE_ represents current file name.

4 _LINE_ represents current line number.

5 _STDC_ It is defined as 1 when compiler complies with the ANSI standard.

#include <stdio.h>

main() {

printf("File :%s\n", __FILE__ );

printf("Date :%s\n", __DATE__ );

printf("Time :%s\n", __TIME__ );

printf("Line :%d\n", __LINE__ );

printf("ANSI :%d\n", __STDC__ );

Output

File :test.c

Date :Jun 2 2012

Time :03:36:24

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Line :8

ANSI :1

C #include

The #include preprocessor directive is used to paste code of given file into current file. It is used
include system-defined and user-defined header files. If included file is not found, compiler
renders error.

By the use of #include directive, we provide information to the preprocessor where to look for
the header files. There are two variants to use #include directive.

1. #include <filename>

2. #include "filename"

The #include <filename> tells the compiler to look for the directory where system header files
are held. In UNIX, it is \usr\include directory.

The #include "filename" tells the compiler to look in the current directory from where program
is running.

#include directive example

Let's see a simple example of #include directive. In this program, we are including stdio.h file
because printf() function is defined in this file.

1. #include <stdio.h>

2. main() {

3. printf("Hello C");

4. }

Output:

Hello C

#include notes:

Note 1: In #include directive, comments are not recognized. So in case of #include <a//b>, a//b is
treated as filename.

Note 2: In #include directive, backslash is considered as normal text not escape sequence. So in
case of #include <a\nb>, a\nb is treated as filename.

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Note 3: You can use only comment after filename otherwise it will give error.

C #define

The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can use any
basic data type.

Syntax:

#define token value

Example of #define to define a constant.

#include <stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14

main() {

printf("%f",PI);

Output:

3.140000

Example of #define to create a macro.

#include <stdio.h>

#define MIN(a,b) ((a)<(b)?(a):(b))

void main() {

printf("Minimum between 10 and 20 is: %d\n", MIN(10,20));

Output:

Minimum between 10 and 20 is: 10

C #undef

The #undef preprocessor directive is used to undefine the constant or macro defined by #define.

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Syntax:

#undef token

Simple example to define and undefine a constant.

#include <stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14

#undef PI

main() {

printf("%f",PI);

Output:

Compile Time Error: 'PI' undeclared

The #undef directive is used to define the preprocessor constant to a limited scope so that you
can declare constant again.

Let's see an example where we are defining and undefining number variable. But before being
undefined, it was used by square variable.

#include <stdio.h>

#define number 15

int square=number*number;

#undef number

main() {

printf("%d",square);

Output:

225

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C #ifdef

The #ifdef preprocessor directive checks if macro is defined by #define. If yes, it

executes the code otherwise #else code is executed, if present.

Syntax:

#ifdef MACRO

//code

#endif

Syntax with #else:

#ifdef MACRO

//successful code

#else

//else code

#endif

C #ifdef example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#define NOINPUT

void main() {

int a=0;

#ifdef NOINPUT

a=2;

#else

printf("Enter a:");

scanf("%d", &a);

#endif

C PROGRAMMING Page 175

printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);

getch();

Output:

Value of a: 2

if you don't define NOINPUT, it will ask user to enter a number.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main() {

int a=0;

#ifdef NOINPUT

a=2;

#else

printf("Enter a:");

scanf("%d", &a);

#endif

printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);

getch();

Output:

Enter a:5

Value of a: 5

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C #ifndef

The #ifndef preprocessor directive checks if macro is not defined by #define. If yes, it executes
the code otherwise #else code is executed, if present.

Syntax:

#ifndef MACRO

//code

#endif

Syntax with #else:

#ifndef MACRO

//successful code

#else

//else code

#endif

C #ifndef example

simple example to use #ifndef preprocessor directive.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#define INPUT

void main() {

int a=0;

#ifndef INPUT

a=2;

#else

printf("Enter a:");

scanf("%d", &a);

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#endif

printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);

getch();

Output:

Enter a:5

Value of a: 5

if you don't define INPUT, it will execute the code of #ifndef.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main() {

int a=0;

#ifndef INPUT

a=2;

#else

printf("Enter a:");

scanf("%d", &a);

#endif

printf("Value of a: %d\n", a);

getch();

Output:

Value of a: 2

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C #if

The #if preprocessor directive evaluates the expression or condition. If condition is true, it
executes the code otherwise #elseif or #else or #endif code is executed.

Syntax:

#if expression

//code

#endif

Syntax with #else:

#if expression

//if code

#else

//else code

#endif

Syntax with #elif and #else:

#if expression

//if code

#elif expression

//elif code

#else

//else code

#endif

C #if example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#define NUMBER 0

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void main() {

#if (NUMBER==0)

printf("Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);

#endif

getch();

Output:

Value of Number is: 0

Another example to understand the #if directive clearly.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#define NUMBER 1

void main() {

clrscr();

#if (NUMBER==0)

printf("1 Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);

#endif

#if (NUMBER==1)

printf("2 Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);

#endif

getch();

Output:

2 Value of Number is: 1

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C #else

The #else preprocessor directive evaluates the expression or condition if condition of #if is false.
It can be used with #if, #elif, #ifdef and #ifndef directives.

Syntax:

#if expression

//if code

#else

//else code

#endif

Syntax with #elif:

#if expression

//if code

#elif expression

//elif code

#else

//else code

#endif

C #else example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

#define NUMBER 1

void main() {

#if NUMBER==0

printf("Value of Number is: %d",NUMBER);

#else

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print("Value of Number is non-zero");

#endif

getch();

Output:

Value of Number is non-zero

C #error

The #error preprocessor directive indicates error. The compiler gives fatal error if #error
directive is found and skips further compilation process.

C #error example

#include<stdio.h>

#ifndef __MATH_H

#error First include then compile

#else

void main(){

float a;

a=sqrt(7);

printf("%f",a);

#endif

Output:

Compile Time Error: First include then compile

if you include math.h, it does not gives error.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<math.h>

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#ifndef __MATH_H

#error First include then compile

#else

void main(){

float a;

a=sqrt(7);

printf("%f",a);

#endif

Output:

2.645751

C #pragma

The #pragma preprocessor directive is used to provide additional information to the compiler.
The #pragma directive is used by the compiler to offer machine or operating-system feature.

Syntax:

#pragma token

Different compilers can provide different usage of #pragma directive.

The turbo C++ compiler supports following #pragma directives.

#pragma argsused

#pragma exit

#pragma hdrfile

#pragma hdrstop

#pragma inline

#pragma option

#pragma saveregs

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#pragma startup

#pragma warn

Example to use #pragma preprocessor directive.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void func() ;

#pragma startup func

#pragma exit func

void main(){

printf("\nI am in main");

getch();

void func(){

printf("\nI am in func");

getch();

Output:

I am in func

I am in main

I am in func

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:

1. Source program is converted into executable code through different processes like
precompilation, compilation, assembling and linking.

2. Local variables uses stack memory.

3. Dynamic memory allocation functions use the heap memory.

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preprocessor Syntax/Description

Syntax: #define
This macro defines constant value and can be any
Macro of the basic data types.

Syntax: #include <file_name>

Header file The source code of the file “file_name” is included
inclusion in the main program at the specified place.

Syntax: #ifdef, #endif, #if, #else, #ifndef

Set of commands are included or excluded in
Conditional source program before compilation with respect to
compilation the condition.

Syntax: #undef, #pragma

#undef is used to undefine a defined macro
variable. #Pragma is used to call a function before
Other directives and after main function in a C program.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STACK & HEAP MEMORY IN C LANGUAGE?

Stack Heap

Stack is a memory region where “local Heap is a memory region

variables”, “return addresses of function which is used by dynamic
calls” and “arguments to functions” are memory allocation
hold while C program is executed. functions at run time.

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CPU‟s current state is saved in stack Linked list is an example
memory which uses heap memory.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMPILERS VS INTERPRETERS IN C LANGUAGE?

Compilers Interpreters

Compiler reads the entire source

code of the program and converts
it into binary code. This process
is called compilation.
Interpreter reads the program
Binary code is also referred as source code one line at a time and
machine code, executable, and executing that line. This process is
object code. called interpretation.

Program speed is fast. Program speed is slow.

Interpretation occurs at every line

One time execution. of the program.
Example: C, C++ Example: BASIC

The following section lists down all the important preprocessor directives −

Directive Description

#define Substitutes a preprocessor macro.

#include Inserts a particular header from another file.

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#undef Undefines a preprocessor macro.

#ifdef Returns true if this macro is defined.

#ifndef Returns true if this macro is not defined.

#if Tests if a compile time condition is true.

#else The alternative for #if.

#elif #else and #if in one statement.

#endif Ends preprocessor conditional.

#error Prints error message on stderr.

#pragma Issues special commands to the compiler, using a standardized method.

There are three types of preprocessor commands.

1 : macro substitution.

2 : file inclusion.

3 : conditional compilation directives.

1: Macro Substitution : They are two types of macro substitution.

1 : Macro substitution without arguments.

2 : Macro substitution with arguments.

1 : Macro substitution without arguments : It is a process to substitute the constant or value in

the place of an identifier. It is possible to achieve this with the help of directive or macro
definition statement #define.

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Syntax : #define identifier constant or expression

Ex : #define PI 3.142

#define MAX_MARKS 100

#define MIN_MARKS 35

Ex :

#include <stdio.h>

#define height 100

#define number 3.14

#define letter 'A'

#define letter_sequence "ABC"

#define backslash_char '\?'

void main()

printf("value of height : %d \n", height );

printf("value of number : %f \n", number );

printf("value of letter : %c \n", letter );

printf("value of letter_sequence : %s \n", letter_sequence);

printf("value of backslash_char : %c \n", backslash_char);

OUTPUT:

value of height : 100

value of number : 3.140000

value of letter : A

value of letter_sequence : ABC

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value of backslash_char : ?

Ex : Example of Macro substitution

#include<stdio.h>

#define PI 3.142

void main()

int r;

float area;

printf(“Enter the radius of circle”);

scanf(“%d”,&r);

area=PI*r*r;

printf(“the area of a circle is%d”,area);

Example of Macro definition with expressions

#define A (20*10)

#define B (200-100)

void main()

int div;

div=A/B;

printf(“the division of two numbers%d”,div);

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Example of Macro definition with conditional expression

#define IFCONDITION if(a>b)

#define PRINT printf(“the value of a is the greatest no”)

void main()

int a=100,b=50;

IFCONDITION

PRINT;

Macro Substitution with Arguments :

Syntax : #define identifier(var1,var2,va3,….varn)string

Where identifier is the name of macro function with the list of macro formal parameters
var1,var2,var3,…varn like the formal parameters in a function definition.

Ex : #define PROD(x) (x*x)

void main()

int a,mul;

printf(“enter the value of a”);

scanf(“%d”,&a);

mul=PROD(a);

printf(“The multification of two numbers%d”,mul);

2 : FILE INCLUSION : A copying of one file to another files into program.

Ex : File inclusion of an external file “add.c”.

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#include<stdio.h>

#include add.c

void main()

void add(); //FUNCTION PROTOTYPE/ DECLARATION.

add(); //FUNCTION CALLING

The file add1.c contains the function definition as follows.

void add()

int a,b,c;

printf(“enter two numbers”);

scanf(%d%d”,&a,&b);

c=a+b;

printf(“c value is:%d”,c);

3 : CONDITIONAL COMPILATION DIRECTIVES : C preprocessor also supports number

of conditional compilation directives as

1 : #undef : Undefined a macro

2 : #ifdef : Tests for a macro definition.

3 : #endif : Specifies the end of #if.

4 : #if : Tests compile-time condition.

5 : #else : Specifies alternative when #if test fails.

These are used to select a particular segment of code for compilation depending on the
condition.

C PROGRAMMING Page 191

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR CONDITIONAL COMPILATION DIRECTIVES:

A) EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #IFDEF, #ELSE AND #ENDIF IN C:

 “#ifdef” directive checks whether particular macro is defined or not. If it is defined, “If”
clause statements are included in source file.

 Otherwise, “else” clause statements are included in source file for compilation and
execution.

Ex:

#include <stdio.h>

#define RAJU 100

int main()

#ifdef RAJU

printf("RAJU is defined. So, this line will be added in " \

"this C file\n");

#else

printf("RAJU is not defined\n");

#endif

return 0;

OUTPUT:

RAJU is defined. So, this line will be added in this C file

B) EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #IFNDEF AND #ENDIF IN C:

 #ifndef exactly acts as reverse as #ifdef directive. If particular macro is not defined, “If”
clause statements are included in source file.

 Otherwise, else clause statements are included in source file for compilation and
execution.

C PROGRAMMING Page 192

Ex:
#include <stdio.h>
#define RAJU 100
int main()
{
#ifndef SELVA
{
printf("SELVA is not defined. So, now we are going to " \
"define here\n");
#define SELVA 300
}
#else
printf("SELVA is already defined in the program”);

#endif
return 0;

}
OUTPUT:

SELVA is not defined. So, now we are going to define here

C) EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR #IF, #ELSE AND #ENDIF IN C:

 “If” clause statement is included in source file if given condition is true.

 Otherwise, else clause statement is included in source file for compilation and execution.

Ex:

#include <stdio.h>
#define a 100
int main()
{
#if (a==100)
printf("This line will be added in this C file since " \
"a \= 100\n");
#else
printf("This line will be added in this C file since " \
"a is not equal to 100\n");
#endif
return 0;
}

OUTPUT:
This line will be added in this C file since a = 100

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EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR UNDEF IN C LANGUAGE:
This directive undefines existing macro in the program.

Ex:

#include <stdio.h>

#define height 100

void main()

printf("First defined value for height : %d\n",height);

#undef height // undefining variable

#define height 600 // redefining the same for new value

printf("value of height after undef \& redefine:%d",height);

OUTPUT:

First defined value for height : 100

value of height after undef & redefine : 600

EXAMPLE PROGRAM FOR PRAGMA IN C LANGUAGE:

Pragma is used to call a function before and after main function in a C program.

Ex:

#include <stdio.h>

void function1( );

void function2( );

#pragma startup function1

#pragma exit function2

C PROGRAMMING Page 194

int main( )

printf ( "\n Now we are in main function" ) ;

return 0;

void function1( )

printf("\nFunction1 is called before main function call");

void function2( )

printf ( "\nFunction2 is called just before end of " \

"main function" ) ;"

OUTPUT:

Function1 is called before main function call

Now we are in main function

Function2 is called just before end of main function

Ex : #define TEST 1

void main()

#ifdef TEST

printf(“This is compiled”);

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}

#else

printf(“This is not compiled”);

#endif

Ex2 : : #define FLAG 1

char ch;

void main()

#if FLAG

ch=‟t‟;

printf(“This is compiled”);

#else

ch=‟f‟;

printf(“This is not compiled”);

#endif

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POINTERS:
Introduction

Definition:

Pointer is a variable that stores/hold address of another variable of same data type/ t is
also known as locator or indicator that points to an address of a value. A pointer is a
derived data type in C

Benefit of using pointers

 Pointers are more efficient in handling Array and Structure.

 Pointer allows references to function and thereby helps in passing of function as

arguments to other function.

 It reduces length and the program execution time.

 It allows C to support dynamic memory management.

Declaration of Pointer

data_type* pointer_variable_name;

int* p;

Note: void type pointer works with all data types, but isn't used often.

Initialization of Pointer variable

Pointer Initialization is the process of assigning address of a variable to pointer variable.

Pointer variable contains address of variable of same data type

int a = 10 ;

int *ptr ; //pointer declaration

ptr = &a ; //pointer initialization

or,

C PROGRAMMING Page 197

int *ptr = &a ; //initialization and declaration together

Note:Pointer variable always points to same type of data.

float a;

int *ptr;

ptr = &a; //ERROR, type mismatch

Above statement defines, p as pointer variable of type int. Pointer example

As you can see in the above figure, pointer variable stores the address of number variable i.e.
fff4. The value of number variable is 50. But the address of pointer variable p is aaa3.

By the help of * (indirection operator), we can print the value of pointer variable p.

Reference operator (&) and Dereference operator (*)

& is called reference operator. It gives you the address of a variable. There is another operator
that gets you the value from the address, it is called a dereference operator (*).

Symbols used in pointer

Symbol Name Description

& (ampersand sign) address of operator determines the address of a variable.

* (asterisk sign) indirection operator accesses the value at the address.

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Dereferencing of Pointer

Once a pointer has been assigned the address of a variable. To access the value of variable,
pointer is dereferenced, using the indirection operator *.

int a,*p;

a = 10;

p = &a;

printf("%d",*p); //this will print the value of a.

printf("%d",*&a); //this will also print the value of a.

printf("%u",&a); //this will print the address of a.

printf("%u",p); //this will also print the address of a.

printf("%u",&p); //this will also print the address of p.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT POINTERS IN C:

 Normal variable stores the value whereas pointer variable stores the address of the
variable.

 The content of the C pointer always be a whole number i.e. address.

 Always C pointer is initialized to null, i.e. int *p = null.

 The value of null pointer is 0.

 & symbol is used to get the address of the variable.

 * symbol is used to get the value of the variable that the pointer is pointing to.

 If a pointer in C is assigned to NULL, it means it is pointing to nothing.

 Two pointers can be subtracted to know how many elements are available between these
two pointers.

 But, Pointer addition, multiplication, division are not allowed.

 The size of any pointer is 2 byte (for 16 bit compiler).

C PROGRAMMING Page 199

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;

clrscr();

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);

printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);

printf("Value of p variable is %d \n",*p);

getch();

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4

Value of p variable is 50

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int *ptr, q;

q = 50;

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/* address of q is assigned to ptr */

ptr = &q;

/* display q's value using ptr variable */

printf("%d", *ptr);

return 0;

Output

50

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int var =10;

int *p;

p= &var;

printf ( "\n Address of var is: %u", &var);

printf ( "\n Address of var is: %u", p);

printf ( "\n Address of pointer p is: %u", &p);

/* Note I have used %u for p's value as it should be an address*/

printf( "\n Value of pointer p is: %u", p);

printf ( "\n Value of var is: %d", var);

printf ( "\n Value of var is: %d", *p);

printf ( "\n Value of var is: %d", *( &var));

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Output:

Address of var is: 00XBBA77

Address of var is: 00XBBA77

Address of pointer p is: 77221111

Value of pointer p is: 00XBBA77

Value of var is: 10

Value of var is: 10

Value of var is: 10

NULL Pointer

A pointer that is not assigned any value but NULL is known as NULL pointer. If you don't have
any address to be specified in the pointer at the time of declaration, you can assign NULL value.

Or

It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in case you do not have
an exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of variable declaration. A pointer that is
assigned NULL is called a null pointer.int *p=NULL;

Note: The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard libraries/
in most the libraries, the value of pointer is 0 (zero)

Example:

The value of ptr is 0

Pointers for Inter‐Function Communication

Pointers to Pointers

Pointers can point to other pointers /pointer refers to the address of another pointer.

pointer can point to the address of another pointer which points to the address of a value.

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syntax of pointer to pointer

int **p2;

pointer to pointer example

Let's see an example where one pointer points to the address of another pointer.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

int **p2;//pointer to pointer

clrscr();

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

p2=&p;

printf("Address of number variable is %x \n",&number);

printf("Address of p variable is %x \n",p);

C PROGRAMMING Page 203

printf("Value of *p variable is %d \n",*p);

printf("Address of p2 variable is %x \n",p2);

printf("Value of **p2 variable is %d \n",**p);

getch();

Output

Address of number variable is fff4

Address of p variable is fff4

Value of *p variable is 50

Address of p2 variable is fff2

Value of **p variable is 50

Arrays and Pointers

When an array is declared, compiler allocates sufficient amount of memory to contain all the
elements of the array. Base address which gives location of the first element is also allocated by
the compiler.

Suppose we declare an array arr,

int arr[5]={ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

Assuming that the base address of arr is 1000 and each integer requires two byte, the five
element will be stored as follows

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Here variable arr will give the base address, which is a constant pointer pointing to the
element, arr[0]. Therefore arr is containing the address of arr[0] i.e 1000.

arr is equal to &arr[0] // by default

We can declare a pointer of type int to point to the array arr.

int arr[5]={ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };

int *p;

p = arr;

or p = &arr[0]; //both the statements are equivalent.

Now we can access every element of array arr using p++ to move from one element to another.

NOTE : You cannot decrement a pointer once incremented. p-- won't work.

Pointer to Array

we can use a pointer to point to an Array, and then we can use that pointer to access the array.
Lets have an example,

int i;

int a[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

int *p = a; // same as int*p = &a[0]

for (i=0; i<5; i++)

printf("%d", *p);

p++;

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In the above program, the pointer *p will print all the values stored in the array one by one. We
can also use the Base address (a in above case) to act as pointer and print all the values.

Relation between Arrays and Pointers

Consider an array:

int arr[4];

In C programming, name of the array always points to address of the first element of an array.

In the above example, arr and &arr[0] points to the address of the first element.

&arr[0] is equivalent to arr

Since, the addresses of both are the same, the values of arr and &arr[0] are also the same.

arr[0] is equivalent to *arr (value of an address of the pointer)

C PROGRAMMING Page 206

Similarly,

&arr[1] is equivalent to (arr + 1) AND, arr[1] is equivalent to *(arr + 1).

&arr[2] is equivalent to (arr + 2) AND, arr[2] is equivalent to *(arr + 2).

&arr[3] is equivalent to (arr + 3) AND, arr[3] is equivalent to *(arr + 3).

&arr[i] is equivalent to (arr + i) AND, arr[i] is equivalent to *(arr + i).

Example: Program to find the sum of six numbers with arrays and pointers

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

int i, classes[6],sum = 0;

printf("Enter 6 numbers:\n");

for(i = 0; i < 6; ++i)

// (classes + i) is equivalent to &classes[i]

scanf("%d",(classes + i));

// *(classes + i) is equivalent to classes[i]

sum += *(classes + i);

printf("Sum = %d", sum);

return 0;

Output

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Enter 6 numbers:

Sum = 21

Pointer Arithmetic and Arrays

pointer holds address of a value, so there can be arithmetic operations on the pointer variable.

There are four arithmetic operators that can be used on pointers:

o Increment(++)
o Decrement(--)
o Addition(+)
o Subtraction(-)

Increment pointer:

1. Incrementing Pointer is generally used in array because we have contiguous memory in

array and we know the contents of next memory location.
2. Incrementing Pointer Variable Depends Upon data type of the Pointer variable.

The formula of incrementing pointer is given below:

new_address= current_address + i * size_of(data type)

Three rules should be used to increment pointer

Address + 1 = Address

Address++ = Address

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++Address = Address

Pictorial Representation :

Data Older Address stored Next Address stored in pointer after

Type in pointer incrementing (ptr++)

int 1000 1002

float 1000 1004

char 1000 1001

Note :

32 bit

For 32 bit int variable, it will increment to 2 byte.

64 bit

For 64 bit int variable, it will increment to 4 byte.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

C PROGRAMMING Page 209

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p+1;

printf("After increment: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After increment: Address of p variable is 3214864304

Decrement(--)

Like increment, we can decrement a pointer variable.

formula of decrementing pointer

new_address= current_address - i * size_of(data type)

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p-1;

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printf("After decrement: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After decrement: Address of p variable is 3214864296

Addition(+)

We can add a value to the pointer variable.

formula of adding value to pointer

new_address= current_address + (number * size_of(data type))

Note:

32 bit

For 32 bit int variable, it will add 2 * number.

64 bit

For 64 bit int variable, it will add 4 * number.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

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p=p+3; //adding 3 to pointer variable

printf("After adding 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

Output

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After adding 3: Address of p variable is 3214864312

Subtraction (-)

Like pointer addition, we can subtract a value from the pointer variable. The formula
of subtracting value from pointer variable.

new_address= current_address - (number * size_of(data type))

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main(){

int number=50;

int *p;//pointer to int

p=&number;//stores the address of number variable

printf("Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

p=p-3; //subtracting 3 from pointer variable

printf("After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is %u \n",p);

Output

C PROGRAMMING Page 212

Address of p variable is 3214864300

After subtracting 3: Address of p variable is 3214864288

Passing an Array to a Function

If you want to pass a single-dimension array as an argument in a function, you would have to
declare a formal parameter in one of following three ways and all three declaration methods
produce similar results because each tells the compiler that an integer pointer is going to be
received. Similarly, you can pass multi-dimensional arrays as formal parameters.

1) Formal parameters as a pointer –

void myFunction(int *param) {
.
.
.
}
2) Formal parameters as a sized array –
void myFunction(int param[10]) {
.
.
.
}

3) Formal parameters as an unsized array −

void myFunction(int param[10]) {
.
.
.

}
Example1: pass an entire array to a function argument
#include <stdio.h>
/* function declaration */
double getAverage(int arr[], int size);
int main () {
/* an int array with 5 elements */
int balance[5] = {1000, 2, 3, 17, 50};

C PROGRAMMING Page 213

double avg;

/* pass pointer to the array as an argument */

avg = getAverage( balance, 5 ) ;
/* output the returned value */
printf( "Average value is: %f ", avg );
return 0;
}
double getAverage(int arr[], int size) {

int i;
double avg;
double sum = 0;

for (i = 0; i < size; ++i) {

sum += arr[i];
}

avg = sum / size;

return avg;
}

Output
Average value is: 214.400000

Example2: pass an entire array to a function argument

#include <stdio.h>
myfuncn( int *var1, int var2)
{
for(int x=0; x<var2; x++)
{
printf("Value of var_arr[%d] is: %d \n", x, *var1);
/*increment pointer for next element fetch*/
var1++;
}
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 214

int main()
{
int var_arr[] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77};
myfuncn(&var_arr, 7);
return 0;
}
Output
Value of var_arr[0] is: 11
Value of var_arr[1] is: 22
Value of var_arr[2] is: 33
Value of var_arr[3] is: 44
Value of var_arr[4] is: 55
Value of var_arr[5] is: 66
Value of var_arr[6] is: 77

Example: Call by value method –

#include <stdio.h>
disp( char ch)
{
printf("%c ", ch);
}
int main()
{
char arr[] = {'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h', 'I', 'j'};
for (int x=0; x<=10; x++)
{
/* I‟m passing each element one by one using subscript*/
disp (arr[x]);
}

return 0;
}
Output:
abcdefghij

C PROGRAMMING Page 215

In this method of calling a function, the actual arguments gets copied into formal
arguments. In this example actual argument(or parameter) is arr[x] and formal parameter
is ch.

Example: Call by reference method: Using pointers

#include <stdio.h>

disp( int *num)

printf("%d ", *num);

int main()

int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0};

for (int i=0; i<=10; i++)

/* I‟m passing element‟s address*/

disp (&arr[i]);

return 0;

Output:

1234567890

C PROGRAMMING Page 216

Array of Pointers

An array of pointers would be an array that holds memory locations. An array of pointers is an
indexed set of variables in which the variables are pointers (a reference to a location in memory).

Syntax:

data_type_name * variable name

Example

int *ptr[MAX];

Array alpha[] Pointer a

alpha[0] *a

alpha[1] *(a+1)

alpha[2] *(a+2)

alpha[3] *(a+3)

alpha[n] *(a+n)

Example1:

#include <stdio.h>

const int MAX = 3;

int main () {

int var[] = {10, 100, 200};

int i, *ptr[MAX];

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {

C PROGRAMMING Page 217

ptr[i] = &var[i]; /* assign the address of integer. */

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {

printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr[i] );

return 0;

Output

Value of var[0] = 10

Value of var[1] = 100

Value of var[2] = 200

Example2:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main() {
clrscr();
int *array[3];
int x = 10, y = 20, z = 30;
int i;
array[0] = &x;
array[1] = &y;
array[2] = &z;
for (i=0; i< 3; i++) {
printf("The value of %d= %d ,address is %u\t \n", i, *(array[i]),
array[i]);
}
getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 218

return 0;
}

Output

Example3:

#include <stdio.h>

const int MAX = 4;

int main () {

char *names[] = {

"Zara Ali",

"Hina Ali",

"Nuha Ali",

"Sara Ali"

};

int i = 0;

for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {

printf("Value of names[%d] = %s\n", i, names[i] );

return 0;

C PROGRAMMING Page 219

Output:

Value of names[0] = Zara Ali

Value of names[1] = Hina Ali

Value of names[2] = Nuha Ali

Value of names[3] = Sara Ali

Example4:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

char *fruit[] = {

"watermelon",

"banana",

"pear",

"apple",

"coconut",

"grape",

"blueberry"

};

int x;

for(x=0;x<7;x++)

puts(fruit[x]);

C PROGRAMMING Page 220

return(0);

Pointers to Void and to Functions

Pointers to Void

Note:

1. Suppose we have to declare integer pointer, character pointer and float pointer then we
need to declare 3 pointer variables.
2. Instead of declaring different types of pointer variable it is feasible to declare single
pointer variable which can act as integer pointer,character pointer.

A pointer variable declared using a particular data type can not hold the location address of
variables of other data types. It is invalid and will result in a compilation error.

Ex:- char *ptr;

int var1;

ptr=&var1; // This is invalid because „ptr‟ is a character pointer variable.

Here comes the importance of a “void pointer”. A void pointer is nothing but a pointer
variable declared using the reserved word in C „void‟.

Void Pointer Basics :

3. In C General Purpose Pointer is called as void Pointer.

4. It does not have any data type associated with it

5. It can store address of any type of variable

6. A void pointer is a C convention for a raw address.

7. The compiler has no idea what type of object a void Pointer really points to ?

C PROGRAMMING Page 221

Void pointer: A void pointer is a pointer that has no associated data type with it. A void pointer
can hold address of any type and can be typcasted to any type. Special type of pointer called
void pointer or general purpose pointer.

Declaration of void pointer

void * pointer_name;

Void pointer example

void *ptr; // ptr is declared as Void pointer

char cnum;

int inum;

float fnum;

ptr = &cnum; // ptr has address of character data

ptr = &inum; // ptr has address of integer data

ptr = &fnum; // ptr has address of float data

Advantages of void pointers:

1) malloc() and calloc() return void * type and this allows these functions to be used to allocate
memory of any data type (just because of void *)

int main(void)

// Note that malloc() returns void * which can be

// typecasted to any type like int *, char *, ..

C PROGRAMMING Page 222

int *x = malloc(sizeof(int) * n);

2) void pointers in C are used to implement generic functions in C.

Note:

1) void pointers cannot be dereferenced. For example the following program doesn‟t compile.

#include<stdio.h>

int main()

int a = 10;

void *ptr = &a;

printf("%d", *ptr);

return 0;

}
Output:
Compiler Error: 'void*' is not a pointer-to-object type
The following program compiles and runs fine.
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10;
void *ptr = &a;
printf("%d", *(int *)ptr);
return 0;
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 223

Output:
10
Summary : Void Pointer

Scenario Behavior

When We assign address of integer variable to Void Pointer Becomes Integer

void pointer Pointer

When We assign address of character variable to Void Pointer Becomes Character

void pointer Pointer

When We assign address of floating variable to Void Pointer Becomes Floating

void pointer Pointer

Pointers to functions/ Function Pointers

 A pointer to a function points to the address of the executable code of the function.
 We can use pointers to call functions and to pass functions as arguments to other
functions.
 We cannot perform pointer arithmetic on pointers to functions.
 The type of a pointer to a function is based on both the return type and parameter types of
the function.
 A declaration of a pointer to a function must have the pointer name in parentheses.
 The function call operator () has a higher precedence than the dereference operator *.
Without them, the compiler interprets the statement as a function that returns a pointer to
a specified return type.

declare Pointer to function?

<function return type>(*<Pointer_name>)(function argument list)
For example –
For example:

1) int *f(int a); /* function f returning an int * */

C PROGRAMMING Page 224

In this declaration, f is interpreted as a function that takes an int as argument, and returns a
pointer to an int.

2) double (*p2f)(double, char)

Here double is a return type of function, p2f is pointer name & (double, char) is an argument list
for the function. Which means the first argument for this function should be double and the
second one would be of char type.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
int sum (int num1, int num2)
{
return sum1+sum2;
}
int main()
{
int (*f2p) (int, int);
f2p = sum;
int op1 = f2p (10, 13);
int op2 = sum (10, 13);
printf("Output 1 – for function call via Pointer: %d",op1);
printf("Output2 – for direct function call: %d", op2);
return 0;
}
Output:
Output 1 – for function call via Pointer: 23
Output2 – for direct function call: 23
You would have noticed that the output of both the statements is same –
f2p(10, 13) == sum(10, 13)
which means in generic sense you can write it out as:
pointer_name(argument list) == function(same argument list)

C PROGRAMMING Page 225

wherein pointer_name is declared as:
return_type(*pointer_name)(argument list);
pointer_name = function_name(argument list);

Memory Allocation Functions

The concept of dynamic memory allocation in c language enables the C programmer to
allocate memory at runtime.
Or
The process of allocating memory at runtime is known as dynamic memory allocation. Library
routines known as "memory management functions" are used for allocating and freeing memory
during execution of a program. These functions are defined in stdlib.h.
Dynamic memory allocation in c language is possible by 4 functions of stdlib.h header file.
1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc()
4. free()

Difference between static memory allocation and dynamic memory allocation.

static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation

memory is allocated at compile time. memory is allocated at run time.

memory can't be increased while memory can be increased while

executing program. executing program.

used in array. used in linked list.

C PROGRAMMING Page 226

Methods used for dynamic memory allocation.

malloc() allocates single block of requested memory.

calloc() allocates multiple block of requested memory.

realloc() reallocates the memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions.

free() frees the dynamically allocated memory.

Note: Dynamic memory allocation related function can be applied for any data type that's why
dynamic memory allocation related functions return void*.
Memory Allocation Process
Global variables, static variables and program instructions get their memory
in permanent storage area whereas local variables are stored in area called Stack. The memory
space between these two region is known as Heap area. This region is used for dynamic memory
allocation during execution of the program. The size of heap keep changing.

malloc()
malloc stands for "memory allocation".
The malloc() function allocates single block of requested memory at runtime. This function
reserves a block of memory of given size and returns a pointer of type void. This means that we
can assign it to any type of pointer using typecasting. It doesn't initialize memory at execution
time, so it has garbage value initially. If it fails to locate enough space (memory) it returns a
NULL pointer.
syntax
ptr=(cast-type*)malloc(byte-size)

Example
int *x;
x = (int*)malloc(100 * sizeof(int)); //memory space allocated to variable x
free(x); //releases the memory allocated to variable x

C PROGRAMMING Page 227

This statement will allocate either 200 or 400 according to size of int 2 or 4 bytes respectively
and the pointer points to the address of first byte of memory.
Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int num, i, *ptr, sum = 0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
ptr = (int*) malloc(num * sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc
if(ptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i = 0; i < num; ++i)
{
scanf("%d", ptr + i);
sum += *(ptr + i);
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 228

calloc()
calloc stands for "contiguous allocation".
Calloc() is another memory allocation function that is used for allocating memory at
runtime. calloc function is normally used for allocating memory to derived data types such
as arrays and structures. The calloc() function allocates multiple block of requested memory.
It initially initialize (sets) all bytes to zero.If it fails to locate enough space( memory) it returns a
NULL pointer. The only difference between malloc() and calloc() is that, malloc() allocates
single block of memory whereas calloc() allocates multiple blocks of memory each of same size.
Syntax
ptr = (cast-type*)calloc(n/number, element-size);
calloc() required 2 arguments of type count, size-type.
Count will provide number of elements; size-type is data type size
Example
int*arr;
arr=(int*)calloc(10, sizeof(int)); // 20 byte
cahr*str;
str=(char*)calloc(50, siceof(char)); // 50 byte

Example
struct employee
{
char *name;
int salary;
};
typedef struct employee emp;
emp *e1;
e1 = (emp*)calloc(30,sizeof(emp));

C PROGRAMMING Page 229

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int num, i, *ptr, sum = 0;
printf("Enter number of elements: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
ptr = (int*) calloc(num, sizeof(int));
if(ptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i = 0; i < num; ++i)
{
scanf("%d", ptr + i);
sum += *(ptr + i);
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 230

Diffrence between malloc() and calloc()

calloc() malloc()

calloc() initializes the allocated memory with malloc() initializes the allocated memory with garbage
0 value. values.

Number of arguments is 2 Number of argument is 1

Syntax : Syntax :
(cast_type *)calloc(blocks , size_of_block); (cast_type *)malloc(Size_in_bytes);

realloc(): changes memory size that is already allocated to a variable.

Or
If the previously allocated memory is insufficient or more than required, you can change the
previously allocated memory size using realloc().
 If memory is not sufficient for malloc() or calloc(), you can reallocate the memory by
realloc() function. In short, it changes the memory size. By using realloc() we can create
the memory dynamically at middle stage. Generally by using realloc() we can
reallocation the memory. Realloc() required 2 arguments of type void*, size_type. Void*
will indicates previous block base address, size-type is data type size. Realloc() will
creates the memory in bytes format and initial value is garbage.

syntax
ptr=realloc(ptr, new-size)
Example
int *x;
x=(int*)malloc(50 * sizeof(int));
x=(int*)realloc(x,100); //allocated a new memory to variable x

C PROGRAMMING Page 231

Example
void*realloc(void*, size-type);
int *arr;
arr=(int*)calloc(5, sizeof(int));
.....
........
....
arr=(int*)realloc(arr,sizeof(int)*10);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr, i , n1, n2;
printf("Enter size of array: ");
scanf("%d", &n1);
ptr = (int*) malloc(n1 * sizeof(int));
printf("Address of previously allocated memory: ");
for(i = 0; i < n1; ++i)
printf("%u\t",ptr + i);
printf("\nEnter new size of array: ");
scanf("%d", &n2);
ptr = realloc(ptr, n2);
for(i = 0; i < n2; ++i)
printf("%u\t", ptr + i);
return 0;
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 232

free()
When your program comes out, operating system automatically release all the memory allocated
by your program but as a good practice when you are not in need of memory anymore then you
should release that memory by calling the function free().
The memory occupied by malloc() or calloc() functions must be released by calling free()
function. Otherwise, it will consume memory until program exit.
Or
Dynamically allocated memory created with either calloc() or malloc() doesn't get freed on its
own. You must explicitly use free() to release the space.
Syntax:
free(ptr);

Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int num, i, *ptr, sum = 0;

printf("Enter number of elements: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

ptr = (int*) malloc(num * sizeof(int)); //memory allocated using malloc

if(ptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error! memory not allocated.");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter elements of array: ");
for(i = 0; i < num; ++i)
{
scanf("%d", ptr + i);

C PROGRAMMING Page 233

sum += *(ptr + i);
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}

Command‐Line Arguments:
It is possible to pass some values from the command line to your C programs when they are
executed. These values are called command line arguments and many times they are important
for your program especially when you want to control your program from outside instead of hard
coding those values inside the code.
The arguments passed from command line are called command line arguments. These arguments
are handled by main() function.
To support command line argument, you need to change the structure of main() function
Syntax:
int main(int argc, char *argv[] )
Here, argc counts the number of arguments. It counts the file name as the first argument.
The argv[] contains the total number of arguments. The first argument is the file name always.

Example1
#include <stdio.h>
int main( int argc, char *argv[] ) {
if( argc == 2 ) {
printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]);
}
else if( argc > 2 ) {
printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n");
}
else {
printf("One argument expected.\n");
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 234

}
Output

Example2
#include <stdio.h>
void main(int argc, char *argv[] ) {
printf("Program name is: %s\n", argv[0]);
if(argc < 2){
printf("No argument passed through command line.\n");
}
else{
printf("First argument is: %s\n", argv[1]);
}
}
Output
program.exe hello
Program name is: program
First argument is: hello
Note
But if you pass many arguments within double quote, all arguments will be treated as a single
argument only.
Example
./program "hello c how r u"
Program name is: program
First argument is: hello c how r u
You can write your program to print all the arguments. In this program, we are printing
only argv[1], that is why it is printing only one argument.

C PROGRAMMING Page 235

Example3
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
int i;
clrscr();
printf("Total number of arguments: %d",argc);
for(i=0;i< argc;i++)
{
printf("\n %d argument: %s",i,argv[i]);
getch();
}
}

Output
C:/TC/BIN>TCC mycmd.c
C:/TC/BIN>mycmd 10 20
Number of Arguments: 3
0 arguments c:/tc/bin/mycmd.exe
1 arguments: 10
2 arguments: 20
Note: In above output we passed two arguments but is show "Number of Arguments: 3"
because argc take Number of arguments in the command line including program name. So here
two arguments and one program name (mycmd.exe) total 3 arguments.

C PROGRAMMING Page 236

Example4:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
clrscr();
printf("\n Program name : %s \n", argv[0]);
printf("1st arg : %s \n", argv[1]);
printf("2nd arg : %s \n", argv[2]);
printf("3rd arg : %s \n", argv[3]);
printf("4th arg : %s \n", argv[4]);
printf("5th arg : %s \n", argv[5]);
getch();
}
Output
C:/TC/BIN>TCC mycmd.c
C:/TC/BIN>mycmd this is a program
C PROGRAMMING Page 237
Program name : c:/tc/bin/mycmd.c
1st arg : this
2nd arg : is
3rd arg : a
4th arg : program
5th arg : (null)
Explanation: In the above example.
argc = 5
argv[0] = "mycmd"
argv[1] = "this"
argv[2] = "is"
argv[3] = "a"
argv[4] = "program"
argv[5] = NULL
Why command line arguments program not directly run form TC IDE
Command line arguments related programs are not execute directly from TC IDE because
arguments can not be passed.
Edit Command Line Argument Program
To Edit the Command Line Argument Program use edit Command.
Syntax
C:/cprogram>edit mycmd.c

UNIT IV
STRUCTURES, UNIONS, ENUMERATIONS AND TYPEDEF

Structure Definition
Structure is a user defined data type which hold or store heterogeneous/different types data item
or element in a single variable. It is a Combination of primitive and derived data type.

or

C PROGRAMMING Page 238

A structure is a collection of one or more data items of different data types, grouped together
under a single name.

Variables inside the structure are called members of structure.

Each element of a structure is called a member.

struct keyword is used to define/create a structure. struct define a new data type which is a
collection of different type of data.

Syntax

struct structure_name /tag name

data_type member1;

data_type member2;

data_type member n;

};

Note: Don't forget the semicolon }; in the ending line.

Example

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

};

C PROGRAMMING Page 239

Here, struct is the keyword, employee is the tag name of
structure; id, name and salary are the members or fields of the structure. Let's
understand it by the diagram given below:

Syntax to create structure variable

struct tagname/structure_name variable;

Declaring structure variable

We can declare variable for the structure, so that we can access the member of structure easily.
There are two ways to declare structure variable:

1. By struct keyword within main() function/ Declaring Structure variables separately

2. By declaring variable at the time of defining structure/ Declaring Structure Variables

with Structure definition

1st way:

Let's see the example to declare structure variable by struct keyword. It should be declared
within the main function.

struct employee

{ int id;

C PROGRAMMING Page 240

char name[50];

float salary;

};

Now write given code inside the main() function.

struct employee e1, e2;

2nd way:

Let's see another way to declare variable at the time of defining structure.

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

}e1,e2;

Which approach is good

But if no. of variable are not fixed, use 1st approach. It provides you flexibility to declare the
structure variable many times.

If no. of variables are fixed, use 2nd approach. It saves your code to declare variable in main()
function.

Structure Initialization
structure variable can also be initialized at compile time.

struct Patient

float height;

int weight;

C PROGRAMMING Page 241

int age;

};

struct Patient p1 = { 180.75 , 73, 23 }; //initialization

or

struct patient p1;

p1.height = 180.75; //initialization of each member separately

p1.weight = 73;

p1.age = 23;

Accessing Structures/ Accessing members of structure

There are two ways to access structure members:

1. By . (member or dot operator)

2. By -> (structure pointer operator)

When the variable is normal type then go for struct to member operator.

When the variable is pointer type then go for pointer to member operator.

Any member of a structure can be accessed as:

structure_variable_name.member_name

Example

struct book

char name[20];

char author[20];

int pages;

};

C PROGRAMMING Page 242

struct book b1;

for accessing the structure members from the above example

b1.name, b1.author, b1.pages:

Example

struct emp

int id;

char name[36];

int sal;

};

sizeof(struct emp) // --> 40 byte (2byte+36byte+2byte)

Example of Structure in C

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

struct emp

int id;

char name[36];

float sal;

};

void main()

struct emp e;

clrscr();

printf("Enter employee Id, Name, Salary: ");

C PROGRAMMING Page 243

scanf("%d",&e.id);

scanf("%s",&e.name);

scanf("%f",&e.sal);

printf("Id: %d",e.id);

printf("\nName: %s",e.name);

printf("\nSalary: %f",e.sal);

getch();

Output

Output: Enter employee Id, Name, Salary: 5 Spidy 45000

Id : 05

Name: Spidy

Salary: 45000.00

Example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

}e1; //declaring e1 variable for structure

int main( )

//store first employee information

C PROGRAMMING Page 244

e1.id=101;

strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);

printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);

return 0;

Output:

employee 1 id : 101

employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

Difference Between Array and Structure

Structure is the collection of

1 Array is collection of homogeneous data.
heterogeneous data.
Structure elements are access using .
2 Array data are access using index.
operator.
3 Array allocates static memory. Structures allocate dynamic memory.
Array element access takes less time than Structure elements takes more time than
4
structures. Array.

Nested Structures
structure can have another structure as a member. There are two ways to define nested structure
in c language:

1. By separate structure

2. By Embedded structure

1) Separate structure

We can create 2 structures, but dependent structure should be used inside the main structure as a
member. Let's see the code of nested structure.
C PROGRAMMING Page 245
struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

};

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date doj;

}emp1;

2) Embedded structure

struct Employee

int id;

char name[20];

struct Date

int dd;

int mm;

int yyyy;

}doj;

}emp1;

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Accessing Nested Structure

We can access the member of nested structure by Outer_Structure.Nested_Structure.member as

given below:

e1.doj.dd

e1.doj.mm

e1.doj.yyyy

Arrays of Structures
Array of structures to store much information of different data types. Each element of the array
representing a structure variable. The array of structures is also known as collection of
structures.

Ex : if you want to handle more records within one structure, we need not specify the number of
structure variable. Simply we can use array of structure variable to store them in one structure
variable.

Example : struct employee emp[5];

Example of structure with array that stores information of 5 students and prints it.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

struct student{

int rollno;

char name[10];

};

void main(){

int i;

struct student st[5];

clrscr();

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printf("Enter Records of 5 students");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nEnter Rollno:");

scanf("%d",&st[i].rollno);

printf("\nEnter Name:");

scanf("%s",&st[i].name);

printf("\nStudent Information List:");

for(i=0;i<5;i++){

printf("\nRollno:%d, Name:%s",st[i].rollno,st[i].name);

getch();

Output:

Enter Records of 5 students

Enter Rollno:1

Enter Name:Sonoo

Enter Rollno:2

Enter Name:Ratan

Enter Rollno:3

Enter Name:Vimal

Enter Rollno:4

Enter Name:James

Enter Rollno:5

Enter Name:Sarfraz

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Student Information List:

Rollno:1, Name:Sonoo

Rollno:2, Name:Ratan

Rollno:3, Name:Vimal

Rollno:4, Name:James

Rollno:5, Name:Sarfraz

Structures and Functions

A structure can be passed as a function argument just like any other variable. This raises a few
practical issues.

PASSING STRUCTURE TO FUNCTION IN C:

It can be done in below 3 ways.

1. Passing structure to a function by value

2. Passing structure to a function by address(reference)

3. No need to pass a structure – Declare structure variable as global

The general format of sending a copy of a structure to the called function is:

Function_name(structure_variable_name);

The called function takes the following form:

data_type function_name(struct tag_name var)

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----------

----------

return(exp);

PASSING STRUCTURE TO FUNCTION IN C BY VALUE:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student

int id;

char name[20];

float percentage;

};

void func(struct student record);

int main()

struct student record;

record.id=1;

strcpy(record.name, "Raju");

record.percentage = 86.5;

func(record);

return 0;

void func(struct student record)

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{

printf(" Id is: %d \n", record.id);

printf(" Name is: %s \n", record.name);

printf(" Percentage is: %f \n", record.percentage);

Output

Id is: 1

Name is: Raju

Percentage is: 86.500000

PASSING STRUCTURE TO FUNCTION IN C BY ADDRESS:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student

int id;

char name[20];

float percentage;

};

void func(struct student *record);

int main()

struct student record;

record.id=1;

strcpy(record.name, "Raju");

record.percentage = 86.5;

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func(&record);

return 0;

void func(struct student *record)

printf(" Id is: %d \n", record->id);

printf(" Name is: %s \n", record->name);

printf(" Percentage is: %f \n", record->percentage);

EXAMPLE PROGRAM TO DECLARE A STRUCTURE VARIABLE AS GLOBAL IN

C:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student

int id;

char name[20];

float percentage;

};

struct student record; // Global declaration of structure

void structure_demo();

int main()

record.id=1;

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strcpy(record.name, "Raju");

record.percentage = 86.5;

structure_demo();

return 0;

void structure_demo()

printf(" Id is: %d \n", record.id);

printf(" Name is: %s \n", record.name);

printf(" Percentage is: %f \n", record.percentage);

Passing a copy of entire structure to a function

struct std

int no;

float avg;

};

struct std a;

void fun(struct std p);

void main()

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{

clrscr();

a.no=12;

a.avg=13.76;

fun(a);

getch();

void fun(struct std p)

printf("number is%d\n",p.no);

printf("average is%f\n",p.avg);

Passing Structures through Pointers

Example

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student

int id;

char name[30];

float percentage;

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};

int main()

int i;

struct student record1 = {1, "Raju", 90.5};

struct student *ptr;

ptr = &record1;

printf("Records of STUDENT1: \n");

printf(" Id is: %d \n", ptr->id);

printf(" Name is: %s \n", ptr->name);

printf(" Percentage is: %f \n\n", ptr->percentage);

return 0;

OUTPUT:

Records of STUDENT1:
Id is: 1
Name is: Raju

Percentage is: 90.500000

Self‐referential Structures
A structure consists of at least a pointer member pointing to the same structure is known as a
self-referential structure. A self referential structure is used to create data structures like linked
lists, stacks, etc. Following is an example of this kind of structure:

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A self-referential structure is one of the data structures which refer to the pointer to (points) to
another structure of the same type. For example, a linked list is supposed to be a self-referential
data structure. The next node of a node is being pointed, which is of the same struct type. For
example,

Syntax : struct tag_name

type member1;

type membere2;

: :

: :

typeN memberN;

struct tag_name *name;

Where *name refers to the name of a pointer variable.

Ex:

struct emp

int code;

struct emp *name;

Unions
A union is a special data type available in C that allows to store different data types in the same
memory location.

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Unions are conceptually similar to structures. The syntax of union is also similar to that of
structure. The only difference is in terms of storage. In structure each member has its own
storage location, whereas all members of union use a single shared memory location which is
equal to the size of its largest data member.

We can access only one member of union at a time. We can‟t access all member values at the
same time in union. But, structure can access all member values at the same time. This is
because, Union allocates one common storage space for all its members. Where as Structure
allocates storage space for all its members separately.

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syntax

union union_name

data_type member1;

data_type member2;

data_type memeberN;

};

Example
union employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

float salary;

};

Example

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#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

union employee

{ int id;

char name[50];

}e1; //declaring e1 variable for union

int main( )

//store first employee information

e1.id=101;

strcpy(e1.name, "Sonoo Jaiswal");//copying string into char array

//printing first employee information

printf( "employee 1 id : %d\n", e1.id);

printf( "employee 1 name : %s\n", e1.name);

return 0;

Output:

employee 1 id : 1869508435

employee 1 name : Sonoo Jaiswal

As you can see, id gets garbage value because name has large memory size. So only name will
have actual value.

Example
#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

union item

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{

int a;

float b;

char ch;

};

int main( )

union item it;

it.a = 12;

it.b = 20.2;

it.ch='z';

clrscr();

printf("%d\n",it.a);

printf("%f\n",it.b);

printf("%c\n",it.ch);

getch();

return 0;

Output

-26426

20.1999

As you can see here, the values of a and b get corrupted and only variable c prints the expected
result. Because in union, the only member whose value is currently stored will have the memory.

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Difference between Structure and Union

Structure Union

For defining structure use

1 For defining union we use union keyword
struct keyword.

Structure occupies more

2 Union occupies less memory space than Structure.
memory space than union.

In Structure we can access

3 all members of structure at a In union we can access only one member of union at a time.
time.

Structure allocates separate Union allocates one common storage space for its all
4 storage space for its every members. Union find which member need more memory
members. than other member, then it allocate that much space

Bit‐Fields

Syntax
struct {

type [member_name] : width ;

};

The following table describes the variable elements of a bit field −

Elements Description

type An integer type that determines how a bit-field's value is interpreted.

The type may be int, signed int, or unsigned int.

member_name The name of the bit-field.

width The number of bits in the bit-field. The width must be less than or equal
to the bit width of the specified type.

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The variables defined with a predefined width are called bit fields. A bit field can hold more
than a single bit; for example, if you need a variable to store a value from 0 to 7, then you can
define a bit field with a width of 3 bits as follows −

struct {

unsigned int age : 3;

} Age;

The above structure definition instructs the C compiler that the age variable is going to use only
3 bits to store the value. If you try to use more than 3 bits, then it will not allow you to do so. Let
us try the following example –

#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct {

unsigned int age : 3;

} Age;

int main( ) {

Age.age = 4;

printf( "Sizeof( Age ) : %d\n", sizeof(Age) );

printf( "Age.age : %d\n", Age.age );

Age.age = 7;

printf( "Age.age : %d\n", Age.age );

Age.age = 8;

printf( "Age.age : %d\n", Age.age );

return 0;

Output

Sizeof( Age ) : 4

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Age.age : 4

Age.age : 7

Age.age : 0

typedef
The typedef is a keyword that allows the programmer to create a new data type name for an
existing data type. So, the purpose of typedef is to redefine the name of an existing variable type.

Syntax

typedef datatype alias_name;

Example of typedef

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

typedef int Intdata; // Intdata is alias name of int

void main()

int a=10;

Integerdata b=20;

typedef Intdata Integerdata; // Integerdata is again alias name of Intdata

Integerdata s;

clrscr();

s=a+b;

printf("\n Sum:= %d",s);

getch();

Output

Sum: 20

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Advantages of typedef :

1 : Provides a meaningful way of declaring the variable.

2 : Increase the readability of the program.

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()

typedef int digits;

digits a,b,sum;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a and b values:");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

sum=a+b;

printf("The sum is:%d",sum);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 264

Note: By using typedef only we can create the alias name and it is under control of compiler.

Application of typedef

typedef can be used to give a name to user defined data type as well. Lets see its use with
structures.

typedef struct

type member1;

type member2;

type member3;

} type_name ;

C PROGRAMMING Page 265

Here type_name represents the stucture definition associated with it. Now this type_name can
be used to declare a variable of this stucture type.

type_name t1, t2 ;

Example of structure definition using typedef

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

#include<string.h>

typedef struct employee

char name[50];

int salary;

} emp ;

void main( )

emp e1;

printf("\nEnter Employee record\n");

printf("\nEmployee name\t");

scanf("%s",e1.name);

printf("\nEnter Employee salary \t");

scanf("%d",&e1.salary);

printf("\nstudent name is %s",e1.name);

printf("\nroll is %d",e1.salary);

getch();

C PROGRAMMING Page 266

typedef and Pointers

typedef can be used to give an alias name to pointers also. Here we have a case in which use of
typedef is beneficial during pointer declaration.

In Pointers * binds to the right and not the left.

int* x, y ;

By this declaration statement, we are actually declaring x as a pointer of type int, whereas y will
be declared as a plain integer.

typedef int* IntPtr ;

IntPtr x, y, z;

But if we use typedef like in above example, we can declare any number of pointers in a single
statement.

NOTE : If you do not have any prior knowledge of pointers, do study Pointers first.

Enumerations
An enum is a keyword, it is an user defined data type. All properties of integer are applied on
Enumeration data type so size of the enumerator data type is 2 byte. It work like the Integer.

It is used for creating an user defined data type of integer. Using enum we can create sequence of
integer constant value.

Syntax

enum tagname {value1, value2, value3,....};

 In above syntax enum is a keyword. It is a user defiend data type.

 In above syntax tagname is our own variable. tagname is any variable name.

 value1, value2, value3,.... are create set of enum values.

C PROGRAMMING Page 267

It is start with 0 (zero) by default and value is incremented by 1 for the sequential identifiers in
the list. If constant one value is not initialized then by default sequence will be start from zero
and next to generated value should be previous constant value one.

Example of Enumeration in C

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

enum ABC {x,y,z};

void main()

int a;

clrscr();

a=x+y+z; //0+1+2

printf("Sum: %d",a);

getch();

Output

Sum: 3

Example of Enumeration in C

#include<stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 268

#include<conio.h>

enum week {sun, mon, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat};

void main()

enum week today;

today=tue;

printf("%d day",today+1);

getch();

Output

3 day

Example of Enumeration in C

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

enum week {sun, mon, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat};

void main()

for(i=sun; i<=sat; i++)

printf("%d ",i);

getch();

Output

In above code replace sun, mon, tue,.... with Equivalent numeric value 0, 1, 2,...

C PROGRAMMING Page 269

UNIT – V
FILE
Why files are needed?

 When a program is terminated, the entire data is lost. Storing in a file will preserve your
data even if the program terminates.

 If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time to enter them all.
However, if you have a file containing all the data, you can easily access the contents of
the file using few commands in C.

 You can easily move your data from one computer to another without any changes.

File I/O:-

Sometimes it is necessary to store the data in a manner that can be later retrieved and displayed
either in a part or in whole. This medium is usually a “file” on the disk. File I/O can be handled
by using different functions.

a) Formatted functions:- The file input function fscanf( ) and the file output function fprintf( )
are called formatted file I/O functions.

b)Unformatted functions:- The input functions like getc( ), getw( ), and fread( ) are called
unformatted file input functions and putc( ), putw( ), and fwrite( ) functions are unformatted file
output functions. Each and every function is having its own syntax and meaning.

File streams:- Stream is either reading or writing of data. The streams are designed to allow the
user to access the files efficiently. A stream is a file or physical device like key board, printer,
monitor, etc., The FILE object uses these devices. When a C program is started, the operating
system is responsible for opening three streams: standard input stream (stdin), standard output
stream (stdout), standard error(stderr).Normally the stdin is connected to the keyboard, the
stdout and stderr are connected to the monitor.

Files
File is a collection of bytes that is stored on secondary storage devices like Hard disk.

OR

A file represents a sequence of bytes on the disk where a group of related data is stored. File is
created for permanent storage of data. It is a ready made structure.

Note:

C PROGRAMMING Page 270

All files related function are available in stdio.h header file.

Types of Files

When dealing with files, there are two types of files you should know about:

1. Text files

2. Binary files

1. Text files
Text files are the normal .txt files that you can easily create using Notepad or any simple text
editors.
When you open those files, you'll see all the contents within the file as plain text. You can easily
edit or delete the contents.
They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable, and provide least security and takes
bigger storage space.
2. Binary files
Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer.
Instead of storing data in plain text, they store it in the binary form (0's and 1's).
They can hold higher amount of data, are not readable easily and provides a better security than
text files.

File Operations
In C, you can perform four major operations on the file, either text or binary:
 Naming a file/Creation of new file
 Opening an existing file
 Reading data from file
 Writing data into file
 Closing a file
Steps for processing a file
 Declare a file pointer
 open a file using fopen() function
 Process the file using suitable file functions.
 close the file using fclose() function.

C PROGRAMMING Page 271

Declaration of a file
When working with files, you need to declare a pointer of type file. This declaration is needed
for communication between the file and program.
Syntax
FILE *fp;
Opening a file - for creation and edit
The fopen() function is used to create a new file or to open an existing file.
General Syntax :
fp = fopen("fileopen","mode")
For Example:
fopen("E:\\cprogram\\newprogram.txt","w");
fopen("E:\\cprogram\\oldprogram.bin","rb");
Closing a File
The file (both text and binary) should be closed after reading/writing.
Closing a file is performed using library function fclose().
fclose(fptr); //fptr is the file pointer associated with file to be closed.

File Opening Modes

Mode Description

r opens a text file in read mode

w opens a text file in write mode

a opens a text file in append mode

r+ opens a text file in read and write mode

w+ opens a text file in read and write mode

a+ opens a text file in read and write mode

rb opens a binary file in read mode

C PROGRAMMING Page 272

wb opens a binary file in write mode

ab opens a binary file in append mode

rb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

wb+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

ab+ opens a binary file in read and write mode

Difference between Append and Write Mode

Write (w) mode and Append (a) mode, while opening a file are almost the same. Both are used to
write in a file. In both the modes, new file is created if it doesn't exists already.
The only difference they have is, when you open a file in the write mode, the file is reset,
resulting in deletion of any data already present in the file. While in append mode this will not
happen. Append mode is used to append or add data to the existing data of file(if any). Hence,
when you open a file in Append(a) mode, the cursor is positioned at the end of the present data in
the file.
Formatted File I/O Functions
Syntax of fprintf is
fprintf (fp, “control string”, list);
Example: fprintf(fp1, “%s %d”, name, age);
Syntax of fscanf is,
fscanf(fp, “control string”, list);
Example: fscanf(fp, “%s %d”, name, & age);

Note:
 fscanf is used to read list of items from a file
 fprintf is used to write a list of items to a file.

Note:
EOF – End of file (when EOF encountered the reading / writing should be terminated)

C PROGRAMMING Page 273

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main(){
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("file.txt", "w");//opening file
fprintf(fp, "Hello file by fprintf...\n");//writing data into file
fclose(fp);//closing file
}

Example 1: Write to a text file using fprintf()

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num;
FILE *fptr;
fptr = fopen("C:\\program.txt","w");
if(fptr == NULL)
{
printf("Error!");
exit(1);
}
printf("Enter num: ");
scanf("%d",&num);
fprintf(fptr,"%d",num);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}

C PROGRAMMING Page 274

Example 2: Read from a text file using fscanf()
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num;
FILE *fptr;
if ((fptr = fopen("C:\\program.txt","r")) == NULL){
printf("Error! opening file");
// Program exits if the file pointer returns NULL.
exit(1);
}
fscanf(fptr,"%d", &num);
printf("Value of n=%d", num);
fclose(fptr);
return 0;
}

Input/Output Operation on files

To perform Input/Output Operation on files we need below functions.

S.No Function Operation Syntax

1 getc() Read a character from a file getc( fp)

2 putc() Write a character in file putc(c, fp)

C PROGRAMMING Page 275

3 fprintf() To write set of data in file fprintf(fp, "control string", list)

4 fscanf() To read set of data from file. fscanf(fp, "control string", list)

5 getw() To read an integer from a file. getw(fp)

6 putw() To write an integer in file. putw(integer, fp)

Unformatted File I/O Functions

fputc() function
The fputc() function is used to write a single character into file.
putc ( ):-Putting a character in to the file. It works with only character data type. One character
at a time can write into a file.
Ex: char ch =‟a‟;
putc (ch, fp);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
main(){
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("file1.txt", "w");//opening file
fputc('a',fp);//writing single character into file
fclose(fp);//closing file
}

file1.txt
a

fgetc() function
The fgetc() function returns/read a single character from the file. It gets a character from the
stream. It returns EOF at the end of file.

C PROGRAMMING Page 276

getc ( ): getting a character from the file, or reading the file information character by character at
a time, upto the end of the file by using this function.

Ex: char ch;

ch = getc (fp);

Example:
#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

FILE *fp;

char c;

clrscr();

fp=fopen("myfile.txt","r");

while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){

printf("%c",c);

fclose(fp);

getch();

myfile.txt

this is simple text message

fputs()

The fputs() function writes a line of characters into file

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

C PROGRAMMING Page 277

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

FILE *fp;

clrscr();

fp=fopen("myfile2.txt","w");

fputs("hello c programming",fp);

fclose(fp);

getch();

myfile2.txt

hello c programming

fgets()

The fgets() function reads a line of characters from file.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

FILE *fp;

char text[300];

clrscr();

fp=fopen("myfile2.txt","r");

printf("%s",fgets(text,200,fp));

fclose(fp);

C PROGRAMMING Page 278

getch();

Output:

hello c programming

The getw and putw functions:

These are integer oriented functions. These are similar to above functions and are used to read
and write integer values. These are useful when we deal with only integer data. The general
format is

putw ( ): putting or writing of an integer value to a file.

putw (integer , fp);

Ex: int x = 5;

putw(x,fp);

getw ( ): getting or reading integer value from a file.

Ex: int x;

x = getw (fp);

File Positioning Functions

fseek()

The fseek() function is used to set the file pointer to the specified offset. It is used to write data
into file at desired location.

syntax:

fseek(FILE * stream, long int offset, int whence)

C PROGRAMMING Page 279

The first parameter stream is the pointer to the file. The second parameter is the position of the
record to be found, and the third parameter specifies the location where the offset starts.

Different Whence in fseek

Whence Meaning

SEKK_SET Starts the offset from the beginning of the file.

SEKK_END Starts the offset from the end of the file.

SEKK_CUR Starts the offset from the current location of the cursor in the file.

or

fseek(file pointer, offset, position);

 file pointer is a pointer to the concerned file.

 Offset is a number or variable of type long, it specifies the number of positions (bytes) to
be moved from the location specified. If offset is positive number, then moving forward
or negative meaning move backwards.

 Position is a n integer number and it specifies from which position the file pointer to be
moved. Position can take one of the following three values.

0 beginning of file
1 current position
2 end of file

Eg: fseek (fp, 0L,0); - go to the beginning of the file. (Similar to rewind).
fseek (fp, 0L,1); - Stay at current position (Rarely used)
fseek (fp, 0L,2); -go to the end of the file, past the last character of the file.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

void main(){

C PROGRAMMING Page 280

FILE *fp;

fp = fopen("myfile.txt","w+");

fputs("This is javatpoint", fp);

fseek( fp, 7, SEEK_SET );

fputs("sonoo jaiswal", fp);

fclose(fp);

myfile.txt

This is sonoo jaiswal

rewind()

This function places the file pointer to the beginning of the file, irrespective of where it is present
right now. It takes file pointer as an argument.

Syntax:

rewind( fp);

Example:

File: file.txt

this is a simple text

Example:

#include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main(){

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FILE *fp;

char c;

clrscr();

fp=fopen("file.txt","r");

while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){

printf("%c",c);

rewind(fp);//moves the file pointer at beginning of the file

while((c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF){

printf("%c",c);

fclose(fp);

getch();

Output:

this is a simple textthis is a simple text

As you can see, rewind() function moves the file pointer at beginning of the file that is why "this
is simple text" is printed 2 times. If you don't call rewind() function, "this is simple text" will be
printed only once.

ftell()

The ftell() function returns the current file position of the specified stream. We can use ftell()
function to get the total size of a file after moving file pointer at the end of file. We can use
SEEK_END constant to move the file pointer at the end of file.

syntax:

n = ftell(fp);

n would give the relative offset(in bytes).

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Example:

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h>

void main (){

FILE *fp;

int length;

clrscr();

fp = fopen("file.txt", "r");

fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_END);

length = ftell(fp);

fclose(fp);

printf("Size of file: %d bytes", length);

getch();

Output:

Size of file: 21 bytes

INBUILT FUNCTIONS FOR FILE HANDLING IN C LANGUAGE:

File
handling functions Description

fopen () function creates a new file or opens

fopen () an existing file.

fclose () fclose () function closes an opened file.

getw () getw () function reads an integer from file.

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putw () putw () functions writes an integer to file.

fgetc () fgetc () function reads a character from file.

fputc () fputc () functions write a character to file.

gets () gets () function reads line from keyboard.

puts () puts () function writes line to o/p screen.

fgets () function reads string from a file, one

fgets () line at a time.

fputs () fputs () function writes string to a file.

feof () feof () function finds end of file.

fgetchar () function reads a character from

fgetchar () keyboard.

fprintf () function writes formatted data to a

fprintf () file.

fscanf () function reads formatted data from a

fscanf () file.

fputchar () function writes a character onto

fputchar () the output screen from keyboard input.

fseek () function moves file pointer position

fseek () to given location.

SEEK_SET moves file pointer position to the

SEEK_SET beginning of the file.

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SEEK_CUR moves file pointer position to
SEEK_CUR given location.

SEEK_END moves file pointer position to

SEEK_END the end of file.

ftell () function gives current position of file

ftell () pointer.

rewind () function moves file pointer position

rewind () to the beginning of the file.

getc () getc () function reads character from file.

getch () function reads character from

getch () keyboard.

getche () function reads character from

getche () keyboard and echoes to o/p screen.

getchar () function reads character from

getchar () keyboard.

putc () putc () function writes a character to file.

putchar () function writes a character to

putchar () screen.

printf () function writes formatted data to

printf () screen.

sprinf () function writes formatted output to

sprinf () string.

scanf ()
scanf () function reads formatted data from

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keyboard.

sscanf () function Reads formatted input from

sscanf () a string.

remove () remove () function deletes a file.

fflush () fflush () function flushes a file.

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