OBJECT ORIENTED SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

NOTES
BY-PROF.ANAND J. BHAGWAT

1
UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

Software Engineering is a discipline in which theories, methods and

tools are applied to develop professional software product. It is a
systematic and organized approach.

The software is a collection of integrated programs. Engineering is the

application of scientific and practical knowledge to invent, design, build,
maintain and improve frameworks, processes, etc.

Need of Software Engineering

The necessity of software engineering appears because of a higher rate of

progress in user requirements and the environment on which the program
is working.

2
Huge Programming: It is simpler to manufacture a wall than to a
house or building, similarly, as the measure of programming become
extensive engineering has to step to give it a scientific process.

o Adaptability: If the software procedure were not based on scientific

and engineering ideas, it would be simpler to re-create new software
than to scale an existing one.
o Cost: the cost of programming remains high if the proper process is
not adapted.
o Dynamic Nature: If the quality of the software is continually
changing, new upgrades need to be done in the existing one.
o Quality Management: Better procedure of software development
provides a better and quality software product.

The importance of Software engineering is as follows

o Reduces complexity
o To minimize software cost
o To decrease time
o Handling big projects
o Reliable software
o Effectiveness

Software Processes

The term software specifies to the set of computer programs, procedures

and associated documents (Flowcharts, manuals, etc.) that describe the
program and how they are to be used.

3
A software process is the set of activities and associated outcome that
produce a software product. Software engineers mostly carry out these
activities. These are four key process activities, which are common to all
software processes. These activities are:

1. Software specifications: The functionality of the software and

constraints on its operation must be defined.
2. Software development: The software to meet the requirement must
be produced.
3. Software validation: The software must be validated to ensure that it
does what the customer wants.

1. Software evolution: The software must evolve to meet changing

client needs.
2. A workflow model: This shows the series of activities in the process
along with their inputs, outputs and dependencies. The activities in
this model perform human actions.
3. 2. A dataflow or activity model: This represents the process as a
set of activities, each of which carries out some data transformations.
It shows how the input to the process, such as a specification is
converted to an output such as a design. The activities here may be
at a lower level than activities in a workflow model. They may perform
transformations carried out by people or by computers.
4. 3. A role/action model: This means the roles of the people involved
in the software process and the activities for which they are
responsible.

4
Software Crisis

1. Size: Software is becoming more expensive and more complex with

the growing complexity and expectation out of software.
2. For example, the code in the consumer product is doubling every
couple of years.
3. Quality: Many software products have poor quality, i.e., the software
products defects after putting into use due to ineffective testing
technique. For example, Software testing typically finds 25 errors per
1000 lines of code.
4. Cost: Software development is costly i.e. in terms of time taken to
develop and the money involved. For example, Development of the
FAA's Advanced Automation System cost over $700 per lines of
code.
5. Delayed Delivery: Very often the software takes longer than the
estimated time to develop, which in turn leads to cost shooting up.
For example, one in four large-scale development projects are never
completed.

PERSPECTIVE PROCESS MODELS

The process model can be defined as the abstract representation of

process. It is also known as software development life cycle model or
software paradigm.

Various activities are carried out in some sequence to make desired

software product.every process model consists of definite entry and exit
criteria for each process.

5
WATERFALL MODEL

Winston Royce introduced the Waterfall Model in 1970.This model has

five phases: Requirements analysis and specification, design,
implementation, and unit testing, integration and system testing, and
operation and maintenance.

The developer must complete every phase before the next phase begins.
This model is named "Waterfall Model", because its diagrammatic
representation resembles a cascade of waterfalls.

1. Requirements analysis and specification phase: The aim of this

phase is to understand the exact requirements of the customer and to
document them properly. Both the customer and the software
developer work together so as to document all the functions,
performance, and interfacing requirement of the software. It describes
the "what" of the system to be produced and not "how."

6
2. Design Phase: This phase aims to transform the requirements gathered
in the SRS into a suitable form which permits further coding in a
programming language. It defines the overall software architecture together
with high level and detailed design. All this work is documented as a
Software Design Document (SDD).

3. Implementation and unit testing: During this phase, design is

implemented. If the SDD is complete, the implementation or coding phase
proceeds smoothly, because all the information needed by software
developers is contained in the SDD.

During testing, the code is thoroughly examined and modified. Small

modules are tested in isolation initially. After that these modules are tested
by writing some overhead code to check the interaction between these
modules and the flow of intermediate output.

4. Integration and System Testing: This phase is highly crucial as the

quality of the end product is determined by the effectiveness of the testing
carried out. The better output will lead to satisfied customers, lower
maintenance costs, and accurate results. Unit testing determines the
efficiency of individual modules. However, in this phase, the modules are
tested for their interactions with each other and with the system.

5. Operation and maintenance phase: Maintenance is the task performed

by every user once the software has been delivered to the customer,
installed, and operational.

7
Advantages of Waterfall model

o This model is simple to implement also the number of resources that

are required for it is minimal.
o The requirements are simple and explicitly declared; The start and
end points for each phase is fixed, which makes it easy to cover
progress.
o It gives easy to control and clarity for the customer due to a strict
reporting system.

Disadvantages of Waterfall model

o In this model, the risk factor is higher, so this model is not suitable for
more significant and complex projects.
o This model cannot accept the changes in requirements during
development.

INCREMENTAL MODEL

Incremental Model is a process of software development where

requirements divided into multiple standalone modules of the software
development cycle. In this model, each module goes through the
requirements, design, implementation and testing phases. The process
continues until the complete system achieved.

The various phases of incremental model are as follows

1. Requirement analysis: In the first phase of the incremental model, the

product analysis expertise identifies the requirements. And the system
functional requirements are understood by the requirement analysis team.

8
To develop the software under the incremental model, this phase performs
a crucial role.

2. Design & Development: In this phase of the Incremental model of

SDLC, the design of the system functionality and the development method
are finished with success. When software develops new practicality, the
incremental model uses style and development phase.

3. Testing: In the incremental model, the testing phase checks the

performance of each existing function as well as additional functionality. In
the testing phase, the various methods are used to test the behavior of
each task.

4. Implementation: Implementation phase enables the coding phase of the

development system. It involves the final coding that design in the
designing and development phase and tests the functionality in the testing
phase. After completion of this phase, the number of the product working is
enhanced and upgraded up to the final system product

Advantage of Incremental Model

o Errors are easy to be recognized.

o Easier to test and debug
9
o More flexible.
o Simple to manage risk

Disadvantage of Incremental Model

o Need for good planning

o Total Cost is high.

RAD (Rapid Application Development) Model

RAD is a linear sequential software development process model that

emphasizes a concise development cycle using an element based
construction approach. If the requirements are well understood and
described, and the project scope is a constraint, the RAD process enables
a development team to create a fully functional system within a concise
time period.

RAD (Rapid Application Development) is a concept that products can be

developed faster and of higher quality through:

o Gathering requirements using workshops or focus groups

o Prototyping and early, reiterative user testing of designs
o The re-use of software components
o A rigidly paced schedule that refers design improvements to the next
product version
o Less formality in reviews and other team communication

10
The various phases of RAD are as follows

1. Business Modelling: The information flow among business functions is

defined by answering questions like what data drives the business process,
what data is generated, who generates it, where does the information go,
who process it and so on.

2. Data Modelling: The data collected from business modeling is refined

into a set of data objects (entities) that are needed to support the business.
The attributes (character of each entity) are identified, and the relation
between these data objects (entities) is defined.

3. Process Modelling: The information object defined in the data modeling

phase are transformed to achieve the data flow necessary to implement a
business function. Processing descriptions are created for adding,
modifying, deleting, or retrieving a data object.

4. Application Generation: Automated tools are used to facilitate

construction of the software; even they use the 4th GL techniques.
11
5. Testing & Turnover: Many of the programming components have
already been tested since RAD emphasis reuse. This reduces the overall
testing time. But the new part must be tested, and all interfaces must be
fully exercised.

Advantage of RAD Model

o This model is flexible for change.

o In this model, changes are adoptable.
o It reduced development time.
o It increases the reusability of features.

Disadvantage of RAD Model

o It required highly skilled designers.

o All application is not compatible with RAD.
o For smaller projects, we cannot use the RAD model.
o On the high technical risk, it's not suitable.
o Required user involvement

EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS MODEL

The evolutionary model is based on the concept of making an initial

product and then evolving the software product over time with iterative
and incremental approaches with proper feedback.

In this type of model, the product will go through several iterations

and come up when the final product is built through multiple iterations.
The development is carried out simultaneously with the feedback during
the development.

12
This model has a number of advantages such as customer
involvement, taking feedback from the customer during development, and
building the exact product that the user wants. Because of the multiple
iterations, the chances of errors get reduced and the reliability and
efficiency will increase.

Evolutionary Model

Advantages of the Evolutionary Process Model

1. During the development phase, the customer gives feedback regularly

because the customer’s requirement gets clearly specified.

2. After every iteration risk gets analyzed.

3. Suitable for big complex projects.

4. The first build gets delivered quickly as it used an iterative and

incremental approach.

Disadvantages

 It is not suitable for small projects.

13
 The complexity of the spiral model can be more than the other
sequential models.
 The cost of developing a product through a spiral model is high.

SPIRAL MODEL

The spiral model, initially proposed by Boehm, is an evolutionary software

process model that couples the iterative feature of prototyping with the
controlled and systematic aspects of the linear sequential model. Using the
spiral model, the software is developed in a series of incremental releases.

The Spiral Model is shown in fig

Each cycle in the spiral is divided into four parts:

Objective setting: Each cycle in the spiral starts with the identification of
purpose for that cycle, the various alternatives that are possible for
achieving the targets, and the constraints that exists.

Risk Assessment and reduction: The next phase in the cycle is to

calculate these various alternatives based on the goals and constraints.

14
The focus of evaluation in this stage is located on the risk perception for the
project.

Development and validation: The next phase is to develop strategies that

resolve uncertainties and risks. This process may include activities such as
benchmarking, simulation, and prototyping.

Planning: Finally, the next step is planned. The project is reviewed, and a
choice made whether to continue with a further period of the spiral. If it is
determined to keep, plans are drawn up for the next step of the project.

The development phase depends on the remaining risks. For

example, if performance or user-interface risks are treated more essential
than the program development risks, the next phase may be an
evolutionary development that includes developing a more detailed
prototype for solving the risks.

The risk-driven feature of the spiral model allows it to accommodate

any mixture of a specification-oriented, prototype-oriented, simulation-
oriented, or another type of approach. An essential element of the model is
that each period of the spiral is completed by a review that includes all the
products developed during that cycle, including plans for the next cycle.
The spiral model works for development as well as enhancement projects.

Advantages

o High amount of risk analysis

o Useful for large and mission-critical projects.

15
Disadvantages

o Can be a costly model to use.

o Risk analysis needed highly particular expertise
o Doesn't work well for smaller projects.

PROTOTYPE MODEL

The prototype model requires that before carrying out the development of
actual software, a working prototype of the system should be built. A
prototype is a toy implementation of the system. A prototype usually turns
out to be a very crude version of the actual system, possible exhibiting
limited functional capabilities, low reliability, and inefficient performance as
compared to actual software.

In many instances, the client only has a general view of what is expected
from the software product. In such a scenario where there is an absence of
detailed information regarding the input to the system, the processing
needs, and the output requirement, the prototyping model may be
employed.

Steps of Prototype Model

1. Requirement Gathering and Analyst

2. Quick Decision
3. Build a Prototype
4. Assessment or User Evaluation
5. Prototype Refinement
6. Engineer Product

16
Advantage of Prototype Model

1. Reduce the risk of incorrect user requirement

2. Good where requirement are changing/uncommitted
3. Regular visible process aids management
4. Support early product marketing
5. Reduce Maintenance cost.
6. Errors can be detected much earlier as the system is made side by
side.

Disadvantage of Prototype Model

1. An unstable/badly implemented prototype often becomes the final

product.
2. Require extensive customer collaboration
o Costs customer money
o Needs committed customer
17
o Difficult to finish if customer withdraw
o May be too customer specific, no broad market

THE CONCURRENT DEVELOPMENT MODEL

• The concurrent development model is called as concurrent model.
• The communication activity has completed in the first iteration and
exits in the awaiting changes state
. • The modeling activity completed its initial communication and then
go to the underdevelopment state.
• If the customer specifies the change in the requirement, then the
modeling activity moves from the under development state into the
awaiting change state.
• The concurrent process model activities moving from one state to
another state
Advantages of the concurrent development model

• This model is applicable to all types of software development processes.

• It is easy for understanding and use.

• It gives immediate feedback from testing.

• It provides an accurate picture of the current state of a project.

Disadvantages

• It needs better communication between the team members. This may not
be achieved all the time.

• It requires remembering the status of the different activities.

18
Component Based Model (CBM)
The component-based assembly model uses object-oriented
technologies. In object-oriented technologies, the emphasis is on the
creation of classes. Classes are the entities that encapsulate data and
algorithms. In component-based architecture, classes (i.e., components
required to build application) can be uses as reusable components.

This model uses various characteristics of spiral model. This model is

evolutionary by nature. Hence, software development can be done using
iterative approach. In CBD model, multiple classes can be used. These
classes are basically the prepackaged components. The model works in
following manner:

 Step-1: First identify all the required candidate components, i.e.,

classes with the help of application data and algorithms.
 Step-2: If these candidate components are used in previous software
projects then they must be present in the library.
 Step-3: Such preexisting components can be excited from the library
and used for further development.
 Step-4: But if the required component is not present in the library then
build or create the component as per requirement.
 Step-5: Place this newly created component in the library. This makes
one iteration of the system.
 Step-6: Repeat steps 1 to 5 for creating n iterations, where n denotes
the number of iterations required to develop the complete application.

19
Characteristics of Component Assembly Model:

 Uses object-oriented technology.

 Components and classes encapsulate both data and algorithms.
 Components are developed to be reusable.
 Paradigm similar to spiral model, but engineering activity involves
components.
 The system produced by assembling the correct components.

FORMAL METHODS

Formal methods are techniques we use in computer science and

software engineering to ensure the correctness of our programs and
reduction in our programs' errors. They rely on math and logic to model and
analyze system behavior, making systems more reliable and secure.

20
Why do we use formal methods?

There are multiple reasons we use formal methods for:

 Correctness and reliability: Formal methods help solve errors and

inconsistencies in software and hardware, making projects less error-
prone, more reliable, and correct.
 Early error detection: Formal methods allow us to detect errors and
inconsistencies in the early phases of our software development
cycle, reducing future losses regarding time and money.
 Fewer unambiguity: By using formal languages for system
specifications, we can clearly understand our system's behavior and
specification, so there are fewer misunderstandings between us and
the stakeholders.
 Safety critical systems: Safety critical systems refer to systems
whose failure can lead to consequences of bigger impact, such as
medical devices and aerospace, etc. Formal methods help us
maintain high safety standards for such systems.
 Verification and alidation: We can use formal verification and
validation methods to prove and ensure the correctness of our
system's hardware and software.
 Security: Formal methods help us ensure the security of our devices
by validating and verifying our systems' requirements.

Let's discuss the role of formal methods in phases of software

development.

Analysis

Formal methods are useful to remove ambiguities and inconsistencies in

21
our software application's requirements as it verifies and validates them

22
using formal verification and validation techniques. These techniques help
us better understand the requirements.

Feasibility study

We use formal methods in feasibility studies of our software project to

analyze its viability, assess risks, and ensure technical feasibility. This
enhances accuracy in decision-making and reduction in potential errors
that might occur in the future.

Design

Formal methods can be useful in the design phase of our software

application as they can help in the software architecture using formal
models to give us a road map for our software application.

Development

We can use formal specification methods in the development phase to

remove any bugs and errors in implementing our code.

Testing

We can use formal verification methods for software components or the

entire system to validate if the intent of the software application is fulfilled or
not. Moreover, the software is tested using rigorous techniques to ensure a
bug-free application.

Deployment

Formal methods can help in validating that our software application meets
the client's requirements and needs and can ensure that the deployed

23
software matches the formally verified models.

24
Maintenance

As changes are made to the software, formal methods can be used to

verify that modifications do not introduce new issues or affect existing
functionality.

Limitations of formal methods

 Complexity: For larger and more complex systems, formal methods

are difficult to apply. It can be more time and effort-consuming.
 Expensive: Formal methods are costly in terms of time and
resources as compared to traditional verification and validation
techniques.
 Limited Scope: Formal methods are suitable for a limited type of
system. For systems with rapidly changing requirements or a high
degree of uncertainty, formal methods is not suitable.
 Difficult to understand: Formal methods are highly precise and
detailed, so they can be difficult to understand for some complex
systems.

Aspect-Oriented Software Development

Aspect-oriented software development (AOSD) is a software design

solution that helps address the modularity issues that are not properly
resolved by other software approaches, like procedural, structured and
object-oriented programming (OOP). AOSD complements, rather than
replaces, these other types of software approaches.AOSD is also known as
aspect-oriented programming (AOP).

25
Aspect-Oriented Software Development

AOSD features are as follows:

 Considered a subset of post-object programming technologies

 Better software design support through isolating application business logic
from supporting and secondary functions
 Provides complementary benefits and may be used with other agile
processes and coding standards
 Key focus – Identification, representation and specification of concerns,
which also may be cross-cutting
 Provides better modularization support of software designs, reducing
software design, development and maintenance costs
 Modularization principle based on involved functionalities and processes
 Because concerns are encapsulated into different modules, localization of
crosscutting concerns is better promoted and handled
 Provides tools and software coding techniques to ensure modular content
support at the source code level
 Promotes reusability of code used for the modularization of cross-cutting
concerns
 Smaller code size, due to tackling cross cutting concerns
 REDUCED EFFICIENCY FROM INCREASED OVERHEAD

AGILE MODEL/AGILITY

The agile manifesto also called manifesto for agile software

development.The meaning of Agile is swift or versatile."Agile process
model" refers to a software development approach based on iterative
development.

26
Agile methods break tasks into smaller iterations, or parts do not
directly involve long term planning. The project scope and requirements are
laid down at the beginning of the development process. Plans regarding the
number of iterations, the duration and the scope of each iteration are
clearly defined in advance.

Each iteration is considered as a short time "frame" in the Agile process

model, which typically lasts from one to four weeks. The division of the
entire project into smaller parts helps to minimize the project risk and to
reduce the overall project delivery time requirements. Each iteration
involves a team working through a full software development life cycle
including planning, requirements analysis, design, coding, and testing

Phases of Agile Model

Following are the phases in the Agile model are as follows:

1. Requirements gathering
2. Design the requirements

27
3. Construction/ iteration

28
4. Testing/ Quality assurance
5. Deployment
6. Feedback

1. Requirements gathering: In this phase, you must define the

requirements. You should explain business opportunities and plan the time
and effort needed to build the project. Based on this information, you can
evaluate technical and economic feasibility.

2. Design the requirements: When you have identified the project, work
with stakeholders to define requirements. You can use the user flow
diagram or the high-level UML diagram to show the work of new features
and show how it will apply to your existing system.

3. Construction/ iteration: When the team defines the requirements, the

work begins. Designers and developers start working on their project,
which aims to deploy a working product. The product will undergo various
stages of improvement, so it includes simple, minimal functionality.

4. Testing: In this phase, the Quality Assurance team examines the

product's performance and looks for the bug.

5. Deployment: In this phase, the team issues a product for the user's
work environment.

6. Feedback: After releasing the product, the last step is feedback. In this,
the team receives feedback about the product and works through the
feedback.

29
The following 12 Principles are based on the Agile Manifesto.

Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through the early and
continuous delivery of valuable software.

Working software is the primary measure of progress.

Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile processes

harness change for the customer’s competitive advantage.

Agile processes promote sustainable development. The sponsors,

developers, and users should be able to maintain a constant pace
indefinitely.

Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of

months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.

Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design enhances

agility.

Business people and developers must work together daily throughout the
project.

Simplicity–the art of maximizing the amount of work not done–is essential.

Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and
support they need, and trust them to get the job done.

The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self-

organizing teams.

The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and

within a development team is face-to-face conversation.

At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective, then
tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.

Agile Testing Methods:

o Scrum
o Crystal
o Dynamic Software Development Method(DSDM)
30
o Feature Driven Development(FDD)

31
o Lean Software Development
o eXtreme Programming(XP)

Scrum

SCRUM is an agile development process focused primarily on ways to

manage tasks in team-based development conditions.

There are three roles in it, and their responsibilities are:

o Scrum Master: The scrum can set up the master team, arrange the
meeting and remove obstacles for the process
o Product owner: The product owner makes the product backlog,
prioritizes the delay and is responsible for the distribution of
functionality on each repetition.
o Scrum Team: The team manages its work and organizes the work to
complete the sprint or cycle.

eXtreme Programming(XP)

This type of methodology is used when customers are constantly changing

demands or requirements, or when they are not sure about the system's
performance.

Dynamic Software Development Method (DSDM):

DSDM is a rapid application development strategy for software

development and gives an agile project distribution structure. The
techniques used in DSDM are:

1. Time Boxing
2. MoSCoW Rules
32
3. Prototyping

The DSDM project contains seven stages:

1. Pre-project
2. Feasibility Study
3. Business Study
4. Functional Model Iteration
5. Design and build Iteration
6. Implementation
7. Post-project

Feature Driven Development(FDD):

This method focuses on "Designing and Building" features. In contrast to

other smart methods, FDD describes the small steps of the work that
should be obtained separately per function.

Lean Software Development:

Lean software development methodology follows the principle "just in time

production." The lean method indicates the increasing speed of software
development and reducing costs.

Advantage(Pros) of Agile Method:

1. Frequent Delivery
2. Face-to-Face Communication with clients.
3. Efficient design and fulfils the business requirement.
4. Anytime changes are acceptable.
5. It reduces total development time.

33
Disadvantages(Cons) of Agile Model:

1. Due to the shortage of formal documents, it creates confusion and

crucial decisions taken throughout various phases can be
misinterpreted at any time by different team members.
2. Due to the lack of proper documentation, once the project completes
and the developers allotted to another project, maintenance of the
finished project can become a difficulty.

What is Extreme Programming?

XP is a lightweight, efficient, low-risk, flexible, predictable, scientific,

and fun way to develop a software.eXtreme Programming (XP) was
conceived and developed to address the specific needs of software
development by small teams in the face of vague and changing
requirements.

Extreme Programming builds on these activities and coding. It is the

detailed (not the only) design activity with multiple tight feedback loops
through effective implementation, testing and refactoring continuously.

Extreme Programming is based on the following values −

 Communication
 Simplicity
 Feedback
 Courage
 Respect

34
Extreme Programming is one of the Agile software development
methodologies. It provides values and principles to guide the team
behavior. The team is expected to self-organize. Extreme Programming
provides specific core practices where −

 Each practice is simple and self-complete.

 Combination of practices produces more complex and emergent
behavior.

Why is it called “Extreme?”

Extreme Programming takes the effective principles and practices to

extreme levels.

 Code reviews are effective as the code is reviewed all the time.
 Testing is effective as there is continuous regression and testing.
 Design is effective as everybody needs to do refactoring daily.
 Integration testing is important as integrate and test several times a
day.
 Short iterations are effective as the planning game for release
planning and iteration planning.

35
History of Extreme Programming

Kent Beck, Ward Cunningham and Ron Jeffries formulated extreme

Programming in 1999. The other contributors are Robert Martin and Martin
Fowler.

Extreme Programming Advantages

Extreme Programming solves the following problems often faced in the

software development projects −

 Slipped schedules − and achievable development cycles ensure

timely deliveries.
 Cancelled projects − Focus on continuous customer involvement
ensures transparency with the customer and immediate resolution of
any issues.
 Costs incurred in changes − Extensive and ongoing testing makes
sure the changes do not break the existing functionality. A running
working system always ensures sufficient time for accommodating
changes such that the current operations are not affected.

36
 Production and post-delivery defects: Emphasis is on − the unit
tests to detect and fix the defects early.
 Misunderstanding the business and/or domain − Making the
customer a part of the team ensures constant communication and
clarifications.
 Business changes − Changes are considered to be inevitable and
are accommodated at any point of time.
 Staff turnover − Intensive team collaboration ensures enthusiasm
and good will. Cohesion of multi-disciplines fosters the team spirit.

Good practices need to be practiced in extreme programming:

Some of the good practices that have been recognized in the extreme
programming model and suggested to maximize their use are given below:

 Code Review: Code review detects and corrects errors efficiently. It

suggests pair programming as coding and reviewing of written code
carried out by a pair of programmers who switch their work between
them every hour.

 Testing: Testing code helps to remove errors and improves its

reliability. XP suggests test-driven development (TDD) to continually
write and execute test cases. In the TDD approach, test cases are
written even before any code is written.

 Incremental development: Incremental development is very good

because customer feedback is gained and based on this development
team comes up with new increments every few days after each iteration.

37
 Simplicity: Simplicity makes it easier to develop good-quality code as
well as to test and debug it.

 Design: Good quality design is important to develop good quality

software. So, everybody should design daily.

 Integration testing: It helps to identify bugs at the interfaces of different

functionalities. Extreme programming suggests that the developers
should achieve continuous integration by building and performing
integration testing several times a day.

38
UNIT II

1. REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS

Software requirement analysis simply means complete study, analyzing,

describing software requirements so that requirements that are genuine and needed can
be fulfilled to solve problem. There are several activities involved in analyzing Software
requirements. Some of them are given below

Requirements analysis and feature creep

Requirements analysis and clear communication help to prevent feature creep in software
projects. Also known as scope creep, feature creep refers to the addition of excessive
features to a product, which often makes it overly complex and difficult to use.

Requirements analysis process

Requirements analysis is a multistage process that involves the following steps.

1. Understand the key stakeholders and end users

In any project, the key stakeholders, including end users, generally have final say on the
project scope. Project teams should identify them early and involve them in the
requirements gathering process from the beginning.

39
2. Understand the project goal

To capture all necessary requirements, project teams must first understand the project's
objective. What business need drives the project? What problem is the product meant to
solve? By understanding the desired end, the project team can define the problem
statement and have more productive discussions when gathering requirements.

3. Capture requirements

At this stage, all relevant stakeholders provide requirements. This can be done through
one-on-one interviews, focus groups or consideration of use cases. Project teams gather
stakeholder feedback and incorporate it into requirements.

4. Categorize requirements

Categorization of requirements can help with prioritization, impact analysis, feasibility

analysis and conflict resolution. Four common requirements categories are the following:

1. Functional requirements.

2. Technical requirements.

3. Transitional requirements.

4. Operational requirements.
5. Interpret and document requirements

Post-categorization, the project team should analyze its set of requirements to determine
which ones are feasible. Interpretation and analysis are easier when requirements are well
defined and clearly worded. Each requirement should have a clear and understood impact
on the end product and the project plan. After all the requirements have been identified,
prioritized and analyzed, project teams should document them in the software
requirements specification (SRS).

40
6. Finalize SRS and get sign-off on requirements

The SRS should be shared with key stakeholders for sign-off to ensure that they agree
with the requirements. This helps prevent conflicts or disagreements later. Feedback, if
any, should be incorporated. The SRS can then be finalized and made available to the
entire development team. This document provides the foundation for the project's scope
and guides other steps during the software development lifecycle (SDLC), including
development and testing.

2. REQUIREMENT GATHERINGR

A requirement gathering is the process of identifying your project's exact requirements

from start to finish. This process occurs during the project initiation phase but you'll
continue to manage your project requirements throughout the entire project timeline.

Step 1: Assign roles

The first step in requirements gathering is to assign roles in your project. This is when you
identify your project stakeholders.
A stakeholder is anyone invested in the project, whether they’re internal or external
partners. For example, a customer is an external stakeholder, while a department
manager or board member is an internal stakeholder. Identifying these roles first will help
you determine who should analyze your project scope later on.
Other roles include the project manager, project administrator, designers, product testers,
and developers. These people can help you identify the requirements and resources you
need in order to hit your project goals.
While you may feel tempted to jump headfirst into your project and start listing all the
things you know you’ll need, this can be a mistake. Slow down and stick to the process
and you’ll have a better chance of preventing project risk.

41
Step 2: Meet with stakeholders
Once you’ve identified your project stakeholders, meet with them to get an idea of what
they’re hoping to get out of the project. Understanding what stakeholders want matters
because they’re ultimately the ones you’re creating your deliverables for.
Some questions you can ask include:
 What is your goal for this project?
 What do you think would make this project successful?
 What are your concerns about this project?
 What do you wish this product or service would do that it doesn’t already?
 What changes would you recommend about this project?
The stakeholders are the people you’re ultimately developing the project for, so you
should ask them questions that can help you create your list of requirements.

Step 3: Gather and document

Step three in the process happens at the same time as step two. You’ll gather information
as you ask your stakeholders questions. The goal is to document everything you can, so
have all of the answers you need to start your project.
Use a project management tool to collect and document this information. That way, you
can keep your project plan, project requirements, and project communication all in one
place. Some examples of what you might document include:
 Stakeholder answers to interview questions
 Stakeholder questions
 Stakeholder requests
 Stakeholder comments
 Questions and comments that arise during interviews
You don’t have to use every answer you receive, but having everything documented can
help you see all of your stakeholders’ perspectives, which will help you with requirements
management.

42
Step 4: List assumptions and requirements
Now that you’ve completed the intake process, create your requirements management
plan based on the information you’ve gathered.
Consider the questions you initially set out to answer during the requirements gathering
process. Then, use them to create your requirements goals, including:
 Length of project schedule: You can map out your project timeline using a Gantt chart and
use it to visualize any project requirements that depend on project milestones. Some
requirements will apply for the full duration of the project, whereas others may only apply
during distinct project phases. For example, you’ll need a specific budget for team
member salaries throughout the entire project, but you may only need specific material
during the last stage of your project timeline.
 People involved in the project: Identify exactly which team members will be involved in
your project, including how many designers, developers, or managers you’ll need to
execute every step. People are part of your project requirements because if you don’t
have the team members you need, you won’t be able to complete the project on time.
 Project risks: Understanding your project risks is an important part of identifying project
requirements. Use a risk register to determine which risks are of highest priority, such as
stakeholder feedback, timeline delays, and lack of budget. Then, schedule a brainstorming
session with your team to figure out how to prevent these risks.
Like SMART goals, your project requirements should be actionable, measurable, and
quantifiable. Try to go into as much detail as possible when listing out your project budget,
timeline, required resources, and team.

Step 5: Get approval

Once you formalize your project requirements, you’ll need approval from stakeholders to
ensure you’re meeting user needs. Encouraging clear communication can also
prevent scope creep by ensuring your stakeholders know the limits of the project from the
beginning. You can then proceed with your implementation plan, which may include
acquiring resources and assembling a team.
43
Step 6: Monitor progress
The last part of the process is monitoring the progress of your project. You can use project
management software to track your project budget and other requirements as you move
through project execution. The benefit of project management software is that you can see
changes to your project in real-time and take immediate action when things go awry.

3. FUNCTIONAL VS NON FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS

Functional Requirements
These are the requirements that the end user specifically demands as basic facilities
that the system should offer. All these functionalities need to be necessarily
incorporated into the system as a part of the contract.
These are represented or stated in the form of input to be given to the system, the
operation performed and the output expected. They are the requirements stated by the
user which one can see directly in the final product, unlike the non-functional
requirements.
Example:
 What are the features that we need to design for this system?
 What are the edge cases we need to consider, if any, in our design?
Non-Functional Requirements
These are the quality constraints that the system must satisfy according to the project
contract. The priority or extent to which these factors are implemented varies from one
project to another. They are also called non-behavioral requirements. They deal with
issues like:
 Portability
 Security
 Maintainability
44
 Reliability
 Scalability
 Performance
 Reusability
 Flexibility
Example:
 Each request should be processed with the minimum latency?
 System should be highly valuable.

Extended Requirements
These are basically “nice to have” requirements that might be out of the scope of the
System.
Example:
 Our system should record metrices and analytics.
 Service heath and performance monitoring.
Difference between Functional Requirements and Non-Functional Requirements
Functional Requirements Non Functional Requirements

A non-functional requirement
A functional requirement defines a
defines the quality attribute of a
system or its component.
software system.

It places constraints on “How

It specifies “What should the
should the software system fulfill
software system do?”
the functional requirements?”

Non-functional requirement is
Functional requirement is specified by technical peoples e.g.
specified by User. Architect, Technical leaders and
software developers.

It is mandatory. It is not mandatory.

It is captured in use case. It is captured as a quality attribute.

Defined at a component level. Applied to a system as a whole.

4. FEASIBILITY STUDY

45
Feasibility Study in Software Engineering is a study to evaluate feasibility of
proposed project or system. Feasibility study is one of stage among important four
stages of Software Project Management Process. As name suggests feasibility study is
the feasibility analysis or it is a measure of the software product in terms of how much
beneficial product development will be for the organization in a practical point of view.
Feasibility study is carried out based on many purposes to analyze whether software
product will be right in terms of development, implantation, contribution of project to the
organization etc.
TYPES OF FEASIBILITY STUDY
The feasibility study mainly concentrates on below five mentioned areas. Among these
Economic Feasibility Study is most important part of the feasibility analysis and Legal
Feasibility Study is less considered feasibility analysis.
1. Technical Feasibility: This technical feasibility study gives report whether there
exists correct required resources and technologies which will be used for project
development. Along with this, feasibility study also analyzes technical skills and
capabilities of technical team, existing technology can be used or not,
2. Operational Feasibility: In Operational Feasibility degree of providing service to
requirements is analyzed along with how much easy product will be to operate and
maintenance after deployment.

3. Economic Feasibility: In Economic Feasibility study cost and benefit of the project
is analyzed.
4. Legal Feasibility: In Legal Feasibility study project is analyzed in legality point of
view. Overall it can be said that Legal Feasibility if proposed project conform legal
and ethical requirements.
5. Schedule Feasibility: In Schedule Feasibility Study mainly timelines/deadlines is
analyzed for proposed project which includes how many times teams will take to
complete final project which has a great impact on the organization as purpose of
project may fail if it can’t be completed on time.
7. Cultural and Political Feasibility: This section assesses how the software project
will affect the political environment and organizational culture.
8. Market Feasibility: This refers to evaluating the market’s willingness and ability to
accept the suggested software system. Analyzing the target market, understanding
consumer wants and assessing possible rivals are all part of this study.
9. Resource Feasibility: This method evaluates if the resources needed to complete
the software project successfully It guarantees that sufficient hardware, software,
trained labor and funding are available to complete the project successfully.
Aim of Feasibility Study
 The overall objective of the organization are covered and contributed by the system
or not.
 The implementation of the system be done using current technology or not.

46
 Can the system be integrated with the other system which are already exist

Feasibility Study Process

The below steps are carried out during entire feasibility analysis.
1. Information assessment: It assesses the original project concept and establishes the
main aims and objectives.
2. Information collection: It collects the necessary information and data required to
evaluate the project’s many components.
3. Report writing: It produces an in-depth feasibility report that details the analysis and
results.
4. General information: It gives a summary of the main points discussed in the report on
the feasibility study.

STATE MACHINE DIAGRAMS

 State Machine diagrams are also referred to as State Machines Diagrams and State-
Chart Diagrams.
 These terms are often used interchangeably. So simply, a state machine diagram is
used to model the dynamic behavior of a class in response to time and changing
external stimuli.
 We can say that each and every class has a state but we don’t model every class
using State Machine diagrams.
 We prefer to model the states with three or more states.
Let’s understand State Machine Diagram with the help of an example:
Example:

47
The State Machine Diagram above shows the different states in which the verification
sub-system or class exist for a particular system.
2. Basic components and notations of a State Machine diagram
2.1. Initial state
We use a black filled circle represent the initial state of a System or a Class.

2.2. Transition
We use a solid arrow to represent the transition or change of control from one state to
another. The arrow is labelled with the event which causes the change in state.

2.3. State
We use a rounded rectangle to represent a state. A state represents the conditions or
circumstances of an object of a class at an instant of time.

2.4. Fork
We use a rounded solid rectangular bar to represent a Fork notation with incoming
arrow from the parent state and outgoing arrows towards the newly created states. We
use the fork notation to represent a state splitting into two or more concurrent states.

48
2.5. Join
We use a rounded solid rectangular bar to represent a Join notation with incoming
arrows from the joining states and outgoing arrow towards the common goal state. We
use the join notation when two or more states concurrently converge into one on the
occurrence of an event or events.

2.6. Self transition

We use a solid arrow pointing back to the state itself to represent a self transition. There
might be scenarios when the state of the object does not change upon the occurrence of
an event. We use self transitions to represent such cases.

2.7. Composite state

We use a rounded rectangle to represent a composite state also. We represent a state
with internal activities using a composite state.

2.8. Final State

We use a filled circle within a circle notation to represent the final state in a state
machine diagram.

3. How to draw a State Machine diagram in UML?

49
Below are the steps of how to draw the State Machine Diagram in UML:
Step1. Identify the System:
 Understand what your diagram is representing.
 Whether it’s a machine, a process, or any object, know what different situations or
conditions it might go through.
Step2. Identify Initial and Final States:
 Figure out where your system starts (initial state) and where it ends (final state).
 These are like the beginning and the end points of your system’s journey.
Step3. Identify Possible States:
 Think about all the different situations your system can be in.
 These are like the various phases or conditions it experiences.
 Use boundary values to guide you in defining these states.
Step4. Label Triggering Events:
 Understand what causes your system to move from one state to another.
 These causes or conditions are the events.
 Label each transition with what makes it happen.
Step5. Draw the Diagram with appropriate notations:
 Now, take all this information and draw it out.
 Use rectangles for states, arrows for transitions, and circles or rounded rectangles for
initial and final states.
 Be sure to connect everything in a way that makes sense.

50
Let’s understand State Machine diagram with the help of an example, ie for an online
order :

The UML diagrams we draw depend on the system we aim to represent. Here is just an
example of how an online ordering system might look like :
1. On the event of an order being received, we transit from our initial state to
Unprocessed order state.
2. The unprocessed order is then checked.
3. If the order is rejected, we transit to the Rejected Order state.
4. If the order is accepted and we have the items available we transit to the fulfilled
order state.
5. However if the items are not available we transit to the Pending Order state.
6. After the order is fulfilled, we transit to the final state. In this example, we merge the
two states i.e. Fulfilled order and Rejected order into one final state.

51
UNIT III

SOFTWARE DESIGN

Unit-3

Software Design Process

The design phase of software development deals with transforming the

customer requirements as described in the SRS documents into a form
implementable using a programming language.
The software design process can be divided into the following three levels of phases of
design:
1. Interface Design
2. Architectural Design
3. Detailed Design

52
Interface Design:
Interface design is the specification of the interaction between a system
and its environment. this phase proceeds at a high level of abstraction with
respect to the inner workings of the system i.e, during interface design, the
internal of the systems are completely ignored and the system is treated as
a black box. Attention is focussed on the dialogue between the target
system and the users, devices, and other systems with which it interacts.
The design problem statement produced during the problem analysis step
should identify the people, other systems, and devices which are
collectively called agents.

Interface design should include the following details:

 Precise description of events in the environment, or messages from
agents to which the system must respond.
 Precise description of the events or messages that the system must produce.
 Specification on the data, and the formats of the data coming into
and going out of the system.
 Specification of the ordering and timing relationships between
incoming events or messages, and outgoing events or outputs.
Architectural Design:
Architectural design is the specification of the major components of a
system, their responsibilities, properties, interfaces, and the relationships
and interactions between them. In architectural design, the overall structure
of the system is chosen, but the internal details of major components are
ignored.
Issues in architectural design includes:
 Gross decomposition of the systems into major components.
 Allocation of functional responsibilities to components.
 Component Interfaces
 Component scaling and performance properties, resource
consumption properties, reliability properties, and so forth.
 Communication and interaction between components.
The architectural design adds important details ignored during the interface
design. Design of the internals of the major components is ignored until the
last phase of the design.

53
Detailed Design:
Design is the specification of the internal elements of all major system
components, their properties, relationships, processing, and often their
algorithms and the data structures.
The detailed design may include:
 Decomposition of major system components into program units.
 Allocation of functional responsibilities to units.
 User interfaces
 Unit states and state changes
 Data and control interaction between units
 Data packaging and implementation, including issues of scope and
visibility of program
 Algorithms and data structures

Introduction to design process

 The main aim of design engineering is to generate a model which shows

firmness, delight and commoditySoftware design is an iterative process
through which requirements are translated into the blueprint for building
the software.

Software quality guidelines

 A design is generated using the recognizable architectural styles and

compose a good design characteristic of components and it is
implemented in evolutionary manner for testing.
 A design of the software must be modular i.e the software must be
logically partitioned into elements.
 In design, the representation of data , architecture, interface and components should
be distinct.
 A design must carry appropriate data structure and recognizable data patterns.
54
 Design components must show the independent functional characteristic.
 A design creates an interface that reduce the complexity of connections between the
components.
 A design must be derived using the repeatable method.
 The notations should be use in design which can effectively communicates its
meaning.

Quality attributes

The attributes of design name as 'FURPS' are as follows:

Functionality:

It evaluates the feature set and capabilities of the program.

Usability:

It is accessed by considering the factors such as human factor, overall

aesthetics, consistency and documentation.

Reliability:

It is evaluated by measuring parameters like frequency and security of

failure, output result accuracy, the mean-time-to-failure(MTTF), recovery
from failure and the the program predictability.

Performance: It is measured by considering processing speed, response time, resource

consumption, throughput and efficiency.

Supportability:

 It combines the ability to extend the program, adaptability, serviceability.

These three term defines the maintainability.

55
 Testability, compatibility and configurability are the terms using which
a system can be easily installed and found the problem easily.
 Supportability also consists of more attributes such as compatibility,
extensibility, fault tolerance, modularity, reusability, robustness, security,
portability, scalability.

Design concepts

The set of fundamental software design concepts are as follows:

1. Abstraction

 A solution is stated in large terms using the language of the problem

environment at the highest level abstraction.
 The lower level of abstraction provides a more detail description of the solution.
 A sequence of instruction that contain a specific and limited
function refers in a procedural abstraction.
 A collection of data that describes a data object is a data abstraction.
2. Architecture

 The complete structure of the software is known as software architecture.

 Structure provides conceptual integrity for a system in a number of ways.
 The architecture is the structure of program modules where they
interact with each other in a specialized way.
 The components use the structure of data.
 The aim of the software design is to obtain an architectural framework of a system.
 The more detailed design activities are conducted from the framework.
3. Patterns
A design pattern describes a design structure and that structure solves a
particular design problem in a specified content.

56
4. Modularity

 A software is separately divided into name and addressable components.

Sometime they are called as modules which integrate to satisfy the
problem requirements.

Modularity is the single attribute of a software that permits a program to be managed

easily.
5. Information hiding
Modules must be specified and designed so that the information like
algorithm and data presented in a module is not accessible for other
modules not requiring that information.

6. Functional independence

 The functional independence is the concept of separation and related to

the concept of modularity, abstraction and information hiding.
 The functional independence is accessed using two criteria i.e Cohesion and coupling.
Cohesion

 Cohesion is an extension of the information hiding concept.

 A cohesive module performs a single task and it requires a small
interaction with the other components in other parts of the
program.
Coupling
Coupling is an indication of interconnection between modules in a structure of software.

7. Refinement

 Refinement is a top-down design approach.

 It is a process of elaboration.
57
 A program is established for refining levels of procedural details.
 A hierarchy is established by decomposing a statement of function in a
stepwise manner till the programming language statement are
reached.
8. Refactoring

 It is a reorganization technique which simplifies the design of

components without changing its function behaviour.
 Refactoring is the process of changing the software system in a way that it does not
change the
external behaviour of the code still improves its internal structure.

9. Design classes

Software Engineering | Architectural Design

Introduction: The software needs the architectural design to represents

the design of software. IEEE defines architectural design as “the process of
defining a collection of hardware and software components and their
interfaces to establish the framework for the development of a
computer system.” The software that is built for computer-based systems
can exhibit one of these many architectural styles.
Each style will describe a system category that consists of :A set of components(eg: a
database, computational modules) that will perform a function required by the system.
 The set of connectors will help in coordination, communication, and
cooperation between the components.
 Conditions that how components can be integrated to form the system.
 Semantic models that help the designer to understand the overall
properties of the system. The use of architectural styles is to establish a
structure for all the components of the system. Taxonomy of Architectural
styles:

1. Data centred architectures:

 A data store will reside at the center of this architecture and is
accessed frequently by the other components that update, add,
delete or modify the data present within the store.
 The figure illustrates a typical data centered style. The client
58
software access a central repository. Variation of this approach
are used to transform the repository into a blackboard when data
related to client or data of interest for the client change the
notifications to client software.
 This data-centered architecture will promote integrability. This
means that the existing components can be changed and new
client components can be added to the architecture without the
permission or concern of other clients.
 Data can be passed among clients using blackboard mechanism.

2. Data flow architectures:

 This kind of architecture is used when input data to be
transformed into output data through a series of computational
manipulative components.

59
 The figure represents pipe-and-filter architecture since it uses
both pipe and filter and it has a set of components called filters
connected by pipes.
 Pipes are used to transmit data from one component to the next.
 Each filter will work independently and is designed to take data
input of a certain form and produces data output to the next filter
of a specified form. The filters don’t require any knowledge of the
working of neighboring filters.
 If the data flow degenerates into a single line of transforms, then it
is termed as batch sequential. This structure accepts the batch of
data and then applies a series of sequential components to
transform it.

3. Call and Return architectures: It is used to create a program that

is easy to scale and modify. Many sub-styles exist within this
category. Two of them are explained below.
 Remote procedure call architecture: This components is used
to present in a main program or sub program architecture
distributed among multiple computers on a network.
 Main program or Subprogram architectures: The main
program structure decomposes into number of subprograms or
function into a control hierarchy. Main program contains number
60
4. Object Oriented architecture: The components of a system
encapsulate data and the operations that must be applied to
manipulate the data. The coordination and communication
between the components are established via the message
passing.
5. Layered architecture:
 A number of different layers are defined with each layer
performing a well-defined set of operations. Each layer will do
some operations that becomes closer to machine instruction set
progressively.
 At the outer layer, components will receive the user interface
operations and at the inner layers, components will perform the
operating system interfacing(communication and coordination
with OS)
 Intermediate layers to utility services and application software functions.

Software Engineering | User

Interface Design

User interface is the front-end application view to which user interacts in

order to use the software. The software becomes more popular if its user
interface is:
 Attractive
 Simple to use
 Responsive in short time
61
 Clear to understand
 Consistent on all interface
screens There are two types
of User Interface:
1. Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface provides a
command prompt, where the user types the command and feeds to
the system. The user needs to remember the syntax of the command
and its use.
2. Graphical User Interface: Graphical User Interface provides the
simple interactive interface to interact with the system. GUI can be
a combination of both hardware and software. Using GUI, user
interprets the software.
User Interface Design Process:

The analysis and design process of a user interface is iterative and can be represented by
a spiral model. The analysis and design process of user interface consists of four
framework activities.
1. User, task, environmental analysis, and modeling: Initially, the
focus is based on the profile of users who will interact with the system,
i.e. understanding, skill and knowledge, type of user, etc, based on
the user’s profile users are made into categories. From each category
requirements are gathered. Based on the requirements developer
understand how to develop the interface. Once all the requirements
are gathered a detailed analysis is conducted. In the analysis part, the
tasks that the user performs to establish the goals of the system are
identified, described and elaborated. The analysis of the user
environment focuses on the physical work environment. Among the
questions to be asked are

62
 Where will the interface be located physically?
 Will the user be sitting, standing, or performing other tasks unrelated to the
interface?
 Does the interface hardware accommodate space, light, or noise constraints?
 Are there special human factors considerations driven by environmental
factors?
2. Interface Design: The goal of this phase is to define the set of interface objects
and actions
i.e. Control mechanisms that enable the user to perform desired tasks.
Indicate how these control mechanisms affect the system. Specify the
action sequence of tasks and subtasks, also called a user scenario.
Indicate the state of the system when the user performs a particular
task. Always follow the three golden rules stated by Theo Mandel.
Design issues such as response time, command and action structure,
error handling, and help facilities are considered as the design model is
refined. This phase serves as the foundation for the implementation
phase.
3. Interface construction and implementation: The implementation
activity begins with the creation of prototype (model) that enables
usage scenarios to be evaluated. As iterative design process
continues a User Interface toolkit that allows the creation of windows,
menus, device interaction, error messages, commands, and many
other elements of an interactive environment can be used for
completing the construction of an interface.
4. Interface Validation: This phase focuses on testing the interface.
The interface should be in such a way that it should be able to
perform tasks correctly and it should be able to
handle a variety of tasks. It should achieve all the user’s requirements.
It should be easy to use and easy to learn. Users should accept the
interface as a useful one in their work.
Software Engineering | Function Oriented Design

The design process for software systems often has two levels. At the first
level the focus is on deciding which modules are needed for the system on
the basis of SRS (Software Requirement Specification) and how the
modules should be interconnected.
Function Oriented Design is an approach to software design where the
design is decomposed into a set of interacting units where each unit has a
clearly defined function.

63
Generic Procedure:
Start with a high level description of what the software / program does.
Refine each part of the description one by one by specifying in greater
details the functionality of each part. These points lead to Top-Down
Structure.

64
Problem in Top-Down design method:
Mostly each module is used by at most one other module
and that module is called its Parent module.
Solution to the problem:
Designing of reusable module. It means modules use
several modules to do their required functions.

Function Oriented Design Strategies:

Function Oriented Design Strategies are as follows:
1. Data Flow Diagram (DFD):
A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of
information for any process or system. It uses defined
symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus short
text labels, to show data inputs, outputs, storage points
and the routes between each destination.
2. Data Dictionaries:
Data dictionaries are simply repositories to store information about
all data items defined in
DFDs. At the requirement stage, data dictionaries
contains data items. Data dictionaries include Name of
the item, Aliases (Other names for items), Description /
purpose, Related data items, Range of values, Data
structure definition / form.
3. Structure Charts:
It is the hierarchical representation of system which
partitions the system into black boxes (functionality is
known to users but inner details are unknown).
Components are read from top to bottom and left to
right. When a module calls another, it views the called
module as black box, passing required parameters and
65
receiving results.

66
Pseudo Code:
Pseudo Code is system description in short English like
phrases describing the function. It use keyword and
indentation. Pseudo codes are used as replacement for
flow charts. It decreases the amount of documentation
required.
Consider a scenario of synchronous message passing. You have two
components in your system that communicate with each other. Let’s call
the sender and receiver. The receiver asks for a service from the sender
and the sender serves the request and waits for an acknowledgment from
the receiver.
 There is another receiver that requests a service from the sender. The
sender is blocked since it hasn’t yet received any acknowledgment from
the first receiver.
 The sender isn’t able to serve the second receiver which can create
problems. To solve this drawback, the Pub-Sub model was introduced.
What is Pub/Sub Architecture?
The Pub/Sub (Publisher/Subscriber) model is a messaging pattern used in
software architecture to facilitate asynchronous communication between
different components or systems. In this model, publishers produce
messages that are then consumed by subscribers.
Key points of the Pub/Sub model include:
 Publishers: Entities that generate and send messages.
 Subscribers: Entities that receive and consume messages.
 Topics: Channels or categories to which messages are published.
 Message Brokers: Intermediaries that manage the routing of messages
between publishers and subscribers.

Components of Pub/Sub Architecture?

In the Pub/Sub (Publish/Subscribe) model, there are several key
components that work together to enable communication between
publishers and subscribers. These components include:
1. Publisher
The Publisher is responsible for creating and sending messages to the
Pub/Sub system. Publishers categorize messages into topics or channels
based on their content. They do not need to know the identity of the
subscribers.
2. Subscriber
The Subscriber is a recipient of messages in the Pub/Sub system.
Subscribers express interest in receiving messages from specific topics.
67
They do not need to know the identity of the publishers. Subscribers
receive messages from topics to which they are subscribed.
3. Topic
A Topic is a named channel or category to which messages are published.
Publishers send messages to specific topics, and subscribers can
subscribe to one or more topics to receive messages of interest. Topics
help categorize messages and enable targeted message delivery to
interested subscribers.
4. Message Broker
The Message Broker is an intermediary component that manages the
routing of messages between publishers and subscribers. It receives
messages from publishers and forwards them to subscribers based on their
subscriptions. The Message Broker ensures that messages are delivered
to the correct subscribers and can provide additional features such as
message persistence, scalability, and reliability.
5. Message
A Message is the unit of data exchanged between publishers and
subscribers in the Pub/Sub system. Messages can contain any type of
data, such as text, JSON, or binary data. Publishers create messages and
send them to the Pub/Sub system, and subscribers receive and process
these messages.
6. Subscription
A Subscription represents a connection between a subscriber and a topic.
Subscriptions define which messages a subscriber will receive based on
the topics to which it is subscribed. Subscriptions can have different
configurations, such as message delivery guarantees (e.g., at-most-once,
at-least-once) and acknowledgment mechanisms.
What is Pipe and Filter Architecture?
The Pipe and Filter architecture is a design pattern that divides a process
into a series of distinct steps, called filters, linked by channels known as
pipes. Each filter is dedicated to a particular processing function, whether
it involves transforming, validating, or aggregating data. Data flows
through these filters via pipes, which carry the output of one filter to the
input of another.
 This architecture enhances modularity, as each filter operates
independently and concentrates on a singular function. It also
promotes reusability, allowing filters to be utilized across different
systems or applications.
 Moreover, it is both flexible and scalable; filters can be added,
removed, or rearranged with little effect on the overall system, and
multiple instances of filters can function concurrently to manage larger
data sets.
68
This organized structure makes the Pipe and Filter architecture a favored
choice for tasks like data processing, compilers, and applications that
require orderly and sequential data transformation.
Pipe and Filter Architecture
The architecture is highly modular, with each filter functioning
independently, simplifying system comprehension, maintenance, and
expansion. Filters can be added, removed, or rearranged without
significant impact on the overall system, and parallel pipelines can boost
throughput for larger data volumes.

 Pumps: These components initiate the process by acting as data

sources, injecting data into the system and starting the flow through
the pipeline.
 Filters: Each filter carries out a specific, standalone task, whether it
be transforming, validating, or processing data before forwarding it. In
the setup, there are two levels of filters; the first one processes data
from the pump and hands it to the second filter, which continues the
processing before passing it on.
 Pipes: Pipes serve as the channels for data movement between
filters, linking each component in sequence and ensuring a smooth
transfer of data. In diagrams, pipes are depicted as arrows connecting
the components.
USER INTERFACE

The user interface is the front-end application view to which the user
interacts to use the software. The software becomes more popular if its
user interface is:

1. Attractive
2. Simple to use
3. Responsive in a short time
4. Clear to understand
5. Consistent on all interface screens
Types of User Interface
69
1. Command Line Interface: The Command Line Interface provides a
command prompt, where the user types the command and feeds it to
the system. The user needs to remember the syntax of the command
and its use.
2. Graphical User Interface: Graphical User Interface provides a simple
interactive interface to interact with the system. GUI can be a
combination of both hardware and software. Using GUI, the user
interprets the software.
User Interface Design Process
The analysis and design process of a user interface is iterative and can
be represented by a spiral model. The analysis and design process of
user interface consists of four framework activities.
1. User, Task, Environmental Analysis, and Modeling
Initially, the focus is based on the profile of users who will interact with the
system, i.e., understanding, skill and knowledge, type of user, etc., based
on the user’s profile users are made into categories. From each category
requirements are gathered. Based on the requirement’s developer
understand how to develop the interface. Once all the requirements are
gathered a detailed analysis is conducted. In the analysis part, the tasks
that the user performs to establish the goals of the system are identified,
described and elaborated. The analysis of the user environment focuses
on the physical work environment. Among the questions to be asked are:
1. Where will the interface be located physically?
2. Will the user be sitting, standing, or performing other tasks unrelated to
the interface?
3. Does the interface hardware accommodate space, light, or noise
constraints?
4. Are there special human factors considerations driven by environmental
factors?2. Interface Design
The goal of this phase is to define the set of interface objects and actions
i.e., control mechanisms that enable the user to perform desired tasks.
Indicate how these control mechanisms affect the system. Specify the
action sequence of tasks and subtasks, also called a user scenario.
Indicate the state of the system when the user performs a particular task.
Always follow the three golden rules stated by Theo Mandel. Design
issues such as response time, command and action structure, error
handling, and help facilities are considered as the design model is refined.
This phase serves as the foundation for the implementation phase.

70
71
UNIT IV

SOFTWARE TESTING
Software testing is widely used technology because it is compulsory
to test each and every software before deployment. Software testing such
as Methods such as Black Box Testing, White Box Testing, Visual Box
Testing and Gray Box Testing.

Software testing is a process of identifying the correctness of software by

considering its all attributes (Reliability, Scalability, Portability, Re-usability,
Usability) and evaluating the execution of software components to find the
software bugs or errors or defects.

Types of Testing
Manual Testing Automation Testing
Types of Manual 3
White Box Testing Black Box Testing Grey Box Testing

1. White Box Techniques 5

Data Flow Testing
Control Flow Testing Branch Coverage Testing StatementCoverage
Testing DecisionCoverage Testing

2. Black Box Techniques

Decision Table All-pair Testing Cause-Effect Testing State Transition
Use Case

Types of Black Box 2

Functional Testing Non-Functional Testing
A) Types of Functional
Unit Testing Integration Testing System Testing
B) Types of Non-functional
Performance Testing Usability Testing Compatibility Testing

72
.

UNIT TESTING

Unit testing uses modules for testing purpose, and these modules are
combined and tested in integration testing. The Software is developed with
a number of software modules that are coded by different coders or
programmers. The goal of integration testing is to check the correctness of
communication among all the modules.

Once all the components or modules are working independently, then we

need to check the data flow between the dependent modules is known
as integration testing.

Let us see one sample example of a banking application, as we can see in

the below image of amount transfer.

o First, we will login as a user P to amount transfer and send Rs200

amount, the confirmation message should be displayed on the screen
as amount transfer successfully. Now logout as P and login as
user Q and go to amount balance page and check for a balance in
73
that account = Present balance + Received Balance. Therefore, the
integration test is successful.
o Also, we check if the amount of balance has reduced by Rs200 in P
user account.
o Click on the transaction, in P and Q, the message should be
displayed regarding the data and time of the amount transfer.

INTEGRATION TESTING

Integration testing is the process of testing the interface between two

software units or modules. It focuses on determining the correctness of
the interface. The purpose of integration testing is to expose faults in the
interaction between integrated units. Once all the modules have been
unit-tested, integration testing is performed.
Integration testing is a software testing technique that focuses on
verifying the interactions and data exchange between different
components or modules of a software application.
The goal of integration testing is to identify any problems or bugs that
arise when different components are combined and interact with each
other.
Integration testing is typically performed after unit testing and before
system testing. It helps to identify and resolve integration issues early in
the development cycle, reducing the risk of more severe and costly
problems later on.
Integration testing can be done by picking module by module. This can be
done so that there should be a proper sequence to be followed. And also
if you don’t want to miss out on any integration scenarios then you have
to follow the proper sequence. Exposing the defects is the major focus of
the integration testing and the time of interaction between the integrated
units.

Integration testing is the second level of the software testing process

comes after unit testing. In this testing, units or individual components of
the software are tested in a group. The focus of the integration testing level
is to expose defects at the time of interaction between integrated
components or units.

74
Types of Integration Testing

Integration testing can be classified into two parts

o Incremental integration testing

o Non-incremental integration testing

Incremental Approach

In the Incremental Approach, modules are added in ascending order one

by one or according to need. The selected modules must be logically
related. Generally, two or more than two modules are added and tested to
determine the correctness of functions. The process continues until the
successful testing of all the modules.

For example: Suppose we have a Flipk art application, we will perform

incremental integration testing, and the flow of the application would like
this:

Flipkart→ Login→ Home → Search→ Add cart→Payment → Logout

Incremental integration testing is carried out by further methods:

o Top-Down approach
o Bottom-Up approach

75
Top-Down Approach

The top-down testing strategy deals with the process in which higher level
modules are tested with lower level modules until the successful
completion of testing of all the modules. Major design flaws can be
detected and fixed early because critical modules tested first. In this type of
method, we will add the modules incrementally or one by one and check
the data flow in the same order.

In the top-down approach, we will be ensuring that the module we are

adding is the child of the previous one like Child C is a child of Child
B and so on

Advantages:

o Identification of defect is difficult.

o An early prototype is possible.

Disadvantages:

o Due to the high number of stubs, it gets quite complicated.

o Lower level modules are tested inadequately.
o Critical Modules are tested first so that fewer chances of defects.

76
Bottom-Up Method

The bottom to up testing strategy deals with the process in which lower
level modules are tested with higher level modules until the successful
completion of testing of all the modules. Top level critical modules are
tested at last, so it may cause a defect. Or we can say that we will be
adding the modules from bottom to the top and check the data flow in the
same order.

In the bottom-up method, we will ensure that the modules we are

adding are the parent of the previous one as we can see in the below
image:

Advantages

o Identification of defect is easy.

o Do not need to wait for the development of all the modules as it saves
time.

Disadvantages

o Critical modules are tested last due to which the defects can occur.
o There is no possibility of an early prototype.

NON- INCREMENTAL INTEGRATION TESTING

We will go for this method, when the data flow is very complex and when it
is difficult to find who is a parent and who is a child. And in such case, we
77
will create the data in any module bang on all other existing modules and

78
check if the data is present. Hence, it is also known as the Big bang
method.

Big Bang Method

Big bang integration testing is a testing approach where all components
or modules are integrated and tested as a single unit. This is done after
all modules have been completed and before any system-level testing is

performed

For example, consider a simple system with three modules A, B, and C.

Module A has been tested and found to be working correctly. The same is
true for modules B and C. To test the system as a whole, all three
modules are integrated and tested together.

Since this testing can be done after completion of all modules due to that
testing team has less time for execution of this process so that internally
linked interfaces and high-risk critical modules can be missed easily.

79
Advantages:

o It is convenient for small size software systems.

Disadvantages:

o Identification of defects is difficult because finding the error where it

came from is a problem, and we don't know the source of the bug.
o Small modules missed easily.
o Time provided for testing is very less.
o We may miss to test some of the interfaces.

REGRESSION TESTING

Regression testing is a black box testing techniques. It is used to

authenticate a code change in the software does not impact the existing
functionality of the product. Regression testing is making sure that the
product works fine with new functionality, bug fixes, or any change in the
existing feature.

Regression testing is a type of software testing. Test cases are re-executed

to check the previous functionality of the application is working fine, and the
new changes have not produced any bugs.

This method is used to test the product for modifications or any updates
done. It ensures that any change in a product does not affect the existing
module of the product. Verify that the bugs fixed and the newly added
features not created any problem in the previous working version of the
Software.

Regression tests are also known as the Verification Method. Test cases are
often automated. Test cases are required to execute many times and
running the same test case again and again manually, is time-consuming
and tedious too.

How to perform Regression Testing?

The need for regression testing comes when software maintenance

includes enhancements, error corrections, optimization, and deletion of
existing features.

80
These modifications may affect system functionality. Regression Testing
becomes necessary in this case.Regression testing can be performed
using the following techniques:

1. Re-test All

Re-Test is one of the approaches to do regression testing. In this approach,

all the test case suits should be re-executed. Here we can define re-test as
when a test fails, and we determine the cause of the failure is a software
fault. The fault is reported, we can expect a new version of the software in
which defect fixed. In this case, we will need to execute the test again to
confirm that the fault fixed. This is known as re-testing. Some will refer to
this as confirmation testing.

The re-test is very expensive, as it requires enormous time and resources.

2. Regression test Selection

o In this technique, a selected test-case suit will execute rather than an

entire test-case suit.
o The selected test case suits divided in two cases
1. Reusable Test cases.
2. Obsolete Test cases.
o Reusable test cases can use in succeeding regression cycle.
o Obsolete test cases can't use in succeeding regression cycle.

3. Prioritization of test cases

Prioritize the test case depending on business impact, critical and

frequently functionality used. Selection of test cases will reduce the
regression test suite.

81
1. When new functionality added to the application.

82
2. When there is a Change Requirement.
3. When the defect fixed
4. When there is a performance issue fix
5. When there is an environment change

Types of Regression Testing

The different types of Regression Testing are as follows:

1. Unit Regression Testing [URT]

2. Regional Regression Testing[RRT]
3. Full or Complete Regression Testing [FRT]

1) Unit Regression Testing [URT]

In this, we are going to test only the changed unit, not the impact area,
because it may affect the components of the same module.

2) Regional Regression testing [RRT]

In this, we are going to test the modification along with the impact area or
regions, are called the Regional Regression testing. Here, we are testing
the impact area because if there are dependable modules, it will affect the
other modules also.

3) Full Regression testing [FRT]

During the second and the third release of the product, the client asks for
adding 3-4 new features, and also some defects need to be fixed from the
previous release. Then the testing team will do the Impact Analysis and
identify that the above modification will lead us to test the entire product.

83
SYSTEM TESTING
System testing is a type of software testing that evaluates the
overall functionality and performance of a complete and fully integrated
software solution. It tests if the system meets the specified requirements
and if it is suitable for delivery to the end-users. This type of testing is
performed after the integration testing and before the acceptance tes ting.
System Testing is a type of software testing that is performed on a
complete integrated system to evaluate the compliance of the system
with the corresponding requirements. In system testing, integration
testing passed components are taken as input. The goal of integration
testing is to detect any irregularity between the units that are integrated
together. System testing detects defects within both the integrated units
and the whole system. The result of system testing is the observed
behavior of a component or a system when it is tested. System
Testing is carried out on the whole system in the context of either system
requirement specifications or functional requirement specifications or in
the context of both. System testing tests the design and behavior of the
system and also the expectations of the customer. It is performed to test
the system beyond the bounds mentioned in the software requirements
specification (SRS). System Testing is basically performed by a testing
team that is independent of the development team that helps to test the
quality of the system impartial. It has both functional and non-functional
testing. System Testing is a black-box testing. System Testing is
performed after the integration testing and before the acceptance testing.

System Testing Process: System Testing is performed in the following

steps:
 Test Environment Setup: Create testing environment for the better
quality testing.
 Create Test Case: Generate test case for the testing process.
 Create Test Data: Generate the data that is to be tested.
 Execute Test Case: After the generation of the test case and the test
84
data, test cases are executed.

85
 Defect Reporting: Defects in the system are detected.
 Regression Testing: It is carried out to test the side effects of the
testing process.
 Log Defects: Defects are fixed in this step.
 Retest: If the test is not successful then again test is performed.

Types of System Testing

 Performance Testing: Performance Testing is a type of software
testing that is carried out to test the speed, scalability, stability and
reliability of the software product or application.
 Load Testing: Load Testing is a type of software Testing which is
carried out to determine the behavior of a system or software product
under extreme load.
 Stress Testing: Stress Testing is a type of software testing performed
to check the robustness of the system under the varying loads.
 Scalability Testing: Scalability Testing is a type of software testing
which is carried out to check the performance of a software application
or system in terms of its capability to scale up or scale down the
number of user request load.
Tools used for System Testing
1. JMeter
2. Gallen Framework
3. Selenium
1. HP Quality Center/ALM
2. IBM Rational Quality Manager
3. Microsoft Test Manager
4. Selenium

Advantages of System Testing

 The testers do not require more knowledge of programming to carry
out this testing.
 It will test the entire product or software so that we will easily detect
the errors or defects which cannot be identified during the unit testing
86
and integration testing.

87
 The testing environment is similar to that of the real time production or
business environment.
 It checks the entire functionality of the system with different test
scripts and also it covers the technical and business requirements of
clients.
 After this testing, the product will almost cover all the possible bugs or
errors and hence the development team will confidently go ahead with
acceptance testing.

Here are some advantages of System Testing

 Verifies the overall functionality of the system.

 Detects and identifies system-level problems early in the development
cycle.
 Helps to validate the requirements and ensure the system meets the
user needs.
 Improves system reliability and quality.
 Facilitates collaboration and communication between development
and testing teams.
 Enhances the overall performance of the system.
 Increases user confidence and reduces risks.
 Facilitates early detection and resolution of bugs and defects.
 Supports the identification of system-level dependencies and inter-
module interactions.
 Improves the system’s maintainability and scalability.

SMOKE TESTING

Smoke Testing comes into the picture at the time of receiving build
software from the development team. The purpose of smoke testing is to
determine whether the build software is testable or not. It is done at the
time of "building software." This process is also known as "Day 0".

It is a time-saving process. It reduces testing time because testing is done

only when the key features of the application are not working or if the key
bugs are not fixed. The focus of Smoke Testing is on the workflow of the
core and primary functions of the application.

Testing the basic & critical feature of an application before doing one round
of deep, rigorous testing (before checking all possible positive and negative
values) is known as smoke testing.
88
In the smoke testing, we only focus on the positive flow of the application
and enter only valid data, not the invalid data. In smoke testing, we verify
every build is testable or not; hence it is also known as Build Verification
Testing.

Validation Testing ensures that the product actually meets the client's
needs. It can also be defined as to demonstrate that the product fulfills its
intended use when deployed on appropriate environment.

It answers to the question, Are we building the right product?

Validation Testing - Workflow:

Validation testing can be best demonstrated using V-Model. The

Software/product under test is evaluated during this type of testing.

Activities:

 Unit Testing
 Integration Testing
 System Testing
 User Acceptance Testing
Standard Definition of Acceptance Testing
It is formal testing according to user needs, requirements, and business
processes conducted to determine whether a system satisfies the
acceptance criteria or not and to enable the users, customers, or other
authorized entities to determine whether to accept the system or not.
Acceptance Testing is the last phase of software testing performed after
System Testing and before making the system available for actual use.
89
Types of Acceptance Testing

90
1. User Acceptance Testing (UAT)
User acceptance testing is used to determine whether the product is
working for the user correctly. Specific requirements which are quite often
used by the customers are primarily picked for testing purposes. This is
also termed as End-User Testing.
2. Business Acceptance Testing (BAT)
BAT is used to determine whether the product meets the business goals
and purposes or not. BAT mainly focuses on business profits which are
quite challenging due to the changing market conditions and new
technologies, so the current implementation may have to being changed
which results in extra budgets.
3. Contract Acceptance Testing (CAT)
CAT is a contract that specifies that once the product goes live, within a
predetermined period, the acceptance test must be performed, and it
should pass all the acceptance use cases..
4. Regulations Acceptance Testing (RAT)
RAT is used to determine whether the product violates the rules and
regulations that are defined by the government of the country where it is
being released. This may be unintentional but will impact negatively on
the business. ctly responsible.
5. Operational Acceptance Testing (OAT)
OAT is used to determine the operational readiness of the product and is
non-functional testing. It mainly includes testing of recovery, compatibility,
maintainability, reliability, etc.
6. Alpha Testing
Alpha testing is used to determine the product in the development testing
environment by a specialized testers team usually called alpha testers.
7. Beta Testing
Beta testing is used to assess the product by exposing it to the real end-
users, typically called beta testers in their environment. Feedback is
collected from the users and the defects are fixed. Also, this helps in
enhancing the product to give a rich user experience.

WHITE BOX TESTING

The box testing approach of software testing consists of black box testing

91
and white box testing. We are discussing here white box testing which also
known as glass box is testing, structural testing, clear box testing,

92
open box testing and transparent box testing. It tests internal coding
and infrastructure of a software focus on checking of predefined inputs
against expected and desired outputs. It is based on inner workings of an
application and revolves around internal structure testing. In this type of
testing programming skills are required to design test cases. The primary
goal of white box testing is to focus on the flow of inputs and outputs
through the software and strengthening the security of the software.

The term 'white box' is used because of the internal perspective of the
system. The clear box or white box or transparent box name denote the
ability to see through the software's outer shell into its inner workings.

Developers do white box testing. In this, the developer will test every line of
the code of the program. The developers perform the White-box testing and
then send the application or the software to the testing team, where they
will perform the black box testing and verify the application along with the
requirements and identify the bugs and sends it to the developer.

The developer fixes the bugs and does one round of white box testing and
sends it to the testing team. Here, fixing the bugs implies that the bug is
deleted, and the particular feature is working fine on the application.

Here, the test engineers will not include in fixing the defects for the
following reasons:

o Fixing the bug might interrupt the other features. Therefore, the test
engineer should always find the bugs, and developers should still be
doing the bug fixes.
o If the test engineers spend most of the time fixing the defects, then
they may be unable to find the other bugs in the application.

The white box testing contains various tests, which are as follows:

o Path testing
o Loop testing
o Condition testing
o Testing based on the memory perspective
o Test performance of the program

93
Path testing

In the path testing, we will write the flow graphs and test all independent
paths. Here writing the flow graph implies that flow graphs are representing
the flow of the program and also show how every program is added with
one another as we can see in the below image:

And test all the independent paths implies that suppose a path from main()
to function G, first set the parameters and test if the program is correct in
that particular path, and in the same way test all other paths and fix the
bugs.

Loop testing

In the loop testing, we will test the loops such as while, for, and do-while,
etc. and also check for ending condition if working correctly and if the size
of the conditions is enough.

For example: we have one program where the developers have given
about 50,000 loops.

1. {
2. while(50,000)
3. ……
4. ……
5. }

We cannot test this program manually for all the 50,000 loops cycle. So we
write a small program that helps for all 50,000 cycles, as we can see in the
below program, that test P is written in the similar language as the source
94
code program, and this is known as a Unit test. And it is written by the
developers only.

95
1. Test P
2. {
3. ……
4. …… }

As we can see in the below image that, we have various requirements such
as 1, 2, 3, 4. And then, the developer writes the programs such as program
1,2,3,4 for the parallel conditions. Here the application contains the 100s
line of codes.

The developer will do the white box testing, and they will test all the five
programs line by line of code to find the bug. If they found any bug in any of
the programs, they will correct it. And they again have to test the system
then this process contains lots of time and effort and slows down the
product release time.

Now, suppose we have another case, where the clients want to modify the
requirements, then the developer will do the required changes and test all
four program again, which take lots of time and efforts.

These issues can be resolved in the following ways:

In this, we will write test for a similar program where the developer writes
these test code in the related language as the source code. Then they
execute these test code, which is also known as unit test programs.
These test programs linked to the main program and implemented as
programs.

96
Therefore, if there is any requirement of modification or bug in the code,
then the developer makes the adjustment both in the main program and the
test program and then executes the test program.

Condition testing

In this, we will test all logical conditions for both true and false values; that
is, we will verify for both if and else condition.

For example:

1. if(condition) - true
2. {
3. …..
4. ……
5. ……
6. }
7. else - false
8. {
9. …..
10. ……
11. ……
12. }

The above program will work fine for both the conditions, which means that
if the condition is accurate, and then else should be false and conversely.

97
Black-box testing is a type of software testing in which the tester is not
concerned with the internal knowledge or implementation details of the
software but rather focuses on validating the functionality based on the
provided specifications or requirements.
Prerequisite - Software Testing | Basics
Black box testing can be done in the following ways:
1. Syntax-Driven Testing – This type of testing is applied to systems
that can be syntactically represented by some language. For example,
language can be represented by context-free grammar. In this, the test
cases are generated so that each grammar rule is used at least once.
2. Equivalence partitioning – It is often seen that many types of inputs
work similarly so instead of giving all of them separately we can group
them and test only one input of each group. The idea is to partition the
input domain of the system into several equivalence classes such that
each member of the class works similarly, i.e., if a test case in one class
results in some error, other members of the class would also result in the
same error.
The technique involves two steps:
1. Identification of equivalence class – Partition any input domain into
a minimum of two sets: valid values and invalid values. For
example, if the valid range is 0 to 100 then select one valid input like
49 and one invalid like 104.
2. Generating test cases – (i) To each valid and invalid class of input
assign a unique identification number. (ii) Write a test case covering
all valid and invalid test cases considering that no two invalid inputs
mask each other. To calculate the square root of a number, the
equivalence classes will be (a) Valid inputs:
 The whole number which is a perfect square-output will be an
integer.
 The entire number which is not a perfect square-output will be a
decimal number.
 Positive decimals
 Negative numbers(integer or decimal).
 Characters other than numbers like “a”,”!”,”;”, etc.
3. Boundary value analysis – Boundaries are very good places for
errors to occur. Hence, if test cases are designed for boundary values of
the input domain then the efficiency of testing improves and the
probability of finding errors also increases. For example – If the valid
range is 10 to 100 then test for 10,100 also apart from valid and invalid
inputs.
4. Cause effect graphing – This technique establishes a relationship
between logical input called causes with corresponding actions called the
98
effect. The causes and effects are represented using Boolean graphs.
The following steps are followed:
1. Identify inputs (causes) and outputs (effect).
2. Develop a cause-effect graph.
3. Transform the graph into a decision table.
4. Convert decision table rules to test cases.
For example, in the following cause-effect graph:

It can be converted into a decision table like:

Each column corresponds to a rule which will become a test case for
testing. So there will be 4 test cases.
5. Requirement-based testing – It includes validating the requirements
given in the SRS of a software system.
6. Compatibility testing – The test case results not only depends on the
product but is also on the infrastructure for delivering functionality. When
the infrastructure parameters are changed it is still expected to work
properly. Some parameters that generally affect the compatibility of
software are:
1. Processor (Pentium 3, Pentium 4) and several processors.
2. Architecture and characteristics of machine (32-bit or 64-bit).
3. Back-end components such as database servers.
4. Operating System (Windows, Linux, etc).
Black Box Testing Type
The following are the several categories of black box testing:
1. Functional Testing
2. Regression Testing
3. Nonfunctional Testing (NFT)
Functional Testing: It determines the system’s software functional
99
requirements.

100
Regression Testing: It ensures that the newly added code is compatible
with the existing code. In other words, a new software update has no
impact on the functionality of the software. This is carried out after a
system maintenance operation and upgrades.
Nonfunctional Testing: Nonfunctional testing is also known as NFT.
This testing is not functional testing of software. It focuses on the
software’s performance, usability, and scalability.
Tools Used for Black Box Testing:
1. Appium
2. Selenium
3. Microsoft Coded UI
4. Applitools
5. HP QTP.
What can be identified by Black Box Testing
1. Discovers missing functions, incorrect function & interface errors
2. Discover the errors faced in accessing the database
3. Discovers the errors that occur while initiating & terminating any
functions.
4. Discovers the errors in performance or behaviour of software.
Features of black box testing:
1. Independent testing: Black box testing is performed by testers who
are not involved in the development of the application, which helps to
ensure that testing is unbiased and impartial.
2. Testing from a user’s perspective: Black box testing is conducted
from the perspective of an end user, which helps to ensure that the
application meets user requirements and is easy to use.
3. No knowledge of internal code: Testers performing black box testing
do not have access to the application’s internal code, which allows
them to focus on testing the application’s external behaviour and
functionality.
4. Requirements-based testing: Black box testing is typically based on
the application’s requirements, which helps to ensure that the
application meets the required specifications.
5. Different testing techniques: Black box testing can be performed
using various testing techniques, such as functional testing, usability
testing, acceptance testing, and regression testing.
6. Easy to automate: Black box testing is easy to automate using
various automation tools, which helps to reduce the overall testing
time and effort.
7. Scalability: Black box testing can be scaled up or down depending on
the size and complexity of the application being tested.

101
8. Limited knowledge of application: Testers performing black box
testing have limited knowledge of the application being tested, which

102
helps to ensure that testing is more representative of how the end
users will interact with the application.
Advantages of Black Box Testing:
 The tester does not need to have more functional knowledge or
programming skills to implement the Black Box Testing.
 It is efficient for implementing the tests in the larger system.
 Tests are executed from the user’s or client’s point of view.
 Test cases are easily reproducible.
 It is used in finding the ambiguity and contradictions in the functional
specifications.
Disadvantages of Black Box Testing:
 There is a possibility of repeating the same tests while implementing
the testing process.
 Without clear functional specifications, test cases are difficult to
implement.
 It is difficult to execute the test cases because of complex inputs at
different stages of testing.
 Sometimes, the reason for the test failure cannot be detected.
 Some programs in the application are not tested.
 It does not reveal the errors in the control structure.
 Working with a large sample space of inputs can be exhaustive and
consumes a lot of time.

103
UNIT V

SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT

What is Project?

A project is a group of tasks that need to complete to reach a clear result. A

project also defines as a set of inputs and outputs which are required to
achieve a goal. Projects can vary from simple to difficult and can be
operated by one person or a hundred.

SPM: Software Project Management (SPM) is a proper way of planning

and leading software projects. It is a part of project management in which
software projects are planned, implemented, monitored, and controlled.

there are three needs for software project management. These are:

1. Time
2. Cost
3. Quality

Need for Software Project Management

Software is a non-physical product. Software development is a new
stream in business and there is very little experience in building software
products. it is essential to manage software projects efficiently. It is
necessary for an organization to deliver quality products, keep the cost
within the client’s budget constraint, and deliver the project as per
schedule. Hence, in order, software project management is necessary to
incorporate user requirements along with budget and time constraints.
Types of Management in SPM
1. Conflict Management
Conflict management is the process to restrict the negative features of
conflict while increasing the positive features of conflict. The goal of
conflict management is to improve learning and group results including
efficacy or performance in an organizational setting. Properly managed
conflict can enhance group results.

104
2. Risk Management
Risk management is the analysis and identification of risks that is
followed by synchronized and economical implementation of resources to
minimize, operate and control the possibility or effect of unfortunate
events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.
3. Requirement Management
It is the process of analyzing, prioritizing, tracking, and documenting
requirements and then supervising change and communicating to
pertinent stakeholders. It is a continuous process during a project.
4. Change Management
Change management is a systematic approach to dealing with the
transition or transformation of an organization’s goals, processes, or
technologies. The purpose of change management is to execute
strategies for effecting change, controlling change, and helping people to
adapt to change.
5. Software Configuration Management
Software configuration management is the process of controlling and
tracking changes in the software, part of the larger cross-disciplinary field
of configuration management. Software configuration
management includes revision control and the inauguration of baselines.
6. Release Management
Release Management is the task of planning, controlling, and scheduling
the built-in deploying releases. Release management ensures that the
organization delivers new and enhanced services required by the
customer while protecting the integrity of existing services.
Aspects of Software Project Management
The list of focus areas it can tackle and the broad upsides of Software
Project Management is:
1. Planning
The software project manager lays out the complete project’s blueprint.
The project plan will outline the scope, resources, timelines, techniques,
strategy, communication, testing, and maintenance steps. SPM can aid
greatly here.
2. Leading
A software project manager brings together and leads a team of
engineers, strategists, programmers, designers, and data scientists.
Leading a team necessitates exceptional communication, interpersonal,
and leadership abilities. One can only hope to do this effectively if one
sticks with the core SPM principles.

105
3. Execution
SPM comes to the rescue here also as the person in charge of software
projects (if well versed with SPM/Agile methodologies) will ensure that
each stage of the project is completed successfully. measuring progress,
monitoring to check how teams function, and generating status reports
are all part of this process.
4. Time Management
Abiding by a timeline is crucial to completing deliverables successfully.
This is especially difficult when managing software projects because
changes to the original project charter are unavoidable over time. To
assure progress in the face of blockages or changes, software project
managers ought to be specialists in managing risk and emergency
preparedness. This Risk Mitigation and
management is one of the core tenets of the philosophy of SPM.
5. Budget
Software project managers, like conventional project managers, are
responsible for generating a project budget and adhering to it as closely
as feasible, regulating spending, and reassigning funds as needed. SPM
teaches us how to effectively manage the monetary aspect of projects to
avoid running into a financial crunch later on in the project.
6. Maintenance
Software project management emphasizes continuous product testing to
find and repair defects early, tailor the end product to the needs of the
client, and keep the project on track. The software project manager
makes ensuring that the product is thoroughly tested, analyzed, and
adjusted as needed. Another point in favor of SPM.

SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT

System Configuration Management (SCM) is an arrangement of
exercises that controls change by recognizing the items for change,
setting up connections between those things, making/characterizing
instruments for overseeing diverse variants, controlling the changes being
executed in the current framework, inspecting and revealing/reporting on
the changes made. It is essential to control the changes because if the
changes are not checked legitimately then they may wind up undermining
a well-run programming. In this way, SCM is a fundamental piece of all
project management activities.
Processes involved in SCM – Configuration management provides a
disciplined environment for smooth control of work products. It involves
the following activities:
106
1. Identification and Establishment – Identifying the configuration items
from products that compose baselines at given points in time (a
baseline is a set of mutually consistent Configuration Items, which has
been formally reviewed and agreed upon, and serves as the basis of
further development). Establishing relationships among items, creating
a mechanism to manage multiple levels of control and procedure for
the change management system.
2. Version control – Creating versions/specifications of the existing
product to build new products with the help of the SCM system. A
description of the version is given below:

3. Suppose after some changes, the version of the configuration object

changes from 1.0 to 1.1. Minor corrections and changes result in
versions 1.1.1 and 1.1.2, which is followed by a major update that is
object 1.2. The development of object 1.0 continues through 1.3 and
1.4, but finally, a noteworthy change to the object results in a new
evolutionary path, version 2.0. Both versions are currently supported.
3. Change control – Controlling changes to Configuration items (CI). The
change control process is explained in Figure below:
4. A change request (CR) is submitted and evaluated to assess technical
merit, potential side effects, the overall impact on other configuration
objects and system functions, and the projected cost of the change.
The results of the evaluation are presented as a change report, which
is used by a change control board (CCB) —a person or group who
makes a final decision on the status and priority of the change. An
engineering change Request (ECR) is generated for each approved
change. Also, CCB notifies the developer in case the change is
rejected with proper reason. The ECR describes the change to be
made, the constraints that must be respected, and the criteria for
review and audit. The object to be changed is “checked out” of the
107
project database, the change is made, and then the object is tested

108
again. The object is then “checked in” to the database and appropriate
version control mechanisms are used to create the next version of the
software.

4. Configuration auditing – A software configuration audit complements

the formal technical review of the process and product. It focuses on
the technical correctness of the configuration object that has been
modified. The audit confirms the completeness, correctness, and
consistency of items in the SCM system and tracks action items from
the audit to closure.
5. Reporting – Providing accurate status and current configuration data
to developers, testers, end users, customers, and stakeholders
through admin guides, user guides, FAQs, Release notes, Memos,
Installation Guide, Configuration guides, etc.
System Configuration Management (SCM) is a software engineering
practice that focuses on managing the configuration of software systems
and ensuring that software components are properly controlled, tracked,
and stored. It is a critical aspect of software development, as it helps to
ensure that changes made to a software system are properly coordinated

109
and that the system is always in a known and stable state.

110
SCM involves a set of processes and tools that help to manage the
different components of a software system, including source code,
documentation, and other assets. It enables teams to track changes
made to the software system, identify when and why changes were
made, and manage the integration of these changes into the final
product.
Importance of Software Configuration Management
1. Effective Bug Tracking: Linking code modifications to issues that have
been reported, makes bug tracking more effective.
2. Continuous Deployment and Integration: SCM combines with
continuous processes to automate deployment and testing, resulting in
more dependable and timely software delivery.
3. Risk management: SCM lowers the chance of introducing critical flaws
by assisting in the early detection and correction of problems.
4. Support for Big Projects: Source Code Control (SCM) offers an orderly
method to handle code modifications for big projects, fostering a well-
organized development process.
5. Reproducibility: By recording precise versions of code, libraries, and
dependencies, source code versioning (SCM) makes builds
repeatable.
6. Parallel Development: SCM facilitates parallel development by
enabling several developers to collaborate on various branches at
once.
The main advantages of SCM
1. Improved productivity and efficiency by reducing the time and effort
required to manage software changes.
2. Reduced risk of errors and defects by ensuring that all changes were
properly tested and validated.
3. Increased collaboration and communication among team members by
providing a central repository for software artifacts.
4. Improved quality and stability of software systems by ensuring that all
changes are properly controlled and managed.
The main disadvantages of SCM
1. Increased complexity and overhead, particularly in large software
systems.
2. Difficulty in managing dependencies and ensuring that all changes are
properly integrated.
3. Potential for conflicts and delays, particularly in large development
teams with multiple contributors.

111
PROJECT SCHEDULEING

112
Project schedule simply means a mechanism that is used to
communicate and know about that tasks are needed and has to be done
or performed and which organizational resources will be given or
allocated to these tasks and in what time duration or time frame work is
needed to be performed. Effective project scheduling leads to success of
project, reduced cost, and increased customer satisfaction. Scheduling in
project management means to list out activities, deliverables, and
milestones within a project that are delivered. It contains more notes than
your average weekly planner notes. The most common and important
form of project schedule is Gantt chart.

PROJECT SIZE ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES – SOFTWARE

ENGINEERING


Project size estimation is a crucial aspect of software engineering, as it
helps in planning and allocating resources for the project. Here are some of
the popular project size estimation techniques used in software
engineering:
 Expert Judgment: In this technique, a group of experts in the relevant
field estimates the project size based on their experience and expertise.
This technique is often used when there is limited information available
about the project.
 Analogous Estimation: This technique involves estimating the project
size based on the similarities between the current project and previously
completed projects. This technique is useful when historical data is
available for similar projects.

113
 Bottom-up Estimation: In this technique, the project is divided into
smaller modules or tasks, and each task is estimated separately. The
estimates are then aggregated to arrive at the overall project estimate.
 Three-point Estimation: This technique involves estimating the project
size using three values: optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely. These
values are then used to calculate the expected project size using a
formula such as the PERT formula.
 Function Points: This technique involves estimating the project size
based on the functionality provided by the software. Function points
consider factors such as inputs, outputs, inquiries, and files to arrive at
the project size estimate.
 Use Case Points: This technique involves estimating the project size
based on the number of use cases that the software must support. Use
case points consider factors such as the complexity of each use case,
the number of actors involved, and the number of use cases.
 Parametric Estimation: For precise size estimation, mathematical
models founded on project parameters and historical data are used.
 COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model): It is an algorithmic model that
estimates effort, time, and cost in software development projects by
taking into account a number of different elements.
 Wideband Delphi: Consensus-based estimating method for balanced
size estimations that combines expert estimates from anonymous
experts with cooperative conversations.
 Monte Carlo simulation: This technique, which works especially well for
complicated and unpredictable projects, estimates project size and
analyses hazards using statistical methods and random sampling.

Each of these techniques has its strengths and weaknesses, and the
choice of technique depends on various factors such as the project’s
complexity, available data, and the expertise of the team.
Importance of Project Size Estimation Techniques
 Resource Allocation: Appropriate distribution of financial and human
resources is ensured by accurate estimation.
 Risk management: Early risk assessment helps with mitigation
techniques by taking into account the complexity of the project.
 Time management: Facilitates the creation of realistic schedules and
milestones for efficient time management.
 Cost control and budgeting: Both the terms are closely related, which
lowers the possibility of cost overruns.
 Resource Allocation: Enables efficient task delegation and work
allocation optimization.
114
 Scope Definition: Defines the scope of a project, keeps project
boundaries intact and guards against scope creep.
Estimating the size of the Software
Estimation of the size of the software is an essential part of Software
Project Management. It helps the project manager to further predict the
effort and time that will be needed to build the project. Various measures
are used in project size estimation. Some of these are:
 Lines of Code
 Number of entities in the ER diagram
 Total number of processes in detailed data flow diagram
 Function points
 KLOC- Thousand lines of code
 NLOC- Non-comment lines of code
 KDSI- Thousands of delivered source instruction
The size is estimated by comparing it with the existing systems of the
same kind. The experts use it to predict the required size of various
components of software and then add them to get the total size.
It’s tough to estimate LOC by analyzing the problem definition. Only after
the whole code has been developed can accurate LOC be estimated.
This statistic is of little utility to project managers because project
planning must be completed before development activity can begin.
Two separate source files having a similar number of lines may not
require the same effort. A file with complicated logic would take longer to
create than one with simple logic. Proper estimation may not be
attainable based on LOC.
The length of time it takes to solve an issue is measured in LOC. This
statistic will differ greatly from one programmer to the next. A seasoned
programmer can write the same logic in fewer lines than a newbie coder.

Advantages
 Universally accepted and is used in many models like COCOMO.
 Estimation is closer to the developer’s perspective.
 Both people throughout the world utilize and accept it.
 At project completion, LOC is easily quantified.
 It has a specific connection to the result.
 Simple to use.
Disadvantages:
 Different programming languages contain a different number of lines.
 No proper industry standard exists for this technique.
 It is difficult to estimate the size using this technique in the early
stages of the project.
115
 When platforms and languages are different, LOC cannot be used to
normalize.
2. Number of entities in ER diagram: ER model provides a static view of
the project. It describes the entities and their relationships. The number of
entities in ER model can be used to measure the estimation of the size of
the project. The number of entities depends on the size of the project.
This is because more entities needed more classes/structures thus
leading to more coding.
Advantages:
 Size estimation can be done during the initial stages of planning.
 The number of entities is independent of the programming
technologies used.
Disadvantages:
 No fixed standards exist. Some entities contribute more to project size
than others.
 Just like FPA, it is less used in the cost estimation model. Hence, it
must be converted to LOC.
3. Total number of processes in detailed data flow diagram: Data Flow
Diagram(DFD) represents the functional view of software. The model
depicts the main processes/functions involved in software and the flow of
data between them. Utilization of the number of functions in DFD to
predict software size. Already existing processes of similar type are
studied and used to estimate the size of the process. Sum of the
estimated size of each process gives the final estimated size.
Advantages:
 It is independent of the programming language.
 Each major process can be decomposed into smaller processes. This
will increase the accuracy of the estimation.
Disadvantages:
 Studying similar kinds of processes to estimate size takes additional
time and effort.
 All software projects are not required for the construction of DFD.
4. Function Point Analysis: In this method, the number and type of
functions supported by the software are utilized to find FPC(function point
count). The steps in function point analysis are:
 Count the number of functions of each proposed type.
 Compute the Unadjusted Function Points(UFP).
 Find the Total Degree of Influence(TDI).
 Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF).
 Find the Function Point Count(FPC).
The explanation of the above points is given below:
116
 Count the number of functions of each proposed type: Find the
number of functions belonging to the following types:

External Inputs: Functions related to data entering the system.

External outputs: Functions related to data exiting the system.
External Inquiries: They lead to data retrieval from the system but don’t
change the system.
Internal Files: Logical files maintained within the system. Log files are not
included here.
External interface Files: These are logical files for other applications
which are used by our system.
 Compute the Unadjusted Function Points(UFP): Categorise each of
the five function types like simple, average, or complex based on their
complexity. Multiply the count of each function type with its weighting
factor and find the weighted sum. The weighting factors for each type
based on their complexity are as follows:
Function type Simple Average Complex

External Inputs 3 4 6

External Output 4 5 7

External
3 4 6
Inquiries

Internal Logical
7 10 15
Files

External
5 7 10
Interface Files

 Find Total Degree of Influence: Use the ’14 general characteristics’ of

a system to find the degree of influence of each of them. The sum of
all 14 degrees of influence will give the TDI. The range of TDI is 0 to
70. The 14 general characteristics are: Data Communications,
117
Distributed Data Processing, Performance, Heavily Used

118
Configuration, Transaction Rate, On-Line Data Entry, End-user
Efficiency, Online Update, Complex Processing Reusability,
Installation Ease, Operational Ease, Multiple Sites and Facilitate
Change.
Each of the above characteristics is evaluated on a scale of 0-5.
 Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF): Use the following formula to
calculate VAF
VAF = (TDI * 0.01) + 0.65

 Find the Function Point Count: Use the following formula to calculate
FPC
FPC = UFP * VAF

Advantages:
 It can be easily used in the early stages of project planning.
 It is independent of the programming language.
 It can be used to compare different projects even if they use different
technologies(database, language, etc).
 Disadvantages:
 It is not good for real-time systems and embedded systems.
 Many cost estimation models like COCOMO use LOC and hence FPC
must be converted to LOC.
DEVOPS TUTORIAL

The DevOps is the combination of two words, one is Development and

other is Operations. It is a culture to promote the development and
operation process collectively.The DevOps tutorial will help you to learn
DevOps basics and provide depth knowledge of various DevOps tools such
as Git, Ansible, Docker, Puppet, Jenkins, Chef, Nagios, and Kubernetes.
119
What is DevOps?

The DevOps is a combination of two words, one is software Development,

and second is Operations. This allows a single team to handle the entire
application lifecycle, from development to testing, deployment,
and operations. DevOps helps you to reduce the disconnection between
software developers, quality assurance (QA) engineers, and system
administrators.

DevOps promotes collaboration between Development and Operations

team to deploy code to production faster in an automated & repeatable
way.DevOps helps to increase organization speed to deliver applications
and services.

It also allows organizations to serve their customers better and compete

more strongly in the market. With the help of DevOps, quality, and speed of
the application delivery has improved to a great extent.

DevOps is all about the integration of the operations and development

process. Organizations that have adopted DevOps noticed a 22%
improvement in software quality and a 17% improvement in application
deployment frequency and achieve a 22% hike in customer satisfaction.
19% of revenue hikes as a result of the successful DevOps
implementation.

Why DevOps?

Before going further, we need to understand why we need the DevOps

over the other methods.

o The operation and development team worked in complete isolation.

o After the design-build, the testing and deployment are performed
respectively. That's why they consumed more time than actual build

120
cycles.

121
o Without the use of DevOps, the team members are spending a large
amount of time on designing, testing, and deploying instead of
building the project.
o Manual code deployment leads to human errors in production.
o Coding and operation teams have their separate timelines and are
not in synch, causing further delays.

DevOps History
o In 2009, the first conference named DevOpsdays was held in Ghent
Belgium. Belgian consultant and Patrick Debois founded the
conference.
o In 2012, the state of DevOps report was launched and conceived by
Alanna Brown at Puppet.
o In 2014, the annual State of DevOps report was published by Nicole
Forsgren, Jez Humble, Gene Kim, and others. They found DevOps
adoption was accelerating in 2014 also.
o In 2015, Nicole Forsgren, Gene Kim, and Jez Humble founded DORA
(DevOps Research and Assignment).
o In 2017, Nicole Forsgren, Gene Kim, and Jez Humble published
"Accelerate: Building and Scaling High Performing Technology
Organizations".

DevOps Architecture Features

Here are some key features of DevOps architecture, such as:

122
1) Automation

Automation can reduce time consumption, especially during the testing and
deployment phase. The productivity increases, and releases are made
quicker by automation. This will lead in catching bugs quickly so that it can
be fixed easily. For contiguous delivery, each code is defined through
automated tests, cloud-based services, and builds. This promotes
production using automated deploys.

2) Collaboration

The Development and Operations team collaborates as a DevOps team,

which improves the cultural model as the teams become more productive
with their productivity, which strengthens accountability and ownership. The
teams share their responsibilities and work closely in sync, which in turn
makes the deployment to production faster.

3) Integration

Applications need to be integrated with other components in the

environment. The integration phase is where the existing code is combined
with new functionality and then tested. Continuous integration and testing
enable continuous development. The frequency in the releases and micro-
services leads to significant operational challenges. To overcome such
problems, continuous integration and delivery are implemented to deliver in
a quicker, safer, and reliable manner.

4) Configuration management

It ensures the application to interact with only those resources that are
concerned with the environment in which it runs. The configuration files are
not created where the external configuration to the application is separated
from the source code. The configuration file can be written during
deployment, or they can be loaded at the run time, depending on the
environment in which it is running.

Advantages
o DevOps is an excellent approach for quick development and
deployment of applications.
o It responds faster to the market changes to improve business growth.

123
o DevOps escalate business profit by decreasing software delivery time
and transportation costs.
o DevOps clears the descriptive process, which gives clarity on product
development and delivery.
o It improves customer experience and satisfaction.
o DevOps simplifies collaboration and places all tools in the cloud for
customers to access.
o DevOps means collective responsibility, which leads to better team
engagement and productivity.

Disadvantages
o DevOps professional or expert's developers are less available.
o Developing with DevOps is so expensive.
o Adopting new DevOps technology into the industries is hard to
manage in short time.

DevOps Tools

Here are some most popular DevOps tools with brief explanation
shown in the below image, such as:

1) Puppet

Puppet is the most widely used DevOps tool. It allows the delivery and
release of the technology changes quickly and frequently. It has features of
124
versioning, automated testing, and continuous delivery. It enables to

125
manage entire infrastructure as code without expanding the size of the
team.

Features

o Real-time context-aware reporting.

o Model and manage the entire environment.
o Defined and continually enforce infrastructure.
o Desired state conflict detection and remediation.
o It inspects and reports on packages running across the infrastructure.
o It eliminates manual work for the software delivery process.
o It helps the developer to deliver great software quickly.

2) Ansible

Ansible is a leading DevOps tool. Ansible is an open-source IT engine that

automates application deployment, cloud provisioning, intra service
orchestration, and other IT tools. It makes it easier for DevOps teams to
scale automation and speed up productivity.

Ansible is easy to deploy because it does not use

any agents or custom security infrastructure on the client-side, and by
pushing modules to the clients. These modules are executed locally on the
client-side, and the output is pushed back to the Ansible server.

Features

o It is easy to use to open source deploy applications.

o It helps in avoiding complexity in the software development process.
o It eliminates repetitive tasks.
o It manages complex deployments and speeds up the development
process.

3) Docker

Docker is a high-end DevOps tool that allows building, ship, and run

126
distributed applications on multiple systems. It also helps to assemble the

127
apps quickly from the components, and it is typically suitable for container
management.

Features

o It configures the system more comfortable and faster.

o It increases productivity.
o It provides containers that are used to run the application in an
isolated environment.
o It routes the incoming request for published ports on available nodes
to an active container. It allows saving secrets into the swarm itself.

4) Nagios

Nagios is one of the more useful tools for DevOps. It can determine the
errors and rectify them with the help of network, infrastructure, server, and
log monitoring systems.

Features

o It provides complete monitoring of desktop and server operating

systems.
o The network analyzer helps to identify bottlenecks and optimize
bandwidth utilization.
o It helps to monitor components such as services, application, OS,
and network protocol.
o It also provides to complete monitoring of Java Management
Extensions.

5) CHEF

A chef is a useful tool for achieving scale, speed, and consistency. The
chef is a cloud-based system and open source technology. This technology
uses Ruby encoding to develop essential building blocks such as recipes
and cookbooks. The chef is used in infrastructure automation and helps in
reducing manual and repetitive tasks for infrastructure management.
128
Chef has got its convention for different building blocks, which are required
to manage and automate infrastructure.

Features

o It maintains high availability.

o It can manage multiple cloud environments.
o It uses popular Ruby language to create a domain-specific language.
o The chef does not make any assumptions about the current status of
the node. It uses its mechanism to get the current state of the
machine.

6) Jenkins

Jenkins is a DevOps tool for monitoring the execution of repeated tasks.

Jenkins is a software that allows continuous integration. Jenkins will be
installed on a server where the central build will take place. It helps to
integrate project changes more efficiently by finding the issues quickly.

Features

o Jenkins increases the scale of automation.

o It can easily set up and configure via a web interface.
o It can distribute the tasks across multiple machines, thereby
increasing concurrency.
o It supports continuous integration and continuous delivery.
o It offers 400 plugins to support the building and testing any project
virtually.
o It requires little maintenance and has a built-in GUI tool for easy
updates.

129
7) Git

Git is an open-source distributed version control system that is freely

available for everyone. It is designed to handle minor to major projects with
speed and efficiency. It is developed to co-ordinate the work among
programmers. The version control allows you to track and work together
with your team members at the same workspace. It is used as a critical
distributed version-control for the DevOps tool.

Features

o It is a free open source tool.

o It allows distributed development.
o It supports the pull request.
o It enables a faster release cycle.
o Git is very scalable

CLOUD PLATFORM

There are tons of ways in which every individual can state the meaning of
the cloud platform. But in the simplest way it can be stated as the operating
system and hardware of a server in an Internet-based data centre are
referred to as a cloud platform. It enables remote and large-scale
coexistence of software and hardware goods.

Compute facilities, such as servers, databases, storage, analytics,

networking, applications, and intelligence, are rented by businesses. As a
result, businesses do not need to invest in data centers or computing
facilities. They actually pay for the services they offer.

Types of Cloud Platforms

Cloud systems come in a range of shapes and sizes. None of them are
suitable for all. To meet the varying needs of consumers, a range of
models, forms, and services are available. They are as follows:

o Public Cloud: Third-party providers that distribute computing services

over the Internet are known as public cloud platforms. A few good
examples of trending and mostly used cloud platform are Google
130
Cloud Platform, AWS (Amazon Web Services), Microsoft Azure,
Alibaba and IBM Bluemix.
o Private Cloud: A private cloud is normally hosted by a third-party
service provider or in an on-site data centre. A private cloud platform
is always dedicated to a single company and it is the key difference
between the public and private cloud.
Or we can say that a private cloud is a series of cloud computing
services used primarily by one corporation or organization.
o Hybrid Cloud: The type of cloud architecture that combines both the
public and private cloud systems is termed to as a Hybrid cloud platform.
Data and programs are easily migrated from one to the other.

This allows the company to be more flexible while still improving

infrastructure, security, and enforcement.

Organizations can use a cloud platform to develop cloud-native software,

test and build them, and store, back up, and recover data. The major role of
it is that will not only help the company to grow but also it helps to perform
the data analysis with the help of different algorithms and the results can be
a true deal breaker. Streaming video and audio, embedding information
into activities, and providing applications on-demand on a global scale are
all possibilities.
Benefits of cloud computing

Cloud computing represents a significant departure from how companies

have traditionally seen IT services. The following are seven of the most
popular reasons why businesses are moving to cloud computing services:

Cost

Cloud storage reduces the upfront costs of purchasing hardware and

software, as well as the costs of setting up and operating on-site
datacenters-server racks, round-the-clock power and cooling, and IT
professionals to manage the infrastructure. It quickly adds up.

Global scale

131
The ability to scale elastically is one of the advantages of cloud computing
services. In other words it simply means that we can decide the processing
speed, location of the data centre where data is to be stored, storage and
even the bandwidth for our process and data.

Performance

The most popular cloud computing services are hosted on a global network
of protected datacenters that are updated on a regular basis with the latest
generation of fast and powerful computing hardware.

Security

Many cloud providers have a comprehensive collection of policies,

technologies, and controls to help us to enhance our overall security
posture and protect our data, applications, and infrastructure from threats.

Speed

It means that the huge amount of calculation and the huge data retrieval as
in download and upload can happen just within the blink of an eye,
obviously depending on the configuration.

Reliability

Since data can be replicated at several redundant locations on the cloud

provider's network, cloud storage makes data backup, disaster recovery,
and business continuity simpler and less costly.

TYPES CLOUD SERVICES

IaaS, PaaS, serverless and SaaS.

Understanding what these services are and how they can make our
process smooth and a lot easier by knowing their right objective will help
our organisation grow more.

o Type 1- The Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

Cloud computing services in their most basic form. We rent IT

infrastructure-servers and virtual machines (VMs), storage, networks, and
operating systems-on a pay-as-you-go basis from a cloud provider with
132
IaaS.

133
o Type 2- The Platform as a service (PaaS)

Cloud computing platforms that provide an on-demand environment for

designing, testing, distributing, and managing software applications are
referred to as platform as a service. PaaS was built to make it easier for
developers to build web or mobile apps easily without having to worry
about setting up or maintaining the underlying infrastructure of servers,
storage, network, and databases.

o Type 3- The Software as a service (SaaS)

Software as a service (SaaS) is a method of distributing software

applications over the Internet on demand and generally by subscription.
SaaS allows cloud providers to host and maintain software applications and
underlying infrastructure, as well as handle maintenance such as software
updates and security patching.

USES OF CLOUD COMPUTING

If we are watching a movie online, playing games, listening to music,
sending email, purchasing things online, transferring money online almost
anything we are somewhere using the cloud platform. The cloud has
become the heart of the internet and somehow each and everything we use
on internet is hosted on cloud.
DEPLOYMENT PIPELINE
Deployment pipeline is a concept for avoiding waste in the software
development process, and it is used for providing quick feedback to the
team during deployment. It works in the following way: the software
deployment is divided in different stages, where tasks are run in each of
these stages. In the same stage, tasks can be executed in parallel, for
helping on the feedback loop. When all tasks in a stage passes, the tasks in
the next stages can start
In the below image I tried to visually show you an example of a deployment
pipeline, where after a developer pushes his/her code to a remote

134
repository, the deployment pipeline starts. First building the application, then

135
running code analysis, unit tests, and integration/API tests (all in parallel). If
all the tasks in this stage of the pipeline passes, then a smoke test suite is
triggered, and if the smoke test also passes, it triggers the regression test
suite and the visual regression test suite (executed in parallel), and then, if
this final stage passes as well, then we have a release candidate that can
be promoted to production, so that users can enjoy.

Deployment pipeline example — designed by Walmyr FilhoThe importance

of using this approach, as already mentioned, is about avoiding waste. This
means that if, for example, one or more tasks in some of the stages fail, it
automatically fails all the deployment, and no time is waste running the
other tasks unnecessarily.
Another important point about using deployment pipelines is that we can
separate tasks that take longer time to execute from tasks that run faster.
An example of this is a comparison of the time spent on executing a suite
of unit tests versus a suite of end-to-end regression tests.deployment
pipeline can be used to show the value stream map of all the deployment
workflow. This can be a powerful and valuable artifact for making non-
136
technical people understand what is necessary to deliver high-quality

137
software, and then having their help on providing the necessary resources
to make it happens.

138