Brief Introduction of R Programming Language :

R is an open-source programming language that is widely used as a statistical software and data
analysis tool. R generally comes with the Command-line interface. R is available across widely used
platforms like Windows, Linux, and macOS. Also, the R programming language is the latest
cutting-edge tool.

It was designed by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman at the University of Auckland, New
Zealand, and is currently developed by the R Development Core Team. R programming language is
an implementation of the S programming language. It also combines with lexical scoping semantics
inspired by Scheme. Moreover, the project conceives in 1992, with an initial version released in
1995 and a stable beta version in 2000.

Use of R Programming :
 It’s a platform-independent language. This means it can be applied to all operating system.
 It’s an open-source free language. That means anyone can install it in any organization without
purchasing a license.
 R programming is used as a leading tool for machine learning, statistics, and data analysis.
Objects, functions, and packages can easily be created by R.
 R programming language is not only a statistic package but also allows us to integrate with other
languages (C, C++). Thus, can easily interact with many data sources and statistical packages.
 The R programming language has a vast community of users and it’s growing day by day.
 R is currently one of the most requested programming languages in the Data Science job market
that makes it the hottest trend nowadays
1. Installation of R-Studio on windows:

Step – 1: With R-base installed, let’s move on to installing RStudio. To begin,

goto download RStudioand click on the download button for RStudio desktop.

Step–2: Click on the link for the windows version of RStudio and save the.exe file.

Step–3: Run the .exe and follow the installation instructions.

Click Next on the welcome window.
Enter/ browse the path to the installation folder and click Next to proceed.

Select the folder for the start menu shortcut or click on do not create shortcuts and then click
Next. Wait for the installation process to complete.

Click Finish to end the installation.

Output :
Install the R Packages:-

 First, run RStudio.

 After clicking on the packages tab, click on install. The following dialog box will
appear.
 In the Install Packages dialog, write the package name you want to install under
the Packages field and then click install. This will install the
packageyousearchedfororgiveyoualistofmatchingpackagesbasedonyour package
text.

Installing Packages:-
Loading Packages:-
Once the package is downloaded to your computer you can access the functions and
Resources provided by the package in two different ways:
#load the package to use in the current R session
library (package name)

Getting Help on Packages:-

"C:/Program Files/R/R-3.2.2/library"

install.packages("Package Name")
# Install the package named "XML".
install.packages("XML")
2. Learn all the basics of R-Programming (Data types, Variables, Operators etc.)

Program Description :

Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that, when create a
variable you reserve some space in memory.
A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can manipulate. A variable in R can
store an atomic vector, group of atomic vectors or a combination of many Robjects. A valid variable
name consists of letters, numbers and the dot or underline characters. The variable name starts with a
letter or the dot not followed by a number.
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical
manipulations. R language is rich in built-in operators and provides following types of operators.

Data Types :

Numeric :
v <-23.5
print(class(v))

Logical
v <- TRUE
print(class(v))
Integer
v <-2L
print(class(v))

Output :
R-objects.
 Vectors
 Lists
 Matrices
 Arrays
 Factors
 Data Frames

Vectors
When you want to create vector with more than one element, you should use c() function which means
to combine the elements into a vector.
# Create a vector.
apple <- c('red','green',"yellow")
print(apple)

# Get the class of the vector.

print(class(apple))

Output :
Lists
A list is an R-object which can contain many different types of elements inside it like vectors,
functions and even another list inside it.

# Create a list.
list1 <- list(c(2,5,3),21.3,sin)

# Print the list.

print(list1)

Output :
Matrices

A matrix is a two-dimensional rectangular data set. It can be created using a vector input to the matrix
function.

# Create a matrix.
M =matrix( c('a','a','b','c','b','a'),nrow=2,ncol=3,byrow= TRUE)
print(M)

Output :
Arrays
While matrices are confined to two dimensions, arrays can be of any number of dimensions. The array
function takes a dim attribute which creates the required number of dimension. In the below example
we create an array with two elements which are 3x3 matrices each.

# Create an array.
a <- array(c('green','yellow'),dim= c(3,3,2))
print(a)

Output :
Factors
Factors are the R-objects which are created using a vector. It stores the vector along with the distinct
values of the elements in the vector as labels. The labels are always character irrespective of whether
it is numeric or character or Boolean etc. in the input vector. They are useful in statistical modeling.

Factors are created using the factor() function. The nlevels functions gives the count of levels.

# Create a vector.
apple_colors<- c('green','green','yellow','red','red','red','green')

# Create a factor object.

factor_apple<- factor(apple_colors)

# Print the factor.

print(factor_apple)
print(nlevels(factor_apple))
[1] green green yellow red redred green
Levels: green red yellow

Output :
Variables:

The variables can be assigned values using leftward, rightward and equal to operator. The values of
the variables can be printed using print() or cat() function. The cat() function combines multiple
items into a continuous print output.

# Assignment using equal operator.

var.1=c(0,1,2,3)
# Assignment using leftward operator.
var.2<- c("learn","R")
# Assignment using rightward operator.
c(TRUE,1)->var.3

print(var.1)
cat ("var.1 is ",var.1,"\n")
cat ("var.2 is ",var.2,"\n")
cat ("var.3 is ",var.3,"\n")

Output :
R Operators :

Types of Operators

Arithmetic Operators
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
t <- c(8, 3, 4)
print(v+t)

Relational Operators

v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
print(v>t)

Logical Operators

v <- c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
t <- c(4,1,FALSE,2+3i)
print(v&t)
Assignment Operators
v1 <- c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
v2 <<- c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
v3 = c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
print(v1)
print(v2)
print(v3)

Output :
3 Implement R-Loops with different examples.

Program Description :
A for loop is the most popular control flow statement. A for loop is used to iterate a vector. It is
similar to the while loop. There is only one difference between for and while, i.e., in while loop, the
condition is checked before the execution of the body, but in for loop condition is checked after the
execution of the body.

# Create fruit vector

fruit <- c('Apple', 'Orange',"Guava", 'Pinapple', 'Banana','Grapes')
# Create the for statement
for ( i in fruit){
print(i)
}

Output :
# Creating a matrix

mat <- matrix(data = seq(10, 21, by=1), nrow = 6, ncol =2)

# Creating the loop with r and c to iterate over the matrix
for (r in 1:nrow(mat))
for (c in 1:ncol(mat))
print(paste("mat[", r, ",",c, "]=", mat[r,c]))
print(mat)

Output :
R while loop :

A while loop is a type of control flow statements which is used to iterate a block of code several
numbers of times. The while loop terminates when the value of the Boolean expression will be false.

In while loop, firstly the condition will be checked and then after the body of the statement will
execute. In this statement, the condition will be checked n+1 time, rather than n times.

v <- c("Hello","while loop")

cnt <- 2
while (cnt < 7) {
print(v)
cnt = cnt + 1
}

Output :
4. Learn the basics of functions in R and implement with examples.

Program Description :

A function is a set of statements organized together to perform a specific task. R has a large number of
in-built functions and the user can create their own functions.

In R, a function is an object so the R interpreter is able to pass control to the function, along with
arguments that may be necessary for the function to accomplish the actions.

The function in turn performs its task and returns control to the interpreter as well as any result which
may be stored in other objects.

Built-in Function

# Create a sequence of numbers from 32 to 44.

print(seq(32,44))

# Find mean of numbers from 25 to 82.

print(mean(25:82))

# Find sum of numbers frm 41 to 68.

print(sum(41:68))

Output :
User-defined Function
We can create user-defined functions in R. They are specific to what a user wants and once created
they can be used like the built-in functions. Below is an example of how a function is created and
used.

# Create a function to print squares of numbers in sequence.

new.function <- function(a) {

for(i in 1:a) {
b <- i^2
print(b)
}
}

# Call the function new.function supplying 6 as an argument.

new.function(6)
5. Implement different data structures in R (Vectors, Lists, Data Frames)

Program Description :

Vectors are the most basic R data objects and there are six types of atomic vectors. They are logical,
integer, double, complex, character and raw.
Lists are the R objects which contain elements of different types like − numbers, strings, vectors and
another list inside it. A list can also contain a matrix or a function as its elements. List is created using
list() function.

Vectors
# Create a vector.
apple <- c('red','green',"yellow")
print(apple)

# Get the class of the vector.

print(class(apple))

Output :
Lists
A list is an R-object which can contain many different types of elements inside it like vectors, functions
and even another list inside it.

# Create a list.
list1 <- list(c(2,5,3),21.3,sin)

# Print the list.

print(list1)
[[1]]
[1] 2 5 3
[[2]]
[1] 21.3

[[3]]
function (x) .Primitive("sin")

Output :
Matrices
A matrix is a two-dimensional rectangular data set. It can be created using a vector input to the matrix
function.
# Create a matrix.
M =matrix( c('a','a','b','c','b','a'),nrow=2,ncol=3,byrow= TRUE)
print(M)

Output :
Data Frames :

# Create a data frame

Data_Frame<- data.frame (
Training = c("Strength", "Stamina", "Other"),
Pulse = c(100, 150, 120),
Duration = c(60, 30, 45)
)

# Print the data frame

Data_Frame

Output :
10. Write a program to read a csv file and analyze the data in the file in R

Program Description :
In R, we can read data from files stored outside the R environment. We can also write data into files
which will be stored and accessed by the operating system. R can read and write into various file formats
like csv, excel, xml etc.

# Getting and printing current working directory.

print(getwd())
# Setting the current working directory.
setwd("C:\Users\sreek\OneDrive\Desktop\SAI SANTHOSHI-MRCET-2023")
# Getting and printingthe current working directory.
print(getwd())

Output :
Reading a CSV file

data <- read.csv("record.csv")

print(data)

Output :

Analyzing the CSV File

csv_data<- read.csv("record.csv")
print(is.data.frame(csv_data))
print(ncol(csv_data))
print(nrow(csv_data))

Output :
Getting the maximum salary
# Creating a data frame.
csv_data<- read.csv("record.csv")
# Getting the maximum salary from data frame.
max_sal<- max(csv_data$salary)
print(max_sal)

Output :
Getting the details of all the persons who are working in the IT department

# Creating a data frame.

csv_data<- read.csv("record.csv")
#Getting the detais of all the pweson who are working in IT department
details <- subset(csv_data,dept=="IT")
print(details)

Output :
Getting the details of the persons whose salary is greater than 600 and working in the IT
department.

# Creating a data frame.

csv_data<- read.csv("record.csv")
#Getting the detais of all the pweson who are working in IT department
details <- subset(csv_data,dept=="IT"&salary>600)
print(details)

Output :
Getting details of those peoples who joined on or after 2014.

# Creating a data frame.

csv_data<- read.csv("record.csv")
#Getting details of those peoples who joined on or after 2014
details <- subset(csv_data,as.Date(start_date)>as.Date("2014-01-01"))
print(details)

Output :
Writing into a CSV file:
csv_data<- read.csv("record.csv")
#Getting details of those peoples who joined on or after 2014
details <- subset(csv_data,as.Date(start_date)>as.Date("2014-01-01"))
# Writing filtered data into a new file.
write.csv(details,"output.csv")
new_details<- read.csv("output.csv")
print(new_details)

Output :
6. Create pie charts and bar charts using R

Program Description :

A pie-chart is a representation of values as slices of a circle with different colors. The slices are labeled
and the numbers corresponding to each slice is also represented in the chart.

# Create data for the graph.

geeks<- c(23, 56, 20, 63)
labels <- c("Mumbai", "Pune", "Chennai", "Bangalore")

# Plot the chart.

pie(geeks, labels)

Output :
# Create the data for the chart
A <- c(17, 32, 8, 53, 1)

# Plot the bar chart

barplot(A, xlab = "X-axis", ylab = "Y-axis", main ="Bar-Chart")

Output :
7. Create a data set and do statistical analysis on the data using R

Program Description :

The R Programming Language provides some easy and quick tools that let us convert our data into
visually insightful elements like graphs.

# ? is used before a function

# to get help on that function
?plot
?chickwts
data(chickwts) #loading data into workspace
plot(chickwts$feed) # plot feed from chickwts
feeds=table(chickwts$feed)
# plots graph in decreasing order
barplot(feeds[order(feeds, decreasing=TRUE)])

Output :
8. Write R program to find Correlation and Covariance

Program Description :

Covariance shows the direction of the path of the linear relationship between the variables while a
function is applied to them.

Correlation on the contrary measures both the power and direction of the linear relationship between
two variables.
# R program to illustrate
# pearson Correlation Testing
# Using cor()
# Taking two numeric
# Vectors with same length
x = c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
y = c(1, 3, 6, 2, 7, 4, 5)

# Calculating
# Correlation coefficient
# Using cor() method
result = cor(x, y, method = "pearson")
# Print the result
cat("Pearson correlation coefficient is:", result)

Output :
Covariance

# Data vectors
x <- c(1, 3, 5, 10)

y <- c(2, 4, 6, 20)

# Print covariance using different methods

print(cov(x, y))
print(cov(x, y, method = "pearson"))
print(cov(x, y, method = "kendall"))
print(cov(x, y, method = "spearman"))

Output :
9. Write R program for Regression Modeling

Program Description :

Regression analysis is a very widely used statistical tool to establish a relationship model between
two variables. One of these variable is called predictor variable whose value is gathered through
experiments. The other variable is called response variable whose value is derived from the predictor
variable.

# Generate random IQ values with mean = 30 and sd =2

IQ <- rnorm(40, 30, 2)

# Sorting IQ level in ascending order

IQ <- sort(IQ)

# Generate vector with pass and fail values of 40 students

result <- c(0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0,
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1,
1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1)
# Data Frame
df<- as.data.frame(cbind(IQ, result))
# Print data frame
print(df)

Output :