Unit 1: Introduction

Unit 1 Syllabus

 Introduction : Operating system and functions, Classification

of Operating systems- Batch, Interactive, Time sharing,
Real Time System, Multiprocessor Systems, Multiuser
Systems, Multiprocess Systems, Multithreaded Systems,
Operating System Structure- Layered structure,System
Components, Operating System services, Reentrant
Kernels, Monolithic and MicrokernelSystems.

1.2
What is an Operating System?

 An Operating system runs on computer H/W and Serves as a

platform for other S/W to run on the computer system.
 An operating system is a program (system s/w) which acts as
an interface between user and computer hardware.
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

1.3
Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

1.4
Four Components of a Computer System

1.5
What Operating Systems Do

 The operating system controls the hardware and coordinates its use
among the various application programs for the various users.
 We can also view a computer system as consisting of hardware,
software, and data.
 The operating system provides the means for proper use of these
resources in the operation of the computer system.
 An operating system is similar to a government. Like a government,
it performs no useful function by itself. It simply provides an
environment within which other programs can do useful work.
 To understand more fully the operating system's role, we explore
operating systems from two viewpoints:
 The user
 The system.

1.6
User View
The user's view of the computer varies according to the
interface being used
 Single user computers (e.g., PC, workstations). Such
systems are designed for one user to monopolize its
resources. The goal is to maximize the work (or play) that the
user is performing. the operating system is designed mostly for
ease of use and good performance.
 Multi user computers (e.g., mainframes, computing
servers). These users share resources and may exchange
information. The operating system in such cases is designed
to maximize resource utilization -- to assure that all available
CPU time, memory, and I/O are used efficiently and that no
individual users takes more than their air share.

1.7
User View (Cont.)

 Handheld computers (e.g., smartphones and tablets). The

user interface for mobile computers generally features a
touch screen. The systems are resource poor, optimized for
usability and battery life.
 Embedded computers (e.g., computers in home devices and
automobiles) The user interface may have numeric keypads
and may turn indicator lights on or off to show status. The
operating systems are designed primarily to run without user
intervention.

1.8
System View

From the computer's point of view, the operating system is

the program most intimately involved with the hardware.
There are two different views:

 The operating system is a resource allocator

 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and
fair resource use
 The operating systems is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

1.9
Defining Operating System

No universally accepted definition of what an OS:

 Operating systems exist to offer a reasonable way to solve

the problem of creating a usable computing system.
 The fundamental goal of computer systems is to execute
user programs and to make solving user problems easier.
 Since bare hardware alone is not particularly easy to use,
application programs are developed.
 These programs require certain common operations,
such as those controlling the I/O devices.
 The common functions of controlling and allocating
resources are brought together into one piece of
software: the operating system.

1.10
Defining Operating System (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition of what is part of the OS:

 A simple viewpoint is that it includes everything a

vendor ships when you order the operating system.
The features that are included vary greatly across
systems:
 Some systems take up less than a megabyte of
space and lack even a full-screen editor,
 Some systems require gigabytes of space and are
based entirely on graphical windowing systems.

1.11
Defining Operating System (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition of what is part of the OS:

 A more common definition, and the one that we

usually follow, is that the operating system is the one
program running at all times on the computer --
usually called the kernel.
 Along with the kernel, there are two other types of
programs:
 System programs, which are associated with the
operating system but are not necessarily part of
the kernel.
 Application programs, which include all programs
not associated with the operation of the system.

1.12
Defining Operating System (Cont.)

 The emergence of mobile devices, have resulted in an

increase in the number of features that constituting the
operating system.
 Mobile operating systems often include not only a core
kernel but also middleware -- a set of software frameworks
that provide additional services to application developers.
 For example, each of the two most prominent mobile
operating systems -- Apple's iOS and Google's Android --
feature a core kernel along with middleware that supports
databases, multimedia, and graphics (to name only a few).

1.13
Evolution of Computer Systems

Users

Applications

Database System
Operating System
Hardware

1.14
Computer-System Organization

 A modern general-purpose computer system consists of one

or more CPUs and a number of device controllers connected
through a common bus that provides access to shared
memory.
 Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of
device (for example, disk drives, audio devices, or video
displays). Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.
 The CPU and the device controllers can execute in parallel,
competing for memory cycles. To ensure orderly access to
the shared memory, a memory controller synchronizes
access to the memory.

1.15
Modern Computer System

1.16
Need Of Operating System
 OS as a platform for Application programs: The
operating system provides a platform, on top of
which, other programs, called application programs
can run. These application programs help the users
to perform a specific task easily. It acts as an
interface between the computer and the user. It is
designed in such a manner that it operates, controls,
and executes various applications on the computer.
 Managing Input-Output unit: The operating system
controls the various system input-output resources
and allocates them to the users or programs as per
their requirements.

1.17
Need Of Operating System
 Consistent user interface: Operating System
provides the user an easy-to-work user interface, so
the user doesn’t have to learn a different UI every
time and can focus on the content and be productive
as quickly as possible. Operating System provides
templates, UI components to make the working of a
computer, really easy for the user.
 Multitasking: Operating System manages memory
and allows multiple programs to run in their own
space and even communicate with each other
through shared memory. Multitasking gives users a
good experience as they can perform several tasks
on a computer at a time.

1.18
Functions of Operating System

1. Memory Management.
2. Device Management.
3. Processor Management.
4. Security.
5. Error Detection.
6. Coordination between S/W and Users.
7. Job Accounting.
8. File Management.

1.19
Functions of Operating System
1. Memory Management :-It is the management of the main or
primary memory. Whatever program is executed, it has to be
present in the main memory. Main memory is a quick storage
area that may be accessed directly by the CPU. When the
program is completed, the memory region is released and can
be used by other programs. Therefore, there can be more than
one program present at a time. Hence, it is required to manage
the memory.
The operating system:
 Allocates and de-allocates the memory.
 Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by whom
and how much.
 Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.
 In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which
processes acquire memory when and how much memory they get.

1.20
Functions of Operating System
2. Device Management:- An operating system regulates device
connection using drivers. The processes may require devices for their
use. This management is done by the OS and the purpose is:
 To Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.
 To Keeps records of the devices.
 Decides which process can use which device for how much time.
3. Processor Management:- In a multi-programming environment, it is
OS who decides which process will get the processor when and for how
long. This task is called Process Scheduling. Following activities are
done by OS for processor management:
 It keeps a track of processor tasking and checks the status of
process.
 It allocates the processor and also de-allocates processor when a
process is complete and not required.
 Scheduling play a very vital role in Process Management.

1.21
Functions of Operating System
4. Security:-An OS by using password and other similar
techniques prevents and checks unauthorized users to access
the data and program. For security, modern operating systems
employ a firewall. A firewall is a type of security system that
monitors all computer activity and blocks it if it detects a threat.
5. Error Detection:-While a computer system is running, a variety
of errors might occur. Error detection guarantees that data is
delivered reliably across susceptible networks. The operating
system continuously monitors the system to locate or recognize
problems and protects the system from them.
6. Coordination between S/W and User:-The operating system
(OS) allows hardware components to be coordinated and
directs and allocates assemblers, interpreters, compilers, and
other software to different users of the computer system.

1.22
Functions of Operating System
7. Job Accounting:- As the operating system keeps track of all
the functions of a computer system. Hence, it makes a record
of all the activities taking place on the system. It has an
account of all the information about the memory, resources,
errors, etc. Therefore, this information can be used as and
when required.
8. File Management:- The operating system manages resource
allocation and de-allocation. It specifies which process
receives the file and for how long. It also keeps track of
information, location, uses, status, and so on. These
groupings of resources are referred to as file systems. The
files on a system are stored in different directories.
The OS:
 Keeps records of the status and locations of files.
 Allocates and deallocates resources.
 Decides who gets the resources.
1.23
Operating System Services

 The operating system provides the programming

environment in which a programmer works on a
computer system. The user program requests
various resources through the operating system.
These are done by two ways:
 Command Line Interface
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)

1.24
Operating System Services

1.25
Operating System Services

1. Program Execution
 The OS loads a program into memory and then executes that
program. It also makes sure that once started that program can end
its execution, either normally or forcefully. The major steps during
program management are:
 Loading a program into memory.
 Executing the program.
 Making sure the program completes its execution.
 Providing a mechanism for:
1. process synchronization.
2. process communication.
3. deadlock handling.

1.26
Operating System Services

2. File System Manipulation

 A program is read and then written in the form of
directories and files. These files can be stored on
the storage disk for the long term. The OS allows
the users to create and delete files, duplicate these
files, and search files and their information or
properties.
 It also does permission management for these files
i.e., allowing or denying access to these files or
directories based on the file ownership.

1.27
Operating System Services

3. I/O Operations
 I/O operations are required during the execution of a program. To
maintain efficiency and protection of the program, users cannot
directly govern the I/O devices instead the OS allows to read or write
operations with any file using the I/O devices and also allows access
to any required I/O device when required.
4. Error Detection
 Errors may occur in any of the resources like CPU, I/O devices, or
memory hardware. The OS keeps a lookout for such errors, corrects
errors when they occur, and makes sure that the system works
uninterruptedly.

1.28
Operating System Services
5. Communication systems
 Processes need to swap information among themselves. These
processes can be from the same computer system or different
computer systems as long as they are connected through
communication lines in a network.
 This can be done with the help of OS support using shared memory
or message passing. The OS also manages routing, connection
strategies, and the problem of contention and security.
6. Resource Allocation
 When multiple users or multiple jobs run on a system concurrently,
the resources need to be allocated equally to all of them.
 CPU scheduling is used to allocate resources fairly and for the
better utilization of the CPU. These resources may include CPU
cycles, main memory storage, file storage, and I/O devices.

1.29
Operating System Services

7. Accounting
 This keeps a check of which resource is being used by a user and
for how long it is being used. This is usually done for statistical
purposes.
8. Protection and Security
 This is to ensure the safety of the system. Thus, user authentication
is required to access a system. It is also necessary to protect a
process from another when multiple processes are running on a
system at the same time.
 The OS controls the access to the resources, protects the I/O
devices from invalid access, and provides authentication through
passwords.

1.30
Booting Procedure

 Booting is a start-up sequence that starts the

operating system of a computer when it is turned
on. A boot sequence is the initial set of operations
that the computer performs when it is switched on.
Every computer has a boot sequence.

1.31
Booting Procedure
1. Boot Loader: Computers powered by the central processing unit can only

execute code found in the system's memory. The program that starts the
chain reaction that ends with the entire operating system being loaded is the
boot loader or bootstrap loader. The boot loader's only job is to load other
software for the operating system to start.

 Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware

 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

The pictorial execution representation is available in next slide

1.32
Booting Procedure

1.33
Booting Procedure
2. Boot Devices: The boot device is the device from which the operating
system is loaded. A modern PC BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
supports booting from various devices. These include the local hard disk
drive, optical drive, floppy drive, a network interface card, and a USB device.
The BIOS will allow the user to configure a boot order. If the boot order is set
to:
o CD Drive
o Hard Disk Drive
o Network

 The BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that fails, then it
will try to boot from the hard disk drive, and if that fails, then it will try to
boot from the network, and if that fails, then it won't boot at all.

1.34
Booting Procedure
3. Boot Sequence: There is a standard boot sequence that all personal
computers use. First, the CPU runs an instruction in memory for the BIOS.
That instruction contains a jump instruction that transfers to the BIOS start-
up program. This program runs a power-on self-test (POST) to check that
devices the computer will rely on are functioning properly. Then, the BIOS
goes through the configured boot sequence until it finds a bootable device.
Once BIOS has found a bootable device, BIOS loads the boot sector and
transfers execution to the boot sector. If the boot device is a hard drive, it
will be a master boot record (MBR).

1.35
Booting Procedure (Current Scenario)

The GUID(Globally Unique Identifier) Partition Table (GPT) is

now frequently employed in lieu of the Master Boot Record
(MBR), particularly with computers that support UEFI and
newer operating systems. Some of the significant advantages
of GPT over MBR include the ability to support larger disk
capacities and more partitions, as well as the improvement of
data redundancy and integrity.

A more in-depth explanation is given in next slide

1.36
Booting Procedure (Current Scenario)
Shortcomings of MBR: It was the de facto standard
for quite some time, however it couldn't handle disk
sizes larger than 2 TB and could only support a
maximum of four main partitions.

GUID Partition Table:

To get around these constraints, the Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI) specification included GPT.There is
almost no limit to the number of partitions and the maximum
disk size is 9.4 zettabytes.To further ensure data integrity, it
incorporates backup copies of primary data structures.

1.37
Booting Procedure (Current Scenario)
Shortcomings of MBR: It was the de facto standard
for quite some time, however it couldn't handle disk
sizes larger than 2 TB and could only support a
maximum of four main partitions.

GUID Partition Table:

To get around these constraints, the Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI) specification included GPT.There is
almost no limit to the number of partitions and the maximum
disk size is 9.4 zettabytes.To further ensure data integrity, it
incorporates backup copies of primary data structures.

Generally speaking, GPT is the way to go, but it's

particularly suggested for brand-new computers and
those with bigger hard drives.Using UEFI, it provides
more adaptability and future-proofing.

1.38
Types of Booting
There are two types of booting in an operating system
 Cold Booting: When the computer starts for
the first time or is in a shut-down state and
switch on the power button to start the system,
this type of process to start the computer is
called cold booting. During cold booting, the
system will read all the instructions from the ROM
(BIOS) and the Operating System will be
automatically get loaded into the system. This
booting takes more time than Hot or Warm
Booting.
 Warm Booting: Warm or Hot Booting process
is when computer systems come to no
response or hang state, and then the system is
allowed to restart during on condition. It is also
referred to as rebooting. There are many
reasons for this state, and the only solution is to
reboot the computer. Rebooting may be required
when we install new software or hardware.
1.39
Computer-System Operation

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type .
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers .
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation
by causing An interrupt

1.40
Interrupts

 There are two types of interrupts:

 Hardware -- a device may trigger an interrupt by sending a
signal to the CPU, usually by way of the system bus.
 Software -- a program may trigger an interrupt by executing a
special operation called a system call.
 A software-generated interrupt (sometimes called trap or
exception) is caused either by an error (e.g., divide by zero) or a
user request (e.g., an I/O request).
 An operating system is interrupt driven.

1.41
Common Functions of Interrupts

 When an interrupt occurs, the operating system preserves the

state of the CPU by storing the registers and the program
counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred and transfers
control to the interrupt-service routine.
 An interrupt-service routine is a collection of routines (modules),
each of which is responsible for handling one particular interrupt
(e.g., from a printer, from a disk)
 The transfer is generally through the interrupt vector, which
contains the addresses of all the service routines
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction.
 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt. • A trap or exception is a
software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user
request

1.42
Interrupt Timeline

 The I/O device (controller) is busy transferring data from the device buffer to
the device. It goes from idle to transferring. This is the peak for I/O device. It
goes back to idle when the transfer is done, until the next request.
 The CPU curve shows a peak when the transfer is done because the CPU is
notified by the device (through an interrupt).

1.43
Interrupt-driven I/O cycle.

1.44
Interrupt Handling
 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter.
 Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for
each type of interrupt
Advantages of Interrupt
 Interrupts are important because they give the user better control over
the computer.
 Without interrupts, a user may have to wait for a given application to
have a higher priority over the CPU to be ran.
 This ensures that the CPU will deal with the process immediately.
 It increases the efficiency of CPU.
 It decreases the waiting time of CPU.
 Stops the wastage of instruction cycle.
Disadvantages
 CPU has to do a lot of work to handle interrupts, resume its previous
execution of programs (in short, overhead required to handle the
interrupt request.)
1.45
Storage Structure
 Main memory – the only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
 Random access
 Typically volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular

 Tertiary storage – provides a third level of storage. Typically, it involves a

robotic mechanism which will mount(insert) and dismount removable mass
storage media into a storage device according to the system’s demand.
Such data are often copied to secondary storage before use.

1.46
Storage Definition
 The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of
two values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on
collections of bits.
 A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers, it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage.
 A less common term is word, which is a given computer architecture’s
native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more bytes.

1.47
Storage Definition (Cont.)

 Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is

generally measured and manipulated in bytes and collections
of bytes.
 A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
 a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
 a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
 a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
 a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
 exabyte, zettabyte, yottabyte
 Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and
say that a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1
billion bytes. Networking measurements are an exception to
this general rule; they are given in bits (because networks
move data a bit at a time).

1.48
Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy
 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information from “slow” storage into
faster storage system;
 Main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between controller and
kernel

1.49
Storage-device hierarchy

1.50
I/O Structure
 A general-purpose computer system consists of CPUs and
multiple device controllers that are connected through a
common bus.
 Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of device.
More than one device may be attached. For instance, seven
or more devices can be attached to the small computer-
systems interface (SCSI) controller.
 A device controller maintains some local buffer storage and a
set of special-purpose registers.
 The device controller is responsible for moving the data
between the peripheral devices that it controls and its local
buffer storage.
 Typically, operating systems have a device driver for each
device controller. This device driver understands the device
controller and provides the rest of the operating system with a
uniform interface to the device.

1.51
I/O Structure (Cont.)
 To start an I/O operation, the device driver loads the
appropriate registers within the device controller.
 The device controller, in turn, examines the contents of these
registers to determine what action to take (such as “read” a
character from the keyboard).
 The controller starts the transfer of data from the device to its
local buffer. Once the transfer of data is complete, the device
controller informs the device driver via an interrupt that it has
finished its operation.
 The device driver then returns control to the operating system,
possibly returning the data or a pointer to the data if the
operation was a read.
 For other operations, the device driver returns status
information.

1.52
Direct Memory Access Structure
 Interrupt-driven I/O is fine for moving small amounts of data but
can produce high overhead when used for bulk data movement
such as disk I/O.
 To solve this problem, direct memory access (DMA) is used.
 After setting up buffers, pointers, and counters for the I/O
device, the device controller transfers an entire block of
data directly to or from its own buffer storage to memory,
with no intervention by the CPU.
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, to tell the device
driver that the operation has completed. While the device
controller s performing these operations, the CPU is
available to accomplish other work.
 Some high-end systems use switch rather than bus
architecture. On these systems, multiple components can talk to
other components concurrently, rather than competing for
cycles on a shared bus. In this case, DMA is even more
effective. The figure in next slide shows the interplay of all
components of a computer system.

1.53
How a Modern Computer Works
A von Neumann architecture and a depiction of the interplay of
all components of a computer system.

1.54
Classification of Operating system
 Single general-purpose processor
 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
 Multiprocessors systems
 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
 Increased throughput
 Economy of scale
 Increased reliability – graceful-degradation/fault-tolerance
 Two types:
 Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs
all tasks
 Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is
assigned a specific task.

1.55
Classification of Operating system
Multiprocessing System
Advantages
 Increased Throughput: By increasing number of processors, we expect to
get more work done in less time.
 Economy of Scale: multiprocessor system can cost less than equivalent
multiple single processor systems.
 Increased Reliability: Since work is distributed among several processors;
failure of one processor will not halt the system only slow it down.
Disadvantages
 It is complex system.
 Process scheduling is difficult in this system.
 It required large size of Main memory.

1.56
Image of a Multiprocessor Motherboard

1.57
Image of a Multiprocessor Motherboard

1.58
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

1.59
Multicore Systems
 Most CPU design now includes multiple computing cores on a
single chip. Such multiprocessor systems are termed multicore.
 Multicore systems can be more efficient than multiple chips with
single cores because:
 On-chip communication is faster than between-chip
communication.
 One chip with multiple cores uses significantly less power than
multiple single-core chips, an important issue for laptops as
well as mobile devices.
 Note -- while multicore systems are multiprocessor systems, not all
multiprocessor systems are multicore.

1.60
A dual-core with two cores placed on the same chip

1.61
Classification of Operating system
Multi-user operating system
 A multi-user operating system is an operating system that
permits several users to access a single system running to a
single operating system. These systems are frequently quite
complex, and they must manage the tasks that the various users
connected to them require.
 Users will usually sit at terminals or computers connected to the
system via a network and other system machines like printers. A
multi-user operating system varies from a connected single-user
operating system in that each user accesses the same operating
system from different machines.
 The main goal of developing a multi-user operating system is to
use it for time-sharing and batch processing on mainframe
systems.
 It is usually responsible for handling memory and processing for
other running programs, identifying and using system hardware,
and efficiently handling user interaction and data requests.
1.62
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together

 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)

 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid
conflicting operations

1.63
Clustered Systems

1.64
Clustered Systems

A NEC Nehalem cluster System

1.65
Multiprogrammed System

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always
has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 Batch systems:
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job
 Interactive systems (Time Sharing System):
 Logical extension of batch systems -- CPU switches jobs so
frequently that users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing

1.66
Interactive Systems (Time Sharing System)

 Response time should be < 1 second

 Each user has at least one program executing in memory. Such a
program is referred to as a process
 If several processes are ready to run at the same time, we need to
have CPU scheduling.
 If processes do not fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out
to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
Advantages
 High CPU utilization
 Less wanting time, response time etc.
 Useful in current scenario when load is high
Disadvantages
 Process scheduling is difficult
 Main memory management is required
 Problems like memory fragmentation may occur

1.67
Memory Layout for Multiprogramming Batch System

• This type of operating system

does not interact with the
computer directly.
• There is an operator which takes
similar jobs having the same
requirement and group them
into batches. It is the
responsibility of the operator to
sort jobs with similar needs.

1.68
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed Batch System

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in
queue.
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Example of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements etc.

1.69
Modes of Operation

 A mechanism that allows the OS to protect itself and other

system components
 Two modes:
User mode
 Kernel mode
 Mode bit (0 or 1) provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable
in kernel mode
 Systems call by a user asking the OS to perform some
function changes from user mode to kernel mode.
 Return from a system call resets the mode to user mode.

1.70
Transition from User to Kernel Mode

1.71
Reentrant Kernel

 Processes call kernel functions to perform tasks such

as accessing hardware or starting new processes
Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 For certain periods of time, therefore, a process will
be executing kernel code
 kernel is called reentrant if more than one process
can be executing kernel code at the same time.

1.72
Timer
To prevent process to be in infinite loop (process hogging
resources), a timer is used, which is a hardware device.

 Timer is a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.

 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
 Operating system sets the counter (privileged instruction)
 When counter reaches the value zero, and interrupt is
generated.
 The OS sets up the value of the counter before scheduling a
process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time

1.73
Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files, etc.
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 A thread is a basic unit of CPU utilization within a process.
 Single-threaded process. Instructions are executed sequentially,
one at a time, until completion
 Process has one program counter specifying location of next
instruction to execute
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically, a system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the threads

1.74
Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

1.75
Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

memory
 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be
in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory and when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

1.76
Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Files are stored in a number of different storage medium.
 Disk
 Flash Memory
 Tape
 Each medium is controlled by device drivers (i.e., disk drive,
tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity,
data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or
random)

1.77
File System Management

 Files usually organized into directories

 Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

1.78
Secondary-Storage Management

 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem
and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications

1.79
Caching
 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer
(in hardware, operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache are smaller (size-wise) than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy

1.80
Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit

1.81
Migration of data “A” from Disk to Register

 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache
 Distributed environment situation even more complex
 Several copies of a datum can exist
 Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

1.82
I/O Subsystem
 One purpose of an operating system is to hide peculiarities of
hardware devices from the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing
data temporarily while it is being transferred), caching
(storing parts of data in faster storage for performance),
spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of
other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

1.83
Protection and Security
 Protection – A mechanism for controlling access of processes
(or users) to resources defined by the OS
 Security – A defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine
who can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID is associated with all files and processes of that
user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined
and controls managed, then also associated with each
process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID
with more rights

1.84
Virtualization
 Allows operating systems to run applications within other OSes
 Vast and growing industry
 Emulation used when the source CPU type is different from
the target type (i.e., PowerPC to Intel x86)
 Generally slowest method
 When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
 Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
 Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
 VMM (virtual machine Manager) provides virtualization
services

1.85
Virtualization on Laptops and Destops

 A VMM allow the user to install multiple operating systems to

run application written for operating systems other than the
native host.
 Apple laptop running Mac OS X host Windows as a guest
 Developing apps for multiple OSes without having multiple
systems
 Testing applications without having multiple systems
 Executing and managing compute environments within
data centers

1.86
Virtualization on Laptops and Destops

 In virtualization,
 a user installs the virtualization software in the operating
system of his system like any other program and utilizes
this application to operate and generate various virtual
machines.
 Here, the virtualization software allows direct access to
any of the created virtual machines to the user.
 As the host OS can provide hardware devices with the
mandatory support, operating system virtualization may
affect compatibility issues of hardware even when the
hardware driver is not allocated to the virtualization
software.

1.87
Virtualization Architecture Structure

1.88