Manjunath CR

Computer Organization and

Architecture

Instructor: Manjunath C R

Note: This PPT is only for reference

1. COMPUTER TYPES
 What is a digital computer, or computer?
A contemporary computer is a fast electronic calculating
machine that accepts digitized input information, process
it according to a list of internally stored instructions, and
produces the resulting output information.
 Many types of computers exist that differ widely
in size, cost, computational power, and intended
use:
 Personal computers – desktop, notebook
 Workstations – high-resolution graphics input/output
capability, more computational power, reliability
 Enterprise systems (mainframes) and servers – much
more computing power and storage capacity, accessible
via internet
 Supercomputers – large-scale numerical calculations
2
2. FUNCTIONAL UNITS

Arithmetic
Input and
logic

Memory

Output Control

I/O Processor

Basic Functional Units of a Computer

INFORMATION HANDLED BY A
COMPUTER
 Instructions/machine instructions
 Govern the transfer of information within a computer
as well as between the computer and its I/O devices
 Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be
performed
 Program

 Data
 Used as operands by the instructions
 Source program, Object program, Compiler
 Encoded in binary code – 0 and 1
 ASCII(American Standard Code for Information
Interchange) and EBCDIC(Extended Binary- 4
Coded Decimal Interchange Code
MEMORY UNIT
 Store programs and data
 Two classes of storage
 Primary storage
 Fast
 Programs must be stored in memory while they are being

executed Large number of semiconductor storage cells

Processed in words(16 to 64bits)
 Address : RAM and memory access time(few ns to 10ns)

Memory hierarchy( 3 or 4 levels) – cache, main memory

 Secondary storage – larger and cheaper

5
ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
 Operations are executed in ALU of the processor.
 Load the operands into memory – bring them to the
processor
 perform operation in ALU - store the result back to
memory or retain in the processor.
 Contains Registers
 Fast control of ALU

6
CONTROL UNIT
 Operations are controlled by the control unit.
 The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers
are also generated by the control unit.
 it distributes the signals throughout the
machine instead of standing alone.
 Operations of a computer:
 Accept information in the form of programs and data
through an input unit and store it in the memory
 Fetch the information stored in the memory, under
program control, into an ALU, and process the
information .
 Output the processed information through an output
unit
 Control all activities inside the machine through a
control unit 7
INPUT UNIT
 Computers accept coded information through
input units, which read the data
 Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding
letter or digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary code. Ex: Keyboard

 Output Unit
 Its function is to send processed result to the
outside world. Ex: Printer

8
3. BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS
A Typical Instruction
 Add LOCA, R0
 Add the operand at memory location LOCA to the
operand in a register R0 in the processor.
 Result into register R0.
 The original contents of LOCA are preserved and R0
is overwritten.
 Instruction is fetched from the memory into the
processor – the operand at LOCA is fetched and
added to the contents of R0 – the resulting sum is
stored in register R0.
9
 Separate Memory Access and ALU Operation
Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
 Whose contents will be overwritten?

10
Memory

MAR MDR

CONNECTION BETWEEN THE

Control

PC R0

R1
Processor
IR

ALU
Rn - 1

n general purpose
registers

Figure 1.2. Connections between the processor and the memory.

PROCESSOR AND THE MEMORY

11
REGISTERS
 Instruction register (IR)
 Program counter (PC)

 General-purpose register (R0 – Rn-1)

 Memory address register (MAR)

 Memory data register (MDR)

12
TYPICAL OPERATING STEPS
 Programs reside in the memory through input
devices
 PC is set to point to the first instruction

 The contents of PC are transferred to MAR

 A Read signal is sent to the memory

 The first instruction is read out and loaded into

MDR
 The contents of MDR are transferred to IR

 Decode and execute the instruction

13
 Get operands for ALU
 General-purpose register
 Memory (address to MAR – Read – MDR to ALU)

 Perform operation in ALU

 Store the result back
 To general-purpose register
 To memory (address to MAR, result to MDR – Write)

 During the execution, PC is incremented to the

next instruction

14
INTERRUPT
 Normal execution of programs may be preempted
if some device requires urgent servicing
 The normal execution of the current program
must be interrupted – the device raises an
interrupt signal
 Interrupt-service routine

 Current system information backup and restore

(PC, general-purpose registers, control
information, specific information)

15
4. BUS STRUCTURES
 There are many ways to connect different parts
inside a computer together
 A group of lines that serves as a connecting path
for several devices is called a bus
 Address/data/control

Single Bus Configuration

16
SPEED ISSUE RELATED TO BUS
 Different devices have different transfer/operate
speed
 If the speed of bus is bounded by the slowest
device connected to it, the efficiency will be very
low.
 How to solve this?
 A common approach – use buffers

17
5. SOFTWARE
 System software must be in the memory in order
for a user to enter and run an application
program on a computer
 Receiving and interpreting user commands
 Entering and editing application programs and
storing them as files in secondary storage devices
 Managing the storage and retrieval of files in
secondary storage devices
 Running standard application programs
 Controlling I/O units to receive input information
and produce output results
 Translating programs form source form prepared by
the user into object form consisting of machine
instructions 18
 Linking and running user-written application
programs with existing standard library routines
 Application programs are usually written in a
high-level programming language
 Compiler translates the high-level language program
into a suitable machine language program
 Text editor

19
OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
 A large program used to control the sharing of
and interaction among various computer units as
they execute application programs
 Assign computer resources to individual
application programs
 Memory, Disk space, Move data, Handle I/O

20
OS ROUTINE EXAMPLE
 Example: one processor, one disk, and one printer
Program is stored on disk,

Transfer program into memory,

 Execute program,

 Need to read a data file on disk into memory,

 Calculation,

 Print results

21
Printer

Disk

OS
routines

Program

t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5

 Fig: User program and OS routine sharing of the

processor
22
6. PERFORMANCE
 The most important measure of a computer is
how quickly it can execute programs
 Three factors affect performance:
 Hardware design
 Machine Instruction set
 Compiler

Main Cache
memory memory Processor

23

Bus
 The processor and a relatively small cache
memory can be fabricated on a single integrated
circuit chip
 Speed, Cost, and Memory management

 Processor Clock
 Clock, clock cycle, and clock rate
 The execution of each instruction is divided into
several steps, each of which completes in one clock
cycle.
 Length p, Clock rate R=1/p
 Hertz – cycles per second
 GHz, MHz 24
BASIC PERFORMANCE EQUATION
 T – processor time required to execute a program
than has been prepared in high-level language
 N – number of actual machine language
instructions needed to complete the execution
(note: loop)
 S – average number of basic steps needed to
execute one machine instruction. Each step
completes in one clock cycle N S
 R – clock rate
T
R
these are not independent to each other
25
PIPELINE AND SUPERSCALAR
OPERATION
 Instructions are not necessarily executed one
after another.
 The value of S doesn’t have to be the number of
clock cycles to execute one instruction.
 Pipelining – overlapping the execution of
successive instructions.
 Add R1, R2, R3
 Superscalar operation – multiple instruction
pipelines are implemented in the processor.
 Goal – reduce S (could become <1!)

26
CLOCK RATE
 Increase clock rate
 Improve the integrated-circuit (IC) technology to
make the circuits faster
 Reduce the amount of processing done in one basic
step (however, this may increase the number of basic
steps needed)
 Increases in R that are entirely caused by
improvements in IC technology affect all aspects
of the processor’s operation equally except the
time to access the main memory

27
CISC AND RISC
 Tradeoff between N and S
 A key consideration is the use of pipelining
 S is close to 1 even though the number of basic steps
per instruction may be considerably larger
 It is much easier to implement efficient pipelining in
processor with simple instruction sets
 Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
 Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)

28
COMPILER
 A compiler translates a high-level language
program into a sequence of machine instructions.
 To reduce N, we need a suitable machine
instruction set and a compiler that makes good
use of it.
 Goal – reduce N×S

 A compiler may not be designed for a specific

processor; however, a high-quality compiler is
usually designed for, and with, a specific
processor.
29
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
 T is difficult to compute.
 Measure computer performance using benchmark
programs.
 System Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC)
selects and publishes representative application
programs for different application domains, together
with test results for many commercially available
computers.
 Compile and run (no simulation)
 Reference computer

Running time on the reference computer

SPEC rating 
Running time on the computer under test
n 1
SPEC rating  ( SPECi ) n 30
i 1
MULTIPROCESSORS AND
MULTICOMPUTERS

 Multiprocessor systems have more than one

processor
 These systems execute a number of different
applications in parallel or they execute subtask of
a single large task in parallel.
 It is also called as shared memory system
 In contrast to multiprocessor systems it is also
possible to use interconnected group of complete
computers to achieve high computational power
 The computers normally have access to only their
memory units.
 They are also called as message passing
31
multicomputers
7. FIXED AND FLOATING POINT
REPRESENTATION

 For fixed point and floating point representation

refer Morris Mano text book (Section 3-3 and 3-4)
and refer carl Hamacher text book (Section 6.7)

32
End of the Chapter

33