Chapter 2

Frequency Distributions
PowerPoint Lecture Slides
Essentials of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences
Eighth Edition
by Frederick J Gravetter and Larry B. Wallnau
Learning Outcomes
1 • Understand how frequency distributions are used

2 • Organize data into a frequency distribution table…

3 • …and into a grouped frequency distribution table

4 • Know how to interpret frequency distributions

5 • Organize data into frequency distribution graphs

6 • Know how to interpret and understand graphs

Tools You Will Need
• Proportions (math review, Appendix A)
– Fractions
– Decimals
– Percentages
• Scales of measurement (Chapter 1)
– Nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio
– Continuous and discrete variables (Chapter 1)
• Real limits (Chapter 1)
2.1 Frequency Distributions
• A frequency distribution is
– An organized tabulation
– Showing the number of individuals located in
each category on the scale of measurement
• Can be either a table or a graph
• Always shows
– The categories that make up the scale
– The frequency, or number of individuals, in
each category
2.2 Frequency Distribution Tables
• Structure of Frequency Distribution Table
– Categories in a column (often ordered from
highest to lowest but could be reversed)
– Frequency count next to category
• Σf = N
• To compute ΣX from a table
– Convert table back to original scores or
– Compute ΣfX
Proportions and Percentages
Proportions Percentages
• Measures the fraction of • Expresses relative
the total group that is frequency out of 100
associated with each score f
• percentage  p(100)  (100)
f N
• proportion  p 
N • Can be included as a
separate column in a
• Called relative frequencies frequency distribution table
because they describe the
frequency ( f ) in relation to
the total number (N)
Example 2.3
Frequency, Proportion and Percent

X f p = f/N percent = p(100)

5 1 1/10 = .10 10%

4 2 2/10 = .20 20%

3 3 3/10 = .30 30%

2 3 3/10 = .30 30%

1 1 1/10 = .10 10%

Learning Check
• Use the Frequency Distribution X f
Table to determine how many 5 2
subjects were in the study 4 4

A • 10 3 1

2 0
B • 15 1 3

C • 33
D • Impossible to determine
Learning Check - Answer
• Use the Frequency Distribution
Table to determine how many X f
subjects were in the study 5 2

A • 10 4 4

3 1
B • 15 2 0

C • 33 1 3

D • Impossible to determine
Learning Check
X f
• For the frequency distribution 5 2
shown, is each of these 4 4

statements True or False? 3 1

2 0
1 3

• More than 50% of the individuals

T/F scored above 3

• The proportion of scores in the

T/F lowest category was p = 3
Learning Check - Answer
X f
• For the frequency distribution 5 2
shown, is each of these 4 4

statements True or False? 3 1

2 0
1 3

• Six out of ten individuals scored

True above 3 = 60% = more than half

• A proportion is a fractional part;

False 3 out of 10 scores = 3/10 = .3
Grouped Frequency
Distribution Tables
• If the number of categories is very large
they are combined (grouped) to make the
table easier to understand
• However, information is lost when
categories are grouped
– Individual scores cannot be retrieved
– The wider the grouping interval, the more
information is lost
“Rules” for Constructing Grouped
Frequency Distributions
• Requirements (Mandatory Guidelines)
– All intervals must be the same width
– Make the bottom (low) score in each interval a
multiple of the interval width
• “Rules of Thumb” (Suggested Guidelines)
– Ten or fewer class intervals is typical (but use
good judgment for the specific situation)
– Choose a “simple” number for interval width
Discrete Variables in Frequency
or Grouped Distributions

• Constructing either frequency distributions or

grouped frequency distributions for discrete
variables is uncomplicated
– Individuals with the same recorded score had
precisely the same measurements
– The score is an exact score
Continuous Variables in
Frequency Distributions
• Constructing frequency distributions for
continuous variables requires understanding
that a score actually represents an interval
– A given “score” actually could have been any value
within the score’s real limits
– The recorded value was rounded off to the middle
value between the score’s real limits
– Individuals with the same recorded score probably
differed slightly in their actual performance
Continuous Variables in
Frequency Distributions
• Constructing grouped frequency distributions
for continuous variables also requires
understanding that a score actually represents
an interval
• Consequently, grouping several scores actually
requires grouping several intervals
• Apparent limits of the (grouped) class interval
are always one unit smaller than the real
limits of the (grouped) class interval. (Why?)
Learning Check
• A Grouped Frequency Distribution table has
categories 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, and 30-39.
What is the width of the interval 20-29?
A • 9 points
B • 9.5 points
C • 10 points
D • 10.5 points
Learning Check - Answer
• A Grouped Frequency Distribution table has
categories 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, and 30-39.
What is the width of the interval 20-29?
A • 9 points
B • 9.5 points
C • 10 points (29.5 – 19.5 = 10)
D • 10.5 points
Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.

• You can determine how many

T/F individuals had each score from a
Frequency Distribution Table
• You can determine how many
T/F individuals had each score from a
Grouped Frequency Distribution
Learning Check - Answer

• The original scores can be

True recreated from the Frequency
Distribution Table
• Only the number of individuals in
False the class interval is available once
the scores are grouped
2.3 Frequency Distribution Graphs

• Pictures of the data organized in tables

– All have two axes
– X-axis (abscissa) typically has categories of
measurement scale increasing left to right
– Y-axis (ordinate) typically has frequencies
increasing bottom to top
• General principles
– Both axes should have value 0 where they meet
– Height should be about ⅔ to ¾ of length
Data Graphing Questions
• Level of measurement? (nominal;
ordinal; interval; or ratio)
• Discrete or continuous data?
• Describing samples or populations?

The answers to these questions determine

which is the appropriate graph
Frequency Distribution Histogram

• Requires numeric scores (interval or ratio)

• Represent all scores on X-axis from minimum
thru maximum observed data values
• Include all scores with frequency of zero
• Draw bars above each score (interval)
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Width of bar corresponds to score real limits (or
one-half score unit above/below discrete scores)
Figure 2.1
Frequency Distribution Histogram
Grouped Frequency
Distribution Histogram
Same requirements as for frequency distribution
histogram except:
• Draw bars above each (grouped) class interval
– Bar width is the class interval real limits
– Consequence? Apparent limits are extended out
one-half score unit at each end of the interval
Figure 2.2
Grouped Frequency Distribution Histogram
Block Histogram
• A histogram can be made a “block” histogram
• Create a bar of the correct height by drawing a
stack of blocks
• Each block represents one per case
• Therefore, block histograms show the
frequency count in each bar
Figure 2.3
Frequency Distribution Block Histogram
Frequency Distribution Polygons

• List all numeric scores on the X-axis

– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw a dot above the center of each
interval
– Height of dot corresponds to frequency
– Connect the dots with a continuous line
– Close the polygon with lines to the Y = 0 point
• Can also be used with grouped frequency
distribution data
Figure 2.4
Frequency Distribution Polygon
Figure 2.5
Grouped Data Frequency Distribution Polygon
Graphs for Nominal or
Ordinal Data
• For non-numerical scores (nominal
and ordinal data), use a bar graph
– Similar to a histogram
– Spaces between adjacent bars indicates
discrete categories
• without a particular order (nominal)
• non-measurable width (ordinal)
Figure 2.6 - Bar graph
Population Distribution Graphs
• When population is small, scores for each
member are used to make a histogram
• When population is large, scores for each
member are not possible
– Graphs based on relative frequency are used
– Graphs use smooth curves to indicate exact scores
were not used
• Normal
– Symmetric with greatest frequency in the middle
– Common structure in data for many variables
Figure 2.7
Bar Graph of Relative Frequencies
Figure 2.8 – IQ Population Distribution
Shown as a Normal Curve
Box 2.1 - Figure 2.9
Use and Misuse of Graphs
2.4 Frequency Distribution Shape

• Researchers describe a distribution’s

shape in words rather than drawing it
• Symmetrical distribution: each side is a
mirror image of the other
• Skewed distribution: scores pile up on one
side and taper off in a tail on the other
– Tail on the right (high scores) = positive skew
– Tail on the left (low scores) = negative skew
Figure 2.10 - Distribution Shapes
Learning Check

• What is the shape of

this distribution?

A • Symmetrical

B • Negatively skewed
C • Positively skewed

D • Discrete
Learning Check - Answer

• What is the shape of

this distribution?

A • Symmetrical
B • Negatively skewed
C • Positively skewed
D • Discrete
Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
• It would be correct to use a histogram to
graph parental marital status data
T/F (single, married, divorced...) from a
treatment center for children
• It would be correct to use a histogram to
graph the time children spent playing
T/F with other children from data collected
in children’s treatment center
Learning Check - Answer

• Marital Status is a nominal

False variable; a bar graph is required

• Time is measured continuously

True and is an interval variable
Figure 2.11- Answers to
Learning Check Exercise 1 (p. 51)
Equations?

Concepts?

Any
Questions
?