WORLD LITERATURE

• It is considered in global context.  It suggests to

the sum of total world’s national literature and
also the circulation of work into the wider world
beyond country’s origin.
• World literature and the study of world literature is
examining different forms of literature including stories,
novels, poems, and epics that come from all around the
world and form the basis of many ideas and themes
found in modern day society and literature.
WORLD LITERATURE

• World literature is a way of

communicating and preserving
important details of culture, traditions
and attitudes. Literature is comprised of
language, and language is a form of
communication
LITERATURE

• It refers to any “ written work”.

• It is derived from ‘literatura‘ which means writing formed with
letters. 
• “Litera” – Latin word which literally means an acquaintance
with letters
• It is the mirror of the society which reflects societal norms,
culture , tradition, experiences etc.
• Literature goes along with society.
CONCRETE MEANING OF
LITERATURE
• It is a body of work, either written, oral, or visual,
containing imaginative language that realistically portrays
thought, emotions, and experiences of the human
condition.
• is a product of particular culture that concretizes man’s
array of values, emotions, actions and ideas. It is therefore
a creation of human experiences that tells about people
and their world. 
Importance of Studying World
Literature
• 1. Imagination: Reading literature cultivates the imagination.
That’s one reason why tyrants and dictators hate literature,
banning or strictly controlling it. From the ancient Greeks to the
present day, cultures steeped in literary study have thrived on
creativity and innovation.
• 2. Communication: Writing and talking about literature helps
prepare students to write and talk about anything. Not only are
they working with words, with carefully considered language, but
they are also considering how different kinds of people think and
react to and understand words.
Importance of Studying World
Literature
• 3. Analysis: Literary works—whether fiction, poetry, drama, creative
nonfiction—challenge readers to make connections, to weigh evidence, to
question, to notice details, to make sense out of a rich experience. These
analytical abilities are fundamental life skills.
• 4. Empathy: Because literature allows us to inhabit different perspectives
(What’s it like to be a teenage girl, a Jew, in Nazi Germany? How would
you feel if you thought your father had been murdered but no one else
believed that?), in different times and places, we learn to think about
how other people see the world. We can understand and persuade and
accept and help these others more effectively and fully.
Importance of Studying World
Literature
• 5. Understanding: We think in terms of stories: this happens, and then
that happens, and what’s the connection between these events, and
what is going to happen next? People who’ve experienced more
stories are better able to think about actions and consequences.
Experience is the best teacher; literature is the best vehicle for vastly
enlarging our possible experiences.
• 6. Agility: Literary works often ask us to think in complex ways, to
hold sometimes contradictory, or apparently conflicting ideas in our
minds. As brain imaging has shown, this kind of processing helps us
to be more mentally flexible and agile—open to new ideas.
Importance of Studying World
Literature
• 7. Meaningfulness: Literary works often challenge us to
think about our place in the world, about the significance
of what we are trying to do. Literary study encourages an
“examined” life—a richer life. It provides us with an almost
unlimited number of test cases, allowing us to think about
the motivations and values of various characters and their
interactions.
• 8. Travel: Literature allows us to visit places and times and
encounter cultures that we would otherwise never
experience. Such literary travel can be profoundly life-
Importance of Studying World
Literature
• 9. Inspiration: Writers use words in ways that move us. Readers
throughout the ages have found reasons to live, and ways to live, in
literature.
• 10. Fun: When students read literature that is appropriate for them,
it’s intensely fun. Movies are enjoyable, but oftentimes the written
version, readers will say, is more powerful and engrossing. Students
who don’t find literature to be a whole lot of fun are almost certainly
reading the wrong things (too difficult, too removed from their
interests), and not reading enough (perhaps they are slogging line
by line, week by week, through a text beyond their growing
capabilities). When students do discover the fun of literature, they
will read more and more, vaulting forward in verbal skills and
7 Reasons Why Literature Is So Important

• 1. Expanding horizons
First and foremost, literature opens our eyes and makes us see more than just
what the front door shows. It helps us realize the wide world outside, surrounding
us. With this, we begin to learn, ask questions, and build our intuitions and
instincts. We expand our minds.
• 2. Building critical thinking skills
Many of us learn what critical thinking is in our language arts classes. When we
read, we learn to look between the lines. We are taught to find symbols, make
connections, find themes, learn about characters. Reading expands these skills,
and we begin to look at a sentence with a larger sense of detail and depth and
realize the importance of hidden meanings so that we may come to a conclusion.
7 Reasons Why Literature Is So Important

• 3. A leap into the past

• History and literature are entwined with each other. History
is not just about power struggles, wars, names, and dates. It
is about people who are products of their time, with their
own lives. Today the world is nothing like it was in the 15th
century; people have changed largely. Without literature, we
would not know about our past, our families, the people who
came before and walked on the same ground as us.
7 Reasons Why Literature Is So
Important
• 4. Appreciation for other cultures and beliefs
Reading about history, anthropology, or religious
studies provides a method of learning about cultures
and beliefs other than our own. It allows you to
understand and experience these other systems of
living and other worlds. We get a view of the inside
looking out, a personal view and insight into the
minds and reasoning of someone else. We can learn,
7 Reasons Why Literature Is So Important
• 5. Better writing skills
When you open a book, when your eyes read the words and you take in its contents, do
you ask yourself: How did this person imagine and write this? Well, many of those
authors, poets, or playwrights used literature to expand their writing.
• 6. Addressing humanity
All literature, whether it be poems, essays, novels, or short stories, helps us address
human nature and conditions which affect all people. These may be the need for growth,
doubts and fears of success and failure, the need for friends and family, the goodness of
compassion and empathy, trust, or the realization of imperfection. We learn that
imperfection is not always bad and that normal can be boring. We learn that life must be
lived to the fullest. We need literature in order to connect with our own humanity.
• 7. Literature is important and necessary. It provides growth, strengthens our
minds and gives us the ability to think outside the box.
LITERARY STANDARDS 
• UNIVERSALITY - Great literature is timeless and timely.
Forever relevant, it appeals to one and all, anytime,
anywhere, because it deals with elemental feelings,
fundamental truths and universal conditions.
• ARTISTRY - This is the quality that appeals to our sense of
beauty. Intellectual Value A literary works stimulates
thought. It enriches our mental life by making us realize
fundamental truths about life and human nature
LITERARY STANDARDS

• PERMANENCE - A great work of literature

endures. It can be read again and again as
each reading gives fresh delight and new
insights and opens a new world of meaning
and experience. Its appeal is lasting.
• STYLE - This is the peculiar way in which
writers sees life, forms his ideas and
LITERARY STANDARDS
• SPIRITUAL VALUE - Literature elevates the spirit
by bringing out moral values which makes a better
persons. The capacity to inspire is part of the
spiritual value of literature.
• SUGGESTIVENESS - This is associated with the emotional
power of literature. Great literature moves us deeply and
stirs our feeling and imagination, giving and evoking
visions above and beyond the plane of ordinary life and
experience
Literary Approaches
• FORMALISTIC OR LITERARY APPROACH - The
study of the selection is more or less based on the
so-called “literary elements”
• MORAL OR HUMANISTIC APPROACH -
Literature is viewed to discuss man and its nature.
It presents man as essentially rational; that is,
endowed with intellect and free will; or that the
piece does not misinterpret the true nature of man.
Literary Approaches

• HISTORICAL APPROACH - Literature is seen both

as a reflection and product of the times and
circumstances in which it was written.
• SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH - Literature Viewed as the
expression of man within a given social situation which is
reduced to discussions on economy which will underscore
the conflict between the two classes- the rich and the poor.
Literary Approaches
• CULTURAL APPROACH - Literature is seen as one of the
manifestations and vehicles of a nation’s or race’s culture
and tradition. It includes the entire compels of what goes
under “culture”
• PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH - Literature is viewed as
the expression of “personality,” of “inner drives” or
“neurosis”. It includes the psychology of the author, of the
characters, and even the psychology of creation. It has
resulted in an almost exhausting and exhaustive
Literary Approaches

• IMPRESSIONISTIC APPROACH -
Literature is viewed to elucidate
“reacting response” which is considered
as something very personal, relative and
fruitful. Unconditioned by explanations
and often taking the impact of the piece
as a whole, it seeks to see how the piece
Literary Compositions that
Influenced the World 
• 1.THE BIBLE OR THE SACRED WRITINGS– This has become the basis of Christianity
originating from Palestine and Greece. 
• 2.KORAN- The Muslim Bible originating from Arabia. 
• 3.THE ILIAD AND ODYSSEY – These have been the source of myths and
legends of Greece. They were written by Homer
• 4.THE MAHABHARATA - The longest epic of the world. It contains the
history of religion of India.
• 5.CANTERBURY TALES - It depicts the religion and customs of the English
in the early days. This originated from England and written by Chaucer .
Literary Compositions that
Influenced the World 
• 6.UNCLE TOM’S CABIN- by Harriet Beecher Stowe of the US. This
depicted the sad fate of slaves; this became the basis of democracy later
on.
• 7. THE DIVINE COMEDY– by Dante Alighieri. This shows the religion and
customs.
• 8. EL CID – This shows the cultural characteristics of the Spaniards and
their national history.
• 9.  THE SONG OF ROLAND – This includes Doce Pares and Ronscesvalles
of France. It tells about the Golden age of Christianity in France. 
Literary Compositions that
Influenced the World 
• 10.  THE BOOK OF THE DEAD – This
includes the cult of Osiris and the mythology
and theology of Egypt.
• 11.  ONE THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHT OR
THE ARABIAN NIGHTS – From Arabia and
Persia (Iran) It shows the ways of
government, of industries and of the society
LITERATURE PERIOD

• OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE – 450-1150

• MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE – 1150-1500
• THE RENAISSANCE – 1500-1650
• THE RESTORATION & 18TH CENTURY – 1650-1789
• THE ROMANTIC PERIOD – 1789 – 1837
• THE VICTORIAN AGE – 1837-1901
• POST MODERN AGE – 1901 - PRESENT
OLD ENGLISH LITERATURE
• Otherwise known as The Classical Period (1200
BCE – 455 CE)
• A golden age for literature and arts
• THREE (3) CONQUESTS
• Different letters
• Different grammar
• Different spelling
England before the English
• When the Romans arrived, they found the land inhabited by ―Britons. –
• known as the Celts
• Stonehenge
• no written language
• absorbed into the Latin speaking Roman society
• Romans withdraw, leaving the Britons/Celts behind
• • Invasions from the Northern Europe – Anglo-Saxon bring Germanic
languages
England before the English 
When the Romans arrived, they found the
land inhabited by ―Britons. – known as
the Celts Stonehenge, no written
language, absorbed into the Latin
speaking Roman society Romans
withdraw, leaving the Britons/Celts
behind.
Invasions from the Northern Europe –
Anglo-Saxon bring Germanic languages
England before the English 
•  By 600, Anglo-Saxons conquer the Britons – language
becomes more Germanic still retains some Latin
• The Anglo-Saxons’ two urgings--war and wandering
become part of the oral tradition – Beowulf is an example
of an Anglo-Saxon hero tale.
England before the English 
• By 700, Christian missionaries
arrive to convert the pagans –
Latin (the language of the
Church) returns
• King Alfred – the Britons
become organized
• first true king of the Britons
• period of prosperity
England before the English 
•  In 1066, the Normans (French
speaking people from Normandy),
led by William the Conqueror
attack and defeat the Britains (a
blend of the Britons and Anglo-
Saxons) at the Battle of Hastings
• the 3rd language is introduced--
French – French culture and
French literature arrives
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Classical Period (1200 BCE – 455 CE) 

• The Song of Beowulf

• The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer
• Works and Days by Hesiod
• Theogony by Hesiod 
OVERVIEW OF OLD ENGLISH
LITERATURE
• DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLISH
• THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
• OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS
• OLD ENGLISH GRAMMER
• OLD PRONUNCIATION –
• OLD ENGLISH SPELLING –
• OLD ENGLISH VOCABULARY
CONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT IN
ENGLISH
• Historians of the English language distinguish three main stages or
periods in its development.
• 1 .Old English or the Anglo-Saxon(600-1100).
• 2. Middle English(1100-1500)
• 3. Modern English (from 1500 onwards)
• The division of a language is a natural growth with a continuous
development
• Each periods has distinctive features, justifying such a division , though
there is no break in the process of continuous evolution.
THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
• This period extends from the earliest written documents , about the close of the 7th
century to about 1100 by which time the effects of the Norman Conquest became
perceptible
• The Old English language also called Anglo – Saxon
• The Celts had been living in England when the Roman invaded. Although they invaded
twice, they did not defeat the Celts and Latin never overtook the Celtic language
• The Romans finally left England in 410CE as the Roman Empire was collapsing,
leaving the Celts defenseless. Then the Germanic tribes from the present day area of
Denmark arrived. .
• The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, the three main tribes had started filtering in
during the last years of the Roman rule.
THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD
• These tribes set up seven kingdoms called the Anglo- Saxon
heptarchy that included: Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Wessex,
Sussex, Essex and East Anglia.
• They displaced the original Celtic inhabitants of Britain and
gave it a new name England – the Land of angles, and a new
language, English- the language of angles.
• The earliest form of English, resulted from the dialects of these
three drives rolling together in to one national literary language
OLD ENGLISH DIALECTS
• 1. Northumbrian in the North comprising the district
between the Firth or Forth and the Humber river .
• 2. Mercian, spoken between the Humber and the
Thames
• 3. West Saxon, spoken in the region south of the
Thames except in Kent and Surry
• 4. Kentish spoken in Kent and Surry
OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR
• Old English had a very complicated grammatical system, with a number
of different declensions of the noun and a three gender system, and with
two declensions of the adjectives.
• This period has often been described as the period of “full inflections”,
since the inflections(grammatical endings)of nouns, adjectives and verbs
were preserved in full.
• Being highly inflected, Old English had a relatively free word
order(syntax).Inflections make meaning less dependent on word order.
• In Old English we find four cases, Nominative, Accusative, Gentive, and
the Dative case.
OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR
• Old English had a complicated and illogical three gender system. There
was no one -to-one correspondence between the natural gender and
grammatical gender of nouns
• Each noun had to have a gender, masculine, feminine, or neuter,
arbitrarily fixed.
• Thus, Old English wif and wifmann meant women, but the former was
neuter gender and the latter masculine. Stan was masculine and sunna
feminine.
• In Old English there were two separate declensions of adjectives, the
weak and the strong
OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR
• In Old English, verbs had only two tense, the
present and the preterit (like the past). Making use
of these two tenses, the semantic concepts of
present, past, and future time were expressed
• Old English grammar, however is comparatively
simple, compared to that of proto Germanic
OLD ENGLISH
PRONUNCIATION
• Old English was more or less phonetic in character
, its spelling representing its pronunciation fairly
closely
• The two major sound change on Old English were-
mutation and gradation.
OLD ENGLISH SPELLING
• The Germanic tribes used a particular kind of alphabet called the runic
Alphabet.
• The typical Runic symbols were not in modern english spelling, but they are
used in phonetic script.
• The old english spelling was phonetic in character, each letter representing a
sound and it contained no silent letters.
• Old english has seven vowels a,e,i,o,u,y (a+e)was the speciality of Old English
• Old English remained a phonetic language without the discrepancy between
spelling and pronunciation, which is conspicuous in Modern English
OLD ENGLISH VOCABULARY
• This period is characterized by homogeneous Anglo-Saxon language, remarkable
for its high degree of purity, with only a small amount of Latin loan
words , followed by some Norse elements, consequent on the Norse
invasion.
• The Old English word stock was enriched by Indo-European words, Celtic
element, Latin influence and the Scandinavian influence.
• Indo-European words: These include words denoting close family relations,
cardinal numbers upto ten, the words man and tree, words associated with
nature and universe such as moon, sun ,earth, fire, star etc, words relating
to fundamental concepts in farming and cultivation, names of basic weapons
like the shield, and names of basic colures such as red and yellow.
OLD ENGLISH VOCABULARY
• The Celtic element of Old English: The Anglo – Saxon, however, preserved the Celtic
names of cities and towns and rivers and mountain and some words referring to
natural features of landscape. Place names like Kent, London, Cornwall York and the
first syllable of Winchester, salisbury, Worcester, river name like Thames, Avon, Wye,
Dover are all traceable to a Celtic source.
• The Latin vocabulary in Old English: Latin words entered Old English in two phases:
(1)during the Roman occupation and (2)through the early Christian missionaries
• A few words like devil (defol), night (niht)and angel (engle)came in with the Anglo
Saxons.
• Latin words introduced by Christian missionaries are naturally of religious nature.
Eg: priest, monk, bishop, pope, abbot, cross (cruce) saint (sanct) etc.
BEOWULF
• The major text we will read from this period is the EPIC Beowulf. It is
the story of a Scandinavian (GREAT) warrior or knight probably in the
sixth century, who comes to help a neighboring tribe, the Danes, who
are being attacked by a monster. We study English history to
understand the CONTEXT of Beowulf, and we study Beowulf to
understand the world which was OLD ENGLISH. Consider the fighting,
hunting, farming and loving Anglo-Saxon heritage. The Non-Christians
only hope was for fame and commemoration in poetry. Beowulf is
considered the shining star of Old English literature.
• The Book of Exeter is the largest surviving collection of poetry
Greek writer and philosopher during this period:
The Classical Period (1200 BCE – 455 CE)

•  Gorgias

• Aesop
• Plato 
•  Socrates
• Aristotle
• Euripides
MIDDLE ENGLISH LITERATURE
1150-1500

• The Medieval Period (455 CE – 1485 CE)

• Bible translations
The 3 Estates in the Middle Ages
• The idea of estates, or orders, was encouraged during the Age,
but this ordering was breaking down.
• Clergy Latin chiefly spoken, those who pray, purpose was to
save everyone’s soul
• Nobles French chiefly spoken, those who fight, purpose was to
protect—allow for all to work in peace—and provide justice –
• Commoners English spoken, those who work, purpose was to
feed and clothe all above them
Feudalism
• The economic system of much of the Middle Ages (800-1100)
• Commoners (peasants) lived on a feudal manor. The lord of the
manor gave his vassals (the peasants) land to farm.
• In return, the vassals received protection from roving bandits.
Yet they were taxed and had to surrender a portion of their crops
to the lord. – it was better to be a lord than a vassal! Feudalism
is important as it created ties of obedience and fostered a sense
of loyalty between the vassals and their lord. A tenant (vassal)
renews his oath of fealty to his lord
Chivalry 
• A product of feudalism, chivalry
was an idealized system of manners
and morals – Restricted to nobility
• The Medieval knight was bound to
the chivalric code to be loyal to… –
God – his lord – his lady
• Chivalric ideals include... –
benevolence – brotherly love –
politeness
• Sir Gawain is an example
The High Middle Ages (begin 1095 ) 

• Begin with the First Crusade (1095 )re-claim

Jerusalem from the infidels – Open trade routes –
• Peasants (the vassals) are liberated from their lords to
figh, and die in the Holy Lands
• Cities spring up along the crusade routes
• Feudalism dies out
• The transition to the Renaissance begins
THE “HIGH” MIDDLE AGES
• Before, in the Dark Ages, the church
provided structure to society, not only
with religion but by providing
education, as well.
• Sadly, with the Crusades , the Church
becomes incredibly corrupt.
• Popes fight for political power; Greed
is rampant; selling of indulgences;
Crusades for $;
BLACK DEATH
• With the Crusades comes The Black
Death spreads along trade routes
kills much of the population the
plague outbreaks occur through the
Middle Ages and into the Renaissance
• Paradoxically, the Plague provides for
continued growth in cities –
Afterwards, hundreds of new jobs
available – Many debts ―died off with
creditors also contributed to
society’s culture
Literature During the Medieval
Period
• Languages:
• Latin was the language of the Roman Catholic
Church, which dominated Europe
• The Church was the only source of education
• Thus, Latin was a common language for Medieval
writings.
Types of Literature
• Troubadour Poetry (Bernart de Ventadorn) – Arthurian Legends
• Epic Romances/Quests (Dante Alighieri, Sir Gawain)
• Courtly Love
• Religious Poetry (Julian of Norwich)
• Fabliaux (Geoffrey Chaucer)
• Sonnets (Petrarch)
• Sestinas (Arnaut Daniel)
Characteristics of Medieval
Literature 
• Heroism – from both Germanic and Christian traditions, sometimes mingled
• Beowulf
• Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
• Presentations of idealized behavior – literature as moral lesson
• loyalty to king
• chivalry
• use of kennings (especially in Beowulf) – Hyphenated expression,
representing a single noun. For example, the epic Beowulf uses the two-
word term whale-road to refer to the sea or ocean.
The Ideal of Courtly Love 
• This relationship was modeled on the feudal relationship
between a knight and his liege lord.
• The knight serves his courtly lady with the same
obedience and loyalty which he owes to his liege lord.
• She is in complete control; he owes her obedience and
submission
• The knight's love for the lady inspires him to do great deeds, in
order to be worthy of her love or to win her favor.
COURTLY LOVE
•  “Courtly love" was not between husband and wife because it was
an idealized sort of relationship that could not exist within the
context of "real life" medieval marriages.
• In the middle ages, marriages amongst the nobility were typically
based on practical and dynastic concerns rather than on love.
• The lady is typically older, married, and of higher social status than
the knight because she was modeled on the wife of the feudal lord,
who might naturally become the focus of the young, unmarried
knights' desire.
COURTLY LOVE
• The literary model of courtly love may have been invented to
provide young men with a model for appropriate behavior. It
taught them to sublimate their desires and to channel their
energy into socially useful behavior (love service rather than
wandering around the countryside, stealing or raping women.
• The "symptoms" of love were described as if it were a sickness.
The "lovesick" knight’s typical symptoms: sighing, turning pale,
turning red, fever, inability to sleep, eat or drink.
The Quest 

• In addition to the theme of Courtly Love, the

Quest was highly important: the code of
conduct observed by a knight errant who is
wandering in search of deeds of chivalry. This
knight is bound by a code of behavior - a set
of conventional principles and expectations
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Medieval Period (455 CE – 1485 CE)

•  The Canterbury Tales

• Beowulf
• The Dark Ages and the Bards
• The Dream of the Holy Rood 
Famous Author during this period:
The Medieval Period (455 CE – 1485 CE) 

• Geoffrey Chaucer
• Thomas Aquinas
• Martin Luther
• Caedmon
SIGNIFICANT LITERARY GENRES:
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD (455 CE-1485
CE)
• Elegy
• Religious Liturgy
• Narrative Romance 
THE RENAISSANCE – 1500-1650

• It is considered to be the division between the Middle age and

Modern era.
• The Renaissance Period (1485-1660 CE)
• The Renaissance Literature:
• 'Old classics rediscovered’
• Sonnet
• Elegy
• Pastoral
The Renaissance (Etymology)
• The word “Renaissance” is a French word which means
“rebirth”.
• The term was used to refer to the rebirth of learning
caused by the discovery of hundreds of Greek and Latin
manuscripts which had been lost during the Middle Ages.
• Such texts made it possible for the artists of the
Renaissance period to create a hole new vision of
themselves.
OVERVIEW
• The Renaissance was a cultural movement that started in Italy
and spread all over Europe. It is considered to be the division
between the Middle Ages and the Modern era.
• The thinkers of this period, also called “humanists”, believed that
the man should be the subject of study, and not God, as the
Church had taught during the medieval period.
• Based on that, they began to investigate fields such as astronomy,
anatomy, science and many others which had never been given
much attention
The Renaissance in England
• Tough it took many years for the “Modern” England to
arise, even when it had established itself, many aspects of
the medieval culture still remained side-by-side to the new
order. Nonetheless, two events in special stand out as a
signal that things were indeed changing in the British
Isles: - The raise of the Tudor Dynasty and The Printing
Press
The Tudor Dynasty
• In 1485, a powerful nobleman named Henry Tudor defeated the
King Richard III in the Battle of Bosworth Field, bringing to an
end a strife between noble families that last almost a century.
Henry Tudor, the King Henry VII He was declared the new king
and given the tittle of Henry VII.
• He then established the powerful Tudor Dynasty, an absolute
monarchy which would rule Britain for over 100 years. It made
possible the flowering of England as a European political power
and as a center of literacy culture.
THE PRINTING PRESS
• William Caxton was the person who introduced printing in England.
Before that, the books were written out in longhand, what meant a
very slow jog.
• With the printing, it was possible to produce books in large numbers
and in a short amount of time. That way, more people could learn to
read and write.
• The oral tradition began to loose power, both in literature and in the
Church affairs.
• The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, printed in 1473
Humanism
• The new conception that the man had of himself
encouraged the in various art styles: painting, literature,
dance... Leonardo DaVinci and Michaelangelo were the
most notable, for their accuracy on representing the
human anatomy and applying the laws of perspective to
make their works more realistic
Adventure
• The spirit of adventure also reigned in more practical
matters: for example, the explorers such as Columbus and
Cabral who ventured across the open sea to discover the
new world of the Americas.
Thomas More: (1480-1535)
• Thomas More was is considered one of the greatest of all
English humanists, mainly for the book “Utopia”, written in
Latin, in which were about an imaginary island where
everything is perfect. Utopia means “nowhere” in Greek;
Thomas new clearly that such an island could never exist.
This dream of a place where happiness reigns and sorrow is
banished is the most persistent of human fantasies and
became a recurrent theme in many other British literature
works.
Thomas More: (1480-1535)

• Though he was recognized as a very important

contributor for the humanism, he was later in 1535,
beheaded for refusing to support his king’s ( Henry
VIII ) decision to break away from the Catholic
Church. In 1935, four hundred years after his death,
he was canonized as a “patron saint of politics for
fighting against the English Reformation.
The Reformation
• Henry VIII wanted to divorce his queen in order to marry Anne Boleyn. Besides the
pope refusal, he divorced anyway and married Anne. He also confiscated all Church
property and proclaimed himself head of a new religion: Anglicanism. This was one
in a series of other “reforms” in Christianity which changed the religious scenario
of Europe.
• This reformists Christians were called Protestants; they believed that God’s Word
should be found only in the Bible, instead of in the pronouncements made by popes
in bishops. So they undertook to translate the Bible from Latin to various other
languages, so that it was available to everyone. In 1604, King James I ordered
forty-seven scholars to produce a translation of the Bible to serve as the official one
of the Anglicanism, the so-called “King James Bible”. It was published in 1611 and
is considered a masterpiece of English prose.
William Shakespeare: (1564-
1616) 
• William is considered the greatest of all English authors; his texts and
plays are known worldwide and are updated constantly.
• Though few is known about his life, he was born in the town of
Stratford-upon-Avon and went to London when still young.
• In 1611 - at the age of 47 - his plays already made success on the
stages, so he retired to his native town.
• Between the many plays and poems he wrote: Romeo and Juliet,
A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Hamlet
Macbeth
• MACBETH: Wherefore was that cry? 
• SEYTON: The queen, my lord, is dead. 
MACBETH: She should have died hereafter; There would have been a
time for such a word. To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow, Creeps
in this petty pace from day to day To the last syllable of recorded time,
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. Out,
out, brief candle! Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts
and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, Signifying nothing.
Shakespeare’s Macbeth
• Macbeth’s speech reveals the astonishing quickness of
Shakespeare’s mind, capable of expressing the strongest
emotions and the deepest philosophical questions in a series
of complex metaphors. Shakespeare’s knowledge of the
human heart and his skill in expressing the heart’s mysteries
are the bases of his genius. Macbeth compares life to a
candle, then to a shadow, to an actor and finally to a story;
this rapid shifting of metaphors is very characteristic of
Shakespeare’s work.
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Renaissance Period (1485-1660 CE)

• Romeo and Juliet

• When I was Fair and Young
• Utopia
• The faerie Queen 
Famous Author during this period:
The Renaissance Period (1485-1660 CE) 
• William Shakespeare
• Sir Thomas More
• Queen Elizabeth I
• Edmund Spencer 
Civil War and Revolution
• Aristocrats (Landowners) Supported Anglicanism Supported the strong
monarchy of King Charles I vs. Commoners (Merchants) Supported Puritanism
Supported the Parliament to restrict the king’s power
• The war ended in 1649. The victory of the Parliament. The execution of the
King. Britain was ruled no more by monarchy, but by a radical military
dictatorship: the Commonwealth.
• he Commonwealth was extremely strict, so the British asked for the dead king’s
son to return from exile in France. He became King Charles II Both him and his
successor, king James II believed in an absolute monarchy. The middle class
didn’t accept that. The Parliament deposed King James II in 1688. The middle
class had come to power to stay.
LATER PERIOD OF
LITERATURE
• THE RESTORATION & 18TH CENTURY – 1650-1789
• The Enlightenment Period (1660 BCE – 1790) 
• Referred to as The Age of Reason.
• Era of Logic 
• Age of enlightenment
• Rise of the novel & journalism
• Age of satire
• Age of poetry
CULTURAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL
INFLUENCES
• A. The Age of Reason or Enlightenment (1650-1800)
• Definition: A movement in Europe that spread to America
that advocated the use of reason and individualism instead
of tradition and established doctrine.
• Believed that systematic thinking might be applied to all
areas of human activity
• It was an attitude rather than a shared set of beliefs.
CAUSES
• a. England: King Charles I was beheaded , Puritans ruled under
Cromwell-rough time, went back to monarchy.
• b. Reaction against excesses or extremes of people of faith such as
Puritans
• c. Language of mathematics, scientific method, scientific
development (Sir Isaac Newton)
• d. “If people operated by reason, the world would be smoother and
perfect.”
• e. religion of Enlightenment:
• 1. Deism: god created the world and left
GUIDING BELIEFS
• AGE OF REASON OR ENLIGHTENMENT: Science,
scientific method, reason, systematic thinking,
individualism (self reliance), moral perfection
• GOD SCIENCE
RATIONALIST WORLDVIEW
• People arrived at truth by using reason rather than by relying on
the authority of the past, on religion, or on non-rational mental
processes like intuition.
• People are basically good and perfectible
• Human history is marked by progress toward a more perfect
existence
• “Man was born free , and he is everywhere in chains. One man
thinks himself the masters of others, but remains more of a slave
than they.” – Jean Jacques Rousseau
GUIDING BELIEFS
• Neoclassicism: Turning back to Greek and Roman texts
and ideals such as Democracy, the perfect citizen, justice,
liberty, equality, and representative government.
• Deism: god created the world and then left; god is like a
watchmaker – creates and leaves it because it can run by
itself; God is God who follows reason
IMPORTANT EVENTS THAT
IMPACTED LITERATURE
• Rise of scientific language and information – Sir Isaac Newton’s
Principia Mathematica
• Revolutionary War: people had to write texts like the Declaration
of Independence, Speech to the Second Virginia Convention, and
the Crisis to communicate and educate colonists and Britain
about war and the just causes for it.
• Establishment of American printing presses and influence of
newspapers – propaganda and spread of important documents
(Declaration)
HOW HAS THE PENDULUM SHIFTED?
PURITANS RATIONALIST
• 1. God takes an active role in the • 1. God created the world and left it to
workings of the universe. work on its own
• 2. God chooses to reveal himself at a • 2. God made it possible for all people at
particular times to particular people all times to discover natural laws
through their God-given power of reason
• 3. Stressed humanity’s evil ways/
tendencies • 3. Stressed the goodness and orderliness
of the universe: each individual, through
• 4. The best way to worship God is to reason is perfectible
go to church/ read the Bible • 4. The best way to worship is to do good
• 5. Writing is private for others / create a better society
• • 5. Writing is a public
KEY VOCABULARY
• 1. ALMANAC – a publication containing astronomical and
meteorological data for a given year and often including a miscellany
of other information.
• 2. ANECDOTE – a short account of a particular incident or event,
especially of an interesting or amusing nature
• 3. AUTOBIOGRAPHY – the biography of a person narrated by himself
or herself . “bio” means life, “graphy” means “writing or
representation of”.
• 4. APHORISM – terse form of a truth or a sentiment
• 5. ANTITHESIS – using strongly contrasting words, images or ideas
KEY VOCABULARY

• 6. ANAPHORA – repetition of a word/phrase at the

beginning of successive clauses or verses
• 7. ALLUSION – reference to a well-known work
• 8. HYPERBOLE – exaggeration or overstatement
• 9. REPETITION – restating an idea using the same words
• 10. RESTATEMENT – repeating an idea in a variety ways
RHETORIC AND RHETORICAL
QUESTION
RHETORICAL QUESTION RHETORIC
• Asked merely for effect with • The art of speaking or writing
no answer expected effectively
• The study of principles and
rules of composition formulated
by critics of ancient times;
• The study of writing or
speaking as a means of
communication or persuasion
THREE TYPES OF APPEAL

• 1. EMOTIONAL APPEAL (PATHOS): To reader’s feelings

• 2. LOGICAL APPEAL ( LOGOS): appeal to logic to show an
argument is correct
• 3. ETHICAL APPEAL (ETHOS): to show an argument is
just or fair
PARALLELISM
• The use of a series of words, phrases, or sentences that have
similar grammatical form.
• It emphasizes items that are arranged in a similar structures.
• Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to
show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance.
This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level.
• The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of
coordinating conjunctions such as “and” or “or”
PARALLELISM EXAMPLES
• With the –ing form (gerund) of words:
• Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling
• With Infinitive phrases:
• Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
or Mary likes to hike, swim and to ride a bicycle.
• (Nota Bene: You can use “to” before all the verbs in a
sentence or only before the first one)
PARALLELISM: CLAUSES

• A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with

clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the
verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
• Example: Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should
get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some
warm-up exercises before the game.
• Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of
sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do
some warm-up exercises before the game.
AUTHORS AND WORKS

• BENJAMIN FRANKLIN – The Autobiography of B.F. and

Poor Richard’s Almanac
• (Aphorisms)
• PATRICK HENRY – Speech to the Second Virginia
Convention
• THOMAS JEFFERSON – The Declaration of Independence
• THOMAS PAINE – The Crisis, Common Sense
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Enlightenment Period (1660 – 1790)

• All for love

• The Rake of the Lock
• Rights of Man
• Elegy written in a Churchyard 
Famous Author during this period: The
Enlightenment Period (1660 – 1790)
• John Dryden
• Alexander Pope
• Thomas Paine
• Thomas Gray 
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1706-1790)

• Inventor, Scientist, Statesman, Printer, Philosopher, Musician

and Economist
• What we remember him for: - American Dream and Humor
• Some favorite quotes:
• Certainty? In this world nothing is certain but death and taxes
• Guests, like fish, begin to smell after three days
• Keep your eyes wide open before marriage, and half-shut
afterwards.
PATRICK HENRY (1736-1799)

• Born in Virginia, USA

• Elected to Virginia Houses of Burgess in 1765
• Lawyer and a gifted speaker
• Vehemently opposed British authority
• First post-colonial Governor of Virginia from 1776-1779
• Famous for his line: “Give me liberty or give me death!”
• After his speech- less than 1 month later April 19, 1775, the
Revolutionary War began.
THOMAS PAINE (1737-1809)

• Migrated to British Colonies when he was 37

• Wrote the 48 page pamphlet: Common Sense in 1775-76
• Published CS anonymously and sold 500,000 copies in the first
year
• Donated all of his royalties to George Washington’s army
• He was buried in New York, but his body was disinterred (dig up
something that has been buried, especially a corpse).
• Its whereabouts are unknown
THOMAS PAINE (1737-1809)
Popular Types of literature during this period:
The Enlightenment Period (1660 – 1790)

• The chief products of the Revolutionary period are mostly

nonfiction:
• Essay
• Melodrama
• Letters
• Fables 
• Documents
• Writing of a practical, persuasive nature
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD – 1789 – 1837

• Great Age for the Novel

• Emphasize on Emotion, Imagination and Individualism
• Use of everyday language
• Imagination essential
• Overflowing emotions common
• Inspired by untamed nature & the exotic far east
• Folk traditions & medieval tales of knights
• Gothic novels
A Time of Opposition
• The Romantic Period was a time of reaction against the aristocratic
social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment.
• It was also a movement that opposed the scientific rationalization
of nature.
• The literature, music, and other arts of the time became avenues
for individual expression and speaking out. In England, many
literary thinkers wanted the opportunity to establish a harmonious
social structure in the face of a rapidly changing society.
A little History

• The Industrial Revolution, began 1760

• – New inventions meant mass production of goods could be produced more
efficiently
• – Rural workers in cottage businesses and agriculture had little choice but to
seek work in factories, mills, and mines
• – Women and children worked to help support the family– Cities became
centers of “poverty and deprivation”(Oosthoek)
• – Building new physical and commercial infrastructure took priority over the
individual
• and nature
A Little History
• The American and French Revolutions, 1776 and 1789
• – public meetings, to prevent an uprising (Norton)
• – During the revolution, thousands people were killed in France, and fighting extended to
neighboring countries, there was widespread political and social instability
• – It was during the French Revolution that Romantics clarified their opposition to the
Enlightenment age
• – Motivated by the desire to take political power from the land-owning aristocracy, with the goal
of liberty, fraternity, and equality for all men
• – Loss of the American colonies caused a loss of prestige as well as economic loss for England
• – England’s literary thinkers saw revolution as an opportunity to establish a better social
structure
• – English conservatives feared the French Revolution ideals might spill over to England, so
repressive measures were initiated, including a ban on collective bargaining and public meetings
William Blake and Samuel Taylor Coleridge were among those who saw the French Revolution as
fulfillment of apocalyptic prophecy.
A Little History
•  The Napoleonic Wars– Napoleon was initially considered a liberator, a symbol of
change, and several Romantic writers were in support of revolution
• Many saw the rise of Napoleon as a revolutionary figure and bringer of a new
freedom, others saw the violent excesses of the French Revolution and
Napoleonic War as signs of the apocalypse
• Romantics became less enthusiastic over the course of the Napoleonic wars with
Napoleon’s increasing cruelty and aggressive imperialism
• It wasn’t until after 1815, when Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo, that
England started addressing social problems
• As a result of revolutions and war, there is an undercurrent of tragedy, death
and despair in much of the later Romantic literature.
A Little History
• England’s laissez-faire(let it be) philosophy
• – Encouraged people to follow their interests and limited state involvement in
economic activity
• – Communal land was taken over by individuals, resulting in a large number of
displaced people– The gap widened between the very wealthy and the very poor,
• – Working conditions were terrible, with long hours, low wages, and child labor
exploitation in factories, mills, and mines
• – Rapidly growing towns became polluted and overpopulated, disease was rampant
• Frustrated with the current political and social situation, Romantic poets responded
with poetry that was private, spontaneous and lyrical – a shift from earlier formal and
more public poetry.
New Themes
• Emotion and the individual experience
• – A new emphasis on the subjective human experience, with emotion,
passion, and feeling, the scientific and objective experience of the
Enlightenment is rejected
• – Romantic poetry is intimate, individual, and original, concerned with truth
of the heart -previous poetry was written for the public
• – Romantics saw the individual human experience as influenced by their
social setting and their time in history
• “All good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” -William
Wordsworth, from Preface to Lyrical Ballads
New Themes
• The awesomeness of nature
• – By studying nature, men hoped to better understand the world and mankind
• – Writers of the Romantic Era had an increased interest in nature as a
positive influence in an uncertain world
• – Many writers avoided the industrial scene of the cities, turning to nature to
escape the trials of an unstable economy and political systems
• – Nature was seen as powerful, awesome, and sometimes horrifying
• – Experiencing nature was believed to inspire human creativity and free the
spirit
New Themes
• Creativity and imagination
• – Romanticism rejected the Enlightenment period’s ideals of rules of order
• – It was a time of reaction and self-expression in all the arts
• – Poetry in particular became a tool for self expression, often using subjects
that were not believable
• – Imagination was believed to be the power behind creativity – a human
version of God’s power to create
• – Imagination was needed to cope with (and escape from) the political,
economic and social problems during this time
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Romantic Period (1790 – 1830) 

•  I Wondered Lonely as a Cloud

• Kubla Khan
• Song of Innocence and of Experience
• Mathilda 
Famous Author during this period:
 The Romantic Period (1790 – 1830)
• William Wordsworth
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge
• William Blake
• Mary Shelley 
Romantic Era Writers
• Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1772-1934
• – Smart and enthusiastic as a child
• – He co-wrote Lyrical Ballads with Wordsworth, which many say marked the literary
beginning of the Romantic Period
• – Coleridge had an alcohol and opium addiction, and his poetry often expressed emotions
associated with sin
• – Using everyday language he often created strange or dream-like imagery
• – Unlike other writers of the Romantic era, he retained his religion and most of his beliefs
• – Coleridge was accused of plagiarism
• – Best known for his long and narrative poetry…like “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
Rime of the Ancient Mariner
lines 68-82
• And a good south wind sprung up behind;The Albatross did
follow,And every day, for food or play,Came to the mariners hollo!In
mist or cloud, on mast or shroud,It perched for vespers nine;Whiles
all the night, through fog-smoke white,Glimmered the white Moon-
shine.God save thee, ancient Mariner!From the fiends, that plague
thee thus!—Why lookst thou so?—With my cross-bowI shot the
Albatross.-Samuel Taylor ColeridgeA crop of Gustave Doré’s
illustration for TheRime of the Ancient Mariner (1876 edition)by
Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Romantic Era Writers
• William Blake, 1757-1827
• – Blake was a painter and engraver
• – He used Christian symbols but didn’t ascribe to Christian theology
• – He was a radical and non-conformist, his artwork and poetry reflected his
belief that “ideal forms should be constructed not from observations of nature
but from inner visions” (American Academy of Poets)
• – Believed poetry could be read and understood by common people(American
Academy of Poets)
• – “I must create my own system or be enslaved by another man’s” He rejected
the ideals of the past and found his own way of doing things
• Songs of Innocence and Experience are collections of Blake’s poetry that
contrasts the blossoming of the human spirit when it is allowed to befree with
it’s withering when constrained by rules.
Romantic Era Writers
•  Mary Shelley, 1797-185
• – Born to radical and influential parents: Mary Wollstonecraft who was a
feminist writer, and William Godwin who was an atheist and former minister
• – She married Percey Blythe Shelley, they eloped after Percey abandons his wife
• – Strongly influenced by events of the French Revolution
• – In 1818 her book Frankenstein was published anonymously, the book was
written in a response to a dream and discussion about a ghost story contest
• Mary Shelley uses contrasting elements in Frankenstein that mirror the
experience of life in Europe at her time in history: justice and injustice, light and
dark, nature and nurture…
Frankenstein by Mary
Shelley
• Final paragraph chapter 4:
Winter, spring, and summer passed away during my labors; but I did not watch the blossom
or the expanding leaves--sights which before always yielded me supreme delight--so deeply
was I engrossed in my occupation. The leaves of that year had withered before my work
drew near to a close; and now every day showed me more plainly how well I had succeeded.
But my enthusiasm was checked by my anxiety, and I appeared rather like one doomed by
slavery to toil in the mines, or any other unwholesome trade, than an artist occupied by his
favorite employment. Every night I was oppressed by a slow fever, and I became nervous to
a most painful degree; the fall of a leaf startled me, and I shunned my fellow-creatures as if I
had been guilty of a crime. Sometimes I grew alarmed at the wreck I perceived that I had
become; the energy of my purpose alone sustained me: my labors would soon end, and I
believed that exercise and amusement would then drive away incipient disease; and I
promised myself both of these when my creation should be complete.
Romantic Era Writers
• Percy Blythe Shelley, 1792-1822
• – Came from a strong conservative family, yet loved freedom
• – He was bullied in school and said he “saw the petty tyranny of
schoolmasters and schoolmates as representative of man’s inhumanity to
man, and dedicated his life to a war against injustice and oppression”
(Norton)
• – Published several political pamphlets in support of Ireland’s independence,
and a pamphlet “The Necessity of Atheism”, believing that religion was an
instrument of oppression
• – Believed language can be used to create and protect moral and civil law.
A Defense of Poetry, written by
Percey Blythe Shelley in 1821
• “Sorrow, terror, anguish, despair itself are often the chosen
expressions of an approximation to the highest good. Our
sympathy in tragic fiction depends on this principle; tragedy
delights by affording a shadow of the pleasure which exists
in pain. This is the source also of the melancholy which is
inseparable from the sweetest melody. The pleasure that is
in sorrow is sweeter than the pleasure of pleasure itself.”
• -Percy Blythe Shelley
Romantic Era Writers
• Lord Byron, 1788-1824
• – Byron was a nobleman by birth, spoiled by his mother
• – He was born with a foot deformity causing a limp and self-consciousness, but he was
also his own best promoter
• – A “Byronic Hero” – a flawed but idealized character, who is rebellious, avoids society,
seductive, arrogant, much like Lord Byron and the character in several of his writings
• – He had trouble exercising moderation, with exercise, food, money, and women
(maybe men also)
• – He was an advocate for social reform, seeing industrial machines as producing
inferior goods and taking away jobs
• – A master at using metaphor, his best known work might be Don Juan, which related
to the social, ideological and political issues of the Romantic Era
THE VICTORIAN AGE – 1837-1901

• Transition period
• Melancholic and political poetry
• The Reign of Queen Victoria.
• The literature of this Era expressed the
fusion of pure romance to gross realism.
WHAT IS VICTORIAN LITERATURE?

• Victorian literature refers to the literary works written

during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837- 1901).
• It was the transition between the Romantic period and
20th century literature.
• It can be divided into two periods: High Victorian
literature (1830-1870) and Late Victorian literature (1870-
1901)
The Victorian Age
• “The Victorian” era of British history was the period of Queen
Victoria’s reign from 1837 until her death in 1901. It was a long
period of peace, prosperity, refined culture, great advancements in
technology, and national self-confidence for Britain.
• During the Victorian age, Britain was the worlds most powerful
nation. By the end of Victoria’s reign, the British empire extended
over about one-fifth of the earths surface. Like Elizabethan England,
Victorian England saw great expansion of wealth, power, and
culture. But as Victorian England was a time of great ambition and
grandeur, it was also a time of misery, squalor, and urban ugliness.
The Growth of the British
Empire
• England grew to become the greatest nation on earth
• Empire included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore,
South Africa, Kenya, and India
• England built a very large navy and merchant fleet (for trade and colonization)
• Imported raw materials such as cotton and silk and exported finished goods to
countries around the world
• By the mid-1800s, England was the largest exporter and importer of goods in
the world. It was the primary manufacturer of goods and the wealthiest
country in the world
• Because of England’s success, they felt it was their duty to bring English
values, laws, customs, and religion to the “savage” races around the world
The Industrial Revolution 

•  It started at the end of the eighteenth century, when theoretical knowledge
and practical technology were connected. Scientific ideas were applied to
the making of machines that transformed the way things were made and
dramatically changed people’s lifestyles. A formerly agricultural nation was
now based on urban and industrial growth. But as industry grew, it was
accompanied by a rapid increase in the numbers of the urban working-class
poor. Workers in the cities lived in miserable conditions. Urban squalor and
misery were signs of a massive change in the English society.
• The Age of Steam
• Mass Production
The Impact of the Industrial Revolutions 

•  I. The Emergence of Over crowded Cities One result of the advance of
technology was the unprecedented growth of cities. People, in search of work left
the country side to work in factories in the different cities of Britain. They had to
live in very dirty and unhealthy conditions. There were too many workers and not
enough houses. People were living like animals. Diseases raged, hunger, poverty,
and deprivation prevailed, crime accelerated, and misery increased.
• II. Child Labor Children were expected to help to support their families. They
often worked long hours in dangerous jobs and in difficult situations for very little
wages. For example, there were the climbing boys employed by the chimney
sweeps, the little children who could scramble under the moving machinery to
retrieve the cotton fluff; boys and girls working down the coal mines, crawling
through tunnels too narrow and low to take an adult.
Victorian Thinkers

• a. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)-philosopher who created two

ideas:
• Utilitarianism: the object of moral action was to bring
about the greatest good for the greatest amount of people
• Liberalism: governments had the right to restrict the
actions of individuals only when those actions harmed
others, and that society should use its collective resources
to provide for the basic welfare of others. Also encouraged
equal rights for women.
Victorian Thinkers

• b. Charles Lyell (1797-1875): Showed that geological features on Earth

had developed continuously and slowly over immense periods of time
• c. Charles Darwin (1809-1882): Introduced the survival of the fittest
theory
• d. John Ruskin: The most Romantic prose of the Victorian (1819-1900).
Ruskin’s greatness is as striking as his singularity, an instance of the
effect of Evangelicalism and Romanticism on an only child.
• e. John Henry Newman: The master of Victorian Non-Fictional prose
(1801-90)
VICTORIAN THINKERS

• f. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903): Applied Darwinism to human

society: as in nature, survival properly belongs to the fittest, those
most able to survive. Social Darwinism was used by many Victorians
to justify social inequalities based on race, social or economic class,
or gender
• g. Adam Smith - 18th century economist, held that the best
government economic policy was to leave the market alone—to
follow a laissez faire or “let it be” policy of little or no gov’t
intervention
The Role of Women

•  The Woman Question

• Changing conditions of women’s work created by the Industrial Revolution
• The Factory Acts (1802-78) – regulations of the conditions of labor in mines
and factories
• The Custody Act (1839) – gave a mother the right to petition the court for
access to her minor children and custody of children under seven and later
sixteen.
• The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act – established a civil divorce court
• Married Women’s Property Acts
Working Conditions for Women

• Bad working conditions and underemployment drove thousands of

women into prostitution.
• The only occupation at which an unmarried middle-class woman
could earn a living and maintain some claim to gentility was that of a
governess.
Gender and Sexuality

• The New Woman of the 1880s and 1890s

• – Smoking, swearing, riding a bike, debating in public, wearing men’s clothing,
refusing marriage
• – A figure of greater sexual, social, and economic independence
• • 1890s: women experience greater access to education, employment, political and
legal rights, and civic visibility. 1880s the term “homosexual” enters the English
language
• – Until this time, no real conception of homosexuality as an identity
• – Homosexual acts between men were illegal and punishable by death until 1861;
Labouchere Amendment of 1885 mandates imprisonment for any man found guilty of
a sexual act with another man.
Gender and Sexuality
• The term “lesbian” emerges in the 1890s, but do not suffer
the same persecution as gay men
• – Rationale: women unmotivated by sexual desire,
intense, passionate “friendships” seen as innocent
• End result: feminized male characters (the dandy, the
aesthete, the fop) and masculinized female characters (the
New Woman) in literature.
Common Themes
• Critique of Industralization
• Critique of the deterioration of the rural lifestyle
• Celebration of the past (including chivalry)
• Conflicts between classes
• Women´s rights
Morality

• Most works were written to teach moral lessons to readers.

• Hard work and strong virtue are always romanticized and rewarded,
and poor behavior is punished at the end.
• Literary works are full of passion and characters are often tempted
by evil, but they show restraint against wild emotions (as opposed
during the romantic period)
Literacy, Publication, and
Reading 
• By the end of the century, literacy was almost universal.
• Compulsory national education required to the age of ten.
• Due to technological advances, an explosion of things to
read, including newspapers, periodicals, and books.
• Growth of the periodical
• Novels and short fiction were published in serial form.
• The reading public expected literature to illuminate social
problems.
VICTORIAN LITERATURE
GENRES
• NOVELS – dominant literary form; “social problem novel” and
“domestic novel”
• POETRY – influenced by Romantic Period; drama monologue – a
lyric poem in the voice of a speaker who is not a poet.
• DRAMA – frivolous, romantic, witty; mocked contemporary values
(satirical)
• NON-FICTION – essays, criticism, history, biography, newspapers
and magazines. – “The Age of Periodicals” and “The Age of Reading”
• GOTHIC AND SUPERNATURAL LITERATURE
• CHILDREN’S LITERATURE
NOVEL

• Was the dominant genre during the Victorian period

• High Victorian novels tended to be edifying moral stories
that portraited difficult lives, and where hard work, love
and perseverance were always rewarded.
• Late Victorian novels were more complex, as they reflected
an inner struggle to conquer the flaws of human nature
through effort and virtue.
DIVISION OF NOVEL
• A. EARLY-VICTORIAN NOVEL (or social-problem novel) dealing with social and
humanitarian themes
• realism, criticism of social evils but faith in progress, general optimism
• The main representative was CHARLES DICKENS.
• B. MID-VICTORIAN NOVEL (novel of purpose) showing Romantic and Gothic
elements and a psychological interest. The main representative writers were the
BRONTË sisters and ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON.
• C. LATE- VICTORIAN NOVEL (naturalistic novel near to European Naturalism)
showing a scientific look at human life, objectivity of observation, dissatisfaction
with Victorian values. The main representative writers were THOMAS HARDY and
OSCAR WILDE.
Some Novelists

• Charles Dickens is probably the most widely read author from this
time.
• His novels achieved immense popularity during his lifetime and
there were even spin-offs and merchandise made of them.
• Most novels criticized society and represented its poorest, but in
line with the literature of the era, there was a very strong moral
element to the tales.
For the first time, Women Were Major Writers: 

• Charlotte, Emily and Anne Brontë are the most original novelists of this period.
• The sisters published their works under the male pseudonyms Currer, Ellis and Ashton
Bell, as it was common practice for female writers that wanted to be taken more
seriously.
• Their novels include some unconventional themes for this era, such as violence, a deep
desire for freedom, a wilderness of spirit, feminism and even the supernatural.
• Their work was considered controversial but they eventually achieved the success they
deserved.
• Some of their works: Charlotte: Jane Eyre
• Emily: Wuthering Heights
• Anne: The Tennant of Wildfell Hall
Some Novelists

• William Makepeace Thackeray began as a parodist and satirist but

later started to write novels with a very strong satiric component.
• He enjoyed great success during his lifetime but today his best
known work is Vanity Fair.
• In it, he satirizes British society of the 19th century, although it is
set during the Napoleonic Wars.
• There have been several film adaptations of this novel and it is still
one of the best loved
POETRY
• The most famous poet of the Victorian period was Alfred, Lord Tennyson.
• His poetry mostly re-told classical myths, although it also covers religious
dilemmas and scientific discoveries.
• Although he experimented with metric, he mostly followed a strict pattern, a
reflection of the formality of the era.
• Husband and wife Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning enjoyed great popularity
because of their love poems to each other.
• Elizabeth Barrett was already a successful author before she met her husband,
and was also an involved activist in social issues.
• Her prolific work made her a rival to Tennyson as a candidate for poet laureate in
1850 after the death of Wordsworth.
POETRY

• There was also a group of writers and artists, the Pre-Raphaelite

Brotherhood, of which Dante Gabriel Rossetti and his sister
Christina were part.
• Their aim was to replace the academic approach to art with the
more natural approach taken before the Italian Renaissance. Several
writers joined this movement, echoing a simpler, less formal
approach to literature.
• The Rossettis are the greatest poets of this movement.
Theater 

• Theater became an extremely popular form of entertainment for all

social classes during this era and Queen Victoria promoted it.
• Plays usually had a strong comedic element, both high and low, and
the plots were full of mistaken identities, coincidences and
mistimings.
• Oscar Wilde was the leading dramatist of the late Victorian period
and his comic masterpiece The Importance of Being Earnest is a
satiric reflection of the time.
Nonfiction 
• The Victorian era was a period of great scientific discovery and the
Victorians tried to describe and classify the world they lived in.
• Among others, Charles Darwin with On the Origin of Species,
Friedrich Engels with his Condition of the Working Classes in
England and John Stuart Mill with his philosophical works, changed
the way the Victorians thought about themselves and about the
world.
Supernatural and Gothic literature

• Gothic literature combines romance and horror in attempt to thrill

and terrify the reader.
• Possible features in a gothic novel are monsters, ghosts, curses,
hidden rooms, mad women in the attic and witchcraft.
• The plot usually takes place in monasteries, castles and cemeteries.
• They were hugely popular but panned by critics.
Children‘s literature
• The Victorian period was the first one in history where children
were targeted as readers.
• This was a consequence of the evolution of social attitudes towards
childhood.
• Literature became a popular way to teach children lessons and
morals. They were only rarely enjoyable works.
• Later, when reading for pleasure became socially accepted, folk and
fairy-tale compilations became very popular There were different
types of publications written for boys and girls. Girls stories were
domestic and focus on family life whereas boys focus on heroism.
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Victorian Period (1832 – 1901) 

• The Pickwick Papers

• How do I love Thee
• Ulysses 
 Famous Author during this period:
The Victorian Period (1832 – 1901)
• Charles Dicken
• Elizabeth Browning
• Alfred Lord Tennison 
Victorian literature today 
• Many view it with skepticism because of the stereotypes of the era:
current readers may see it as prudish, rigid and excessively formal.
• However, many contemporary authors criticized these same trends,
and there were many brilliant works that were considered
unconventional even then.
• Those works have passed the test of time and are today considered
masterpieces of classic literature.
The Modern Period (1914 –
1945)
• Characterized by a self-conscious break with
traditional ways of writing, in both poetry and
prose fiction. 
INTRODUCTION

• Modernism is a comprehensive movement which began in the

closing years of the 19th century and has had a wide influence
internationally during much of the 20th century.
• Reveals breaking away from established rules, traditions and
conventions, fresh ways of looking at man’s position and function in
the universe and many experiments in form and style.
• It is particularly concerned with language and how to use it and
with writing itself.
• style or movement in the arts that aims to break with classical and
traditional forms”
INTRODUCTION
•  Embracing change and present, modernism encompasses the works of
thinkers who rebelled against nineteenth century academic traditions
• believing the "traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature,
religious faith, social organization and daily life were becoming
outdated
• They directly confronted the new economic, social and political
aspects of an emerging fully industrialized world.
•  Rebelled against Victorian artificialities, moral bankruptcy and
historicist traditions
• Encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence (e.g.
commerce / philosophy)
HISTORY
• The roots of Modernism emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century; and rather locally, in
France, in literature and painting.
• The "avant-garde" was what Modernism was called at first, and the term remained to describe
movements which identify themselves as attempting to overthrow some aspect of tradition.
• There were real shifts in the natural sciences, social sciences, and liberal arts occurring at
this time as well.
• In the 1890s, a strand of thinking began to assert that it was necessary to push aside previous
norms entirely, instead of merely revising past knowledge in light of current techniques.
• It was argued that, if the nature of reality itself was in question, and if restrictions which had
been in place around human activity were falling, then art, too, would have to radically
change.
• Thus, in the first 15 years of the twentieth century a series of writers, thinkers, and artists
made the break with traditional means of organizing literature, painting, and music.
HISTORY

• This movement originated when some writers felt that they

required a new form of writing to express their ideologies
and outlook towards life.
• The beginning of the 20th century is an extremely
convenient starting point.  It saw the end of Queen Victoria’s
reign, marking a symbolic break from the preceding century.
• Modernism enabled writers to pursue highly individualistic
forms of writing.
REASONS
• Modernism was set in motion through a series of cultural shocks.
• The first of these shocks was the Great War which ruined many lives
in Europe. At that time this “War to End All Wars” was looked upon
with such ghastly horror that many people simply could not imagine
what the world seemed to be plunging towards.
• The horror of WW I also fed the urge for a new way to express the
protest towards the social atmosphere prevalent at that time. 1.
Rapid urbanization 2. Industrialization 3. Immigration 4.
Technological Evolution 5. Growth of Modern Science 6. Influence
of Austrian Sigmund Freud 7. Influence of German Karl Marx
SHIFTS IN THE MODERN
NATION
• From country to city
• from farm to factory
• from native born to new citizen
• introduction to “mass” culture (pop culture)
• split between science and the literary tradition
THE SPIRIT OF MODERNISM
• Conviction that the previously sustaining structures of human life, whether
social, political, religious, or artistic, had been either destroyed or shown
up as falsehoods or fantasies. Therefore, art had to be renovated.
• Modernist writing is marked by a strong and conscious break with
tradition. It rejects traditional values and assumptions.
• “Modern” implies a historical discontinuity, a sense of alienation, loss,
despair and nihilism.
• It rejects not only history but also the society of whose fabrication history
is a record. Poetry tended to provide pessimistic cultural criticism or loftily
reject social issues altogether.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MODERNIST WRITING
• A breaking with tradition and conventional modes of form, resulting in fragmentation and
bold, highly innovative experimentation
• A disappearance of character summary, of discrete well-demarcated characters as in
Dickens; the representation of the self as diverse, contradictory, ambiguous, multiple
• Skepticism about linear plots with sudden climactic turning points and clear resolutions; the
use instead of discontinuous fragments, no proper beginning, middle and end; a-
chronological leaps in time, multiple plots, open unresolved endings
• Modernist story was often more of a "stream of consciousness"-- tracing non-linear thought
processes, moving by the "logic of the unconscious"; imagistic rather than logical connection
• Multiple point of views used; rejection of the single, authoritative, omniscient point of view
for a narrative focalized instead through the consciousness of one character whose point of
view is limited.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MODERNIST WRITING
• Irony, comparisons, juxtaposition and satire are some common elements
found in modernist writing.
• Juxtaposition usually represents something which is unusual, for example,
a cat and mouse sharing a good friendship.
• Often does not have a proper beginning, middle and/or end. Hence, the
readers may get slightly confused as to what the writer is trying to
communicate to them.
• Modernist writers use irony and satire as tools that aid them in making
fun of something and point out faults, usually, problems within their
society.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MODERNIST WRITING
• The plot, theme and the characters are not necessarily linear.
• Modernist writings usually focus more on representing the writer's
ideas, opinions and thoughts and presenting them to the public at as
high a volume as possible.
• Some past modernist writers different fonts, symbols, colors etc., in
their writing
• Modern fiction tends to be written in the first person or to limit the
reader to one character’s point of view on the action. The selected
point of view was often that of a naïve or marginal person—a child
or an outsider—to convey better the reality of confusion rather than
the myth of certainty.  
ASSOCIATIVE TECHNIQUES
• Modernists sometimes used a collection of seemingly random
impressions and literary, historical, philosophical, or religious
allusions with which readers are expected to make the connections
on their own.
• This reference to details of the past was a way of reminding readers
of the old, lost coherence.
• T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land is arguably the greatest example of this
allusive manner of writing; it includes a variety of Buddhist,
Christian, Greek, Judaic, German and occult references, among
others.
MODERNISM INCLUDES MANY
“ISMS”
• Imagism
• Cubism
• Dadaism
• Expressionism
• Surrealism
• Symbolism
• Impressionism
• Existentialism
• Futurism
IMAGISM
• Imagism was a movement in early 20th-century Anglo-American
poetry that favored precision of imagery and clear, sharp language.
• The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness of much 
Romantic and Victorian poetry.
• They wrote short poems that used ordinary language and free verse
to create sharp, exact, concentrated pictures.
• They used the exact word instead of decorative words, language of
common speech, Created new rhythms that express new moods,
allowed complete freedom in the poet's choice of subject and
produced clear, instead of blurred and indefinite, poetry.
SYMBOLISM
• Symbolism in France began as a reaction against Naturalism and Realism, movements which
attempted to objectively capture reality.
• The practice of representing things by means of symbols or of attributing symbolic meaning to
objects, events or relationships.
• Symbolism was marked by a belief that language is expressly symbolic in its nature and provide
imagery and detail to an object.
• It makes the writing more interesting and represent meaning that goes beyond what is literary being
said.
• As symbolism sought freedom from rigidity in the selection of subject matter, so it desired to free
poetry from the restrictions of conventional versification.
• During the 20th century the use of symbolism became a major force in British literature. T. S. Eliot
adapted it in the development of his individual style and praised it in his criticism.
• The most outstanding development of symbolism was in the art of the novel.
IMPRESSIONISM
• The term ‘Impressionism’ comes from the school of mid- nineteenth century French
painting.
• The impressionists made the act of perception the key for the understanding of structure of
reality. They developed a technique by which objects were not seen as solids but as
fragments of color which the spectator’s eye unified.
• The basic premise involved was that truth lay in the mental processes, not in the precise
representation of external reality.
• Impressionism frequently refers to the technique of centering on the mental life of person
rather than on reality around him.
• Characteristics of Impressionist painting include visible brushstrokes, emphasis on light in
its changing qualities, ordinary subject matter and unusual visual angles
• It is representation of reality through impressions.
CUBISM
• A 20th century art movement that inspired other art forms. In cubist artworks,
objects are broken up and reassembled into an abstract form. Analytic cubism
used geometric shapes rather than color to represent the real world.
• cubism incorporated the idea of collage: pulling together a variety of materials to
create a new whole.
• Cubist poetry attempts to do in verse what cubist painters do on canvas; that is,
take the elements of an experience, fragment them ( “destructions”), and then
rearrange them in a meaningful new synthesis ( “sum of destructions”).
• In writing, it involves using different narrators for different chapters or even
different paragraphs, so as to describe how each character views the others, put
in the words, thoughts and feelings of the characters themselves.
DADAISM
• A nihilistic art movement especially in painting that flourished in
Europe early in the 20th century.
• based on irrationality and negation of the accepted laws of beauty.
• It is a protest against the barbarism of war
• the rejection of prevailing standards of art and ignored logical
relationship between idea and statement, argued for absolute
freedom,
• delivered itself of numerous provocative manifestoes.
EXPRESSIONISM
•  It is a literary and artistic movement flourished in Germany after World War 1.
• It arouse as a reaction against materialism, rapid mechanization and urbanization.
• Expressionists concern was general truths rather than with particular situations.
Expressionism, term used to describe works of art and literature in which the
representation of reality is distorted to communicate an inner vision.
• The expressionist transforms nature rather than imitates it.
• Writers express an inner vision, emotion, or spiritual reality to assert their
alienation from an industrial society whose inhumanity repels them; they
subordinate conventional rational style and let emotion dictate the structure of their
works, emphasizing rhythm, disrupted narrative line and broken syntax, and
distorted imagery
EXPRESSIONISM

Forms derived from nature

are distorted or exaggerated
and colors are intensified for
emotive or expressive
purposes.
The revolt against realism,
the distortion of the objects of
the outer world, and the
violent dislocation of time
SURREALISM
• A 20th century aesthetic, artistic and cultural movement developed in
France that attempts to express the workings of sub-conscious mind.
• They focused upon using all forms of art as a means to express the real
functioning of human mind.
• It is highly concerned with dreams and expresses the imagination as
revealed in dreams, where objects, people and shapes are greatly
distorted.
• Surrealism inherited an anti-rationalist sensibility from Dadaism, and was
shaped by emerging theories on our perception of reality, especially
Sigmund Freud's model of the subconscious.
EXISTENTIALISM
• It is a concept that became popular during the Second World War in France.
• It proposes that man is full of anxiety and despair with no meaning in his life, just simply
existing, until he made decisive choice about his own future. That is the way to achieve dignity
as a human being.
• Existentialists believe that life is very difficult and that it doesn't have an "objective" or
universally known value, but that the individual must create value by affirming it and living it,
not by talking about it.
• Existentialism deals with the recurring problem of finding meaning within existence. From this
perspective, there are no meanings or structures that precede one’s own existence, as one finds
in organized religion. Therefore, the individual must find or create meaning for his or her self.
• It emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of individual experience in a hostile universe,
regards human existence as unexplainable and stresses freedom of choice.
FUTURISM
• In the 1920's and 1930's the term Futurism was loosely used to
describe a wide variety of aggressively modern styles in art and
literature.
• The futurists love speed, noise, machines, pollution and cities as
they embraced the exciting new world that was then upon them.
• Futurist paintings were made to glorify life
• Futurists developed to glorify urban life as well as machinery and
industrialization.
MODERN POETRY
• After 1900 the English scene becomes terribly chaotic. In the field of poetry-as also in
other fields of literature-we find a tremendous activity.
• We find a lot of experimentation and innovation in modern poetry. Most of the poets have
broken away from tradition completely, as they feel that poetry should change with the
changing times. Modern poetry exercises a great freedom in the choice of themes.
• The two wars and impending danger of a third have cast a gloomy shadow on much of the
poetry of the twentieth century.
• The modern age been called "the age of anxiety." In spite of material prosperity poets
were full of tensions and anxieties which are almost an inseparable feature of modern
living.
• Add to them the disappearance of religious faith and disillusionment is natural in modern
poetry.
FEATURES OF MODERN
POETRY
• Traditional "poetic diction" and even regular metre have been
discarded almost completely.
• Though rhyme has almost completely gone, rhythm freed from the
artificial demands of metrical regularity is still used.
• A language with the flow and turns of common speech is mostly
employed. 
• Free verse is the most usual mode of all serious poetry of today.
• In the twentieth century many experiments have been made on the
technique and diction of poetry
FEATURES OF MODERN
POETRY
• Juxtaposition of ideas
• Intertextuality
• use of allusions and multiple association of words
• borrowings from other cultures
• unconventional use of metaphors
• massive use of alliteration and assonance
• no regular rhyming scheme
• visual images in distinct lines
Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Modern Period (1914 – 1945)

•  The Road Not Taken

• And Death Shall Have No Dominion
• Insensibility
 Famous Author during this period:
The Modern Period (1914 – 1945)
•  Robert Frost
• Dylan Thomas
• Wilfred Owen
POST MODERN AGE – 1901 - PRESENT

• Literature of this periods exemplifies the improved

crafts of masters.
• The novel has flourished and writers have risen not
only to popularity but to distinction as well.
• Characterized by reliance on narrative techniques
such as fragmentation, paradox, and the unreliable
narrator 
POSTMODERNISM
• Is the fashionable term used to describe CONTEMPORARY
culture, or the very recent CULTURE which we live amongst. We
are inhabiting a POSTMODERN WORLD.
• The term is a lose one , hard to define because of vagueness
about the MODERN era, there is no definite start or point of
change when society suddenly became postmodern,
• The term gradually ‘crept in during the 1980s! Articles and
books on postmodernism started to be published from the early
1980s.
What is Postmodernism?

• Postmodernism is a term that encompasses a wide-range of

developments in philosophy, film, architecture, art, literature,
and culture.
• Originally a reaction to modernism, referring to the lack of
artistic, intellectual, or cultural thought or organized principle.
• Started around 1940s, exact date is unknown.
• Peaked around the 1960s and 1970s with the release of Catch 22
and Slaughterhouse Five
Postmodern Literature 

• What is it?
• Used to describe the different aspects of post WW2
literature (modernist literature). 
• There is not a clear and defined definition of
postmodernism because of the little agreement of the
concepts and characteristics and ideas within
postmodernism.
POSTMODERNIST LITERATURE
• Postmodernist Literature contains a broad range of concepts and
ideas that include:
• Response to Modernism and its idea
• Responses to Technological advances
• Great Diversity of cultures that leads to cultural pluralism ( small
groups within a larger society maintain their culture identity)
• Reconceptualization of society and history
POSTMODERN LITERATURE
• There are few similarities to modernist literature
• Like modernist literature, both are usually told from an
objective or omniscient point of view.
• Both literatures explore the external reality to examine the
inner states of consciousness of the characters
• Both employ fragmentation in narrative and character
construction
COMMON THEMES OF
POSTMODERN LITERATURE
• IRONY, PLAYFULNESS, BLACK HUMOR
• Example: The Crying Lot of 49, Pynchon uses childish wordplay while
discussing serious subjects. An example of his wordplay can be found in
the names of his characters: Mike Fallopian, Stanley Koteks, Mucho Maas,
and Dr. Hilarius.
• PATICHE - Authors often combine multiple elements in the postmodern
genre. 
• Example: Pynchon includes elements from science fiction, pop culture
references, and detective fiction to create fictional cultures and concepts.
COMMON THEMES OF
POSTMODERN LITERATURE
• METAFICTION - Writing about writing, often used to undermine the authority
of the author and to advance stories in unique ways
• Example: In Italo Calvino’s novel, If On a Winter’s Night a Traveler , is about a
reader attempting to read a novel of the same name. In Kurt Vonnegut’s novel,
Slaughterhouse Five, the first chapter is about the writing process of the novel.
• PARANOIA - The belief that there is something out of the ordinary, while
everything remains the same.
• Example: In Kurt Vonnegut’s novel, Breakfast of Champions, a character
becomes violent when he imagines everyone else as a robot and he is the only
human. 
Postmodern Literature:
Influential works
• Catch 22 – Joseph Heller
• Slaughterhouse Five – Kurt Vonnegut
• Lost in the Funhouse – John Barth 
• The Things They Carried – Tim O’Brien 
• White Noise – Don DeLillo 
• Gravity’s Rainbow – Thomas Pynchon 
• The Crying of Lot 49 – Thomas Pynchon 
 Some Significant Literary work in this period:
The Postmodern Period (1945 – Onward)

• Infinite Jest
• The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock
• Waiting for Godot 
Famous Author during this period:
The Postmodern Period (1945 – Onward) 
• David Foster Wallace
• T.S Eliot
• Samuel Beckett
GENRE
• A distinctive type or category especially of literary composition.
• Some words related to genre include; style, category, kind,
class, sort of any type.
• 2 TYPES OF LITERATURE NAMELY, PROSE AND POETRY
• Prose in a general category is writings that use the ordinary
language of the people.
• While Poetry cannot be categorized language because it applies
rhyming that makes it different from the other.
PROSE
• It is a literary type that is written within the common
flow of conversation in sentences and paragraph.
• The subject matter is usually familiar and ordinary
although it also tackles subjects on heroism, beauty,
love, and common experience with nobility of spirits,
which in poetry maybe found with eloquent expressions.
• Prose is usually divided into fiction and nonfiction
TYPES OF PROSE
• 1. FICTION – this is defines as a series of imaginative facts
about truths in human life.
• The incidents may or may not happen in real life, and the
characters may or may not have existed, but as long as it can
happen within the bound of possibility and probability
• NOVEL – this is a long narrative story divided into chapters
and may involve few or numerous characters. The events may
be true-to-life or fictitious. It covers a long period of time.
Because of its length, it has the capacity to
TYPES OF PROSE
• to give more complex plot, numerous characters,
and more elaborate settings.
• SHORT STORY – is short narrative artistic in
nature involving one or more characters that focus
on a single plot, one single impression. The
impression may be surprise, sadness, sympathy,
terror, and anger, among others. It is characterized
by its setting, character, plot, and message
THE ELEMENTS OF A SHORT
STORY
• a. CHARACTERS – persons involved in a conflict
• 1. protagonist – the hero or heroine in the story
• 2. antagonist – the villain in the story who is usually the
cause of foil or thwart to the protagonist
• 3. deuteragonist – second in importance in the story
• 4. “fringe” character – destroyed by inner conflict
• 5. minor characters
THE ELEMENTS OF A SHORT
STORY
• b. SETTING – time and place involved in the story. It gives a
hint to the motive of the characters. It also gives the mood of
the story because places and time provoke feelings to the
readers
• c. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE INCIDENTS OF THE STORY
– A good plot should have a good beginning, middle, and end.
It should be constructed that no incident can be displaced or
omitted without destroying the unity of the whole.
QUALITIES OF THE PLOT

• 1. EXCITING – it should be exciting than the everyday

reality that surround us.
• 2. GOOD STRUCTURE – the episodes must be arranged
effectively. It is also important that the plot structure is
tying all the incidents together, so that one leads naturally
into another
PYRAMIDAL STRUCTURE OF A
SHORT STORY
CLIMA
X

ON G
TI IN
DENOUMENT

AC ND
CE
AS

INTRODUCTIO ENDING
N
THE ELEMENTS OF A SHORT
STORY
• d. CONFLICT – the struggle of complication involving the characters
• TYPES OF CONFLICT:
• 1. Man vs. man
• 2. man vs. himself
• 3. Man vs. his environment
• e. SUSPENSE – the part that keeps the readers in a state of
uncertainty or in a state of guessing.
• f. CLIMAX – the highest point of interest in a story
THE ELEMENTS OF A SHORT
STORY
• g. DENOUEMENT (RESOLUTION) – the unfolding of the plot in a story. It
is the event or events following the climax
• h. POINT OF VIEW – the point of which a story is seen or told. It answers
the question “Through whom does the author tell the story?”
• THREE POINTS OF VIEW
• 1. OMNISCIENT - it enables the writer to present the inner thoughts and
feelings of his character
• 2. POINT OF VIEW OF A SINGLE CHARACTER WHO IS USED BY THE
AUTHOR AS A CENTRAL OBSERVER OR PARTICIPANT IN ACTION - it is
in
THREE POINTS OF VIEW

• the third person narrative that limits the

knowledge available to the readers. Detective
stories often employ this point of view
• 3. FIRST PERSON NARRATIVE – this point of view
is solely that of the character telling the story. He
may be the central character who either observes
or participates in the action
THE ELEMENTS OF A SHORT
STORY
• i. MOOD – this is the predominating atmosphere or tone.
• j. STYLE – this is the manner of putting into language the
ideas of the authors. Style may be used as a general
synonym for excellence, or it may more specifically
suggest that a writer has found the unique verbal pattern
that precisely expresses the meaning he wishes to convey.
NONFICTION
• It is expository in nature that aims to explain an idea, a theory, a
point of view, or maybe an impression.
• Nonfiction, which is commonly called essay is divided into formal
and nonformal.
• FORMAL ESSAY – it deals with mores serious subjects such as
theology, science, philosophy, morality, psychology, among others,
and is intended to more intellectual group of individuals. The tone is
more objective and the style is clear.
• Its main purpose is to teach or instruct.
• It involves deeper analysis of topics being discussed
INFORMAL OR FAMILIAR
ESSAY
• This is an expression of the view and opinion of the writer
about any subject in an ordinary manner. The personality
of the writer is revealed due to his style and treatment of
the subject, which is very personal.
• It possesses a charm, interest, and distinctive purpose to
entertain and to amuse.
• The tone is light, friendly, humorous, affectionate, and
interesting as if the writer is talking to his friends.
POETRY
• Is a literary type written in verse. It has measures, rhymes, lines, stanzas,
and tones.
• Poems are literary attempts to share personal experiences and feelings. Since
literature, in general, is all about significant human experience, poetry’s
subject matter is also about the poet’s personal life or the lives of those
around him.
• Good poems, aside from being stated in a fresh manner, often probe deeply
and can contain disturbing insights.
• The language is fresh and demanding because of its subtleties. Good poems
show images which leave the reader a sense of delight, awe, and wonder.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
• 1. POETIC LINE – the basic unit of composition in poems. An idea or feeling which is
expressed in one line and is continued with little or no pause into the next line. This is
called enjambment or runon lines.
• 2. THE SOUND OF WORDS – an indirection prominent in the method of poetry is the
use of sound effects to intensify meaning. For the poet to convey ideas, he chooses
and organizes his words into a pattern of sound that is a part of the total meaning.
These sound effects are the products of organized repetitions. They are the following:
• a. rhyme – repeats similar and corresponding sounds in some apparent scheme.
• b. Rhythm – is the result of the systematically stressing or accenting words and
syllables attained through patterns in the tuning, spacing, repetition of the elements.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
• c. Alliteration – means the repetition for effect of initial vowels or consonants
• Example. He clasps the crags with crooked hands (Tennyson)
• d. Assonance – refers to a partial change in which the stressed vowel sounds are alike but the
consonant sounds are unlike
• Example. Maiden crowned with glossy blackness Long armed maid, when she dances (George
Eliot)
• e. Onomatopoeia – is a long word that simply means the imitation in words of natural sounds.
• Example. Hiss, buzz, mew
• Dry clash’d his harness in the city caves
• And barren chasms, and all to left and right
• The bare black cliffs clang’d around him (Tennyson)
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
• 3. METER – is regularize and patterned rhythm. There are four
conventional types of meter in English poetry, each being
distinguished from the others by the number and accent of syllables.
• a. Iambic meter – by far, the most popular and the most natural to
English expression. Its basic unit or foot is one unaccented syllable
followed by one accented syllable
• b. Trochaic meter – the reverse of iambic meter. Each foot consists
of an accented or long syllable followed by an unaccented short
syllable
• c. Anapestic meter – contains in each foot two unaccented or short
syllables followed by one accented or long syllable.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY

• d. Dactylic meter – opposite of anapestic. It consists of one accented

or long syllable followed by the two unaccented or short syllables. It
is slower and often is used to create a strange mood.
• Seeing what the metrical units are and how many of them occur in
the line is called “scanning” a line of poetry.
• A one-foot line is called a Monometer, two diameter and others in
progression up to a seven-foot line, thus: trimester, tetrameter,
pentameter, hexameter and heptameter. Thus the iambic line is a
tetrameter, and the dactylic line is a trimester.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
• 4. IMAGERY – more than a visual detail, imagery includes sounds,
textures feel, odors, and sometimes even tastes. Selection of
concrete details is the poet’s of giving his reader a sensory image.
By means of images, the poet makes the reader think about the
meaning of poem.
• 5. TONE – reveals the attitude toward the subject and in some cases
the attitude of the persona or implied speaker of the poem as well.
Examples of tone are: cheerful, sad, reflective, serious, angry,
anxious, etc. there are, however, many shades of tone and that clear-
cut divisions cannot be easily established.
CLASSES OF POETRY
• 1. LYRIC POETRY – this is a kind of poetry intended to be sung. It expresses emotions
and feeling of the poet. It is usually short, simple, and easy to understand. This includes
simple lyric, a variety of short poem that is characterized by subjectivity, imagination,
melody, and emotion. Taken from the word lyre, a musical instrument
• Song – this is specifically melodious and intended to be sung and can easily be adapted
to music.
• Sonnet – this is a 14-line poem that the Italian and the English writers have popularized
• Elegy – this is a lyric poem that expresses deep feeling of grief for someone who passed
away
• Ode – this is a splendid type of lyric poetry with expression of dignity to someone loved
• Psalms – these are songs of praise to God and to the Virgin Mary
CLASSES OF POETRY
• 2. NARRATIVE POETRY – this is a long descriptive poem about life and events
that may be real or imaginary. It tells a story with sequential order of events.
• The Epic – this is a long narrative form that exploits lives of heroes, sometimes
of gods and goddesses. Known epic poems of the world are following: Iliad and
Odyssey of the Greeks, Ramayana and Mahabharata of the Indian, EL Cid of the
Spanish
• The Ballad – this is considered the shortest and simplest form. It tells a single
incident in verse composed to be sung. The variations of ballads are: love
ballads, war ballads, sea ballads, humorous, moral, historical, or even mythical
ballads.
• 3. DRAMATIC POETRY – this is a long poetry that has the intentions of being
presented on stage. It may have a story but the emphasis lies more on the
character rather than on the narrative
CLASSES OF POETRY
• 1. The Dramatic Monologue – this is a combination of drama and
poetry. The speaker addresses to one or more listeners but they
remain silent.
• 2. The Soliloquy – this is a type of poetry spoken by the speaker
alone with no one present to hear him except the audience. Here,
the speaker presents his character and emotions, and the
revelations of character are made freely without any inhibitions to
give insights to the character.
• 3. Character Sketch – this poem is less concerned with the events of
the story but rather with arousing sympathy, antagonism, and
interest of an individual. The poet in this particular poem merely
DRAMA
• Taken from the word “dran” to act or to move. It is a literary genre
that imitates human experience intended to be acted on stage.
Some known plays in the world include the works of Shakespeare,
Antigone of Sopocles and many others.
• Literary form presented on stage. It involves three elements
namely, theater, actors, and an audience. It is an art of imitating
human characters and actions. The actors impersonate the
characters in a particular incident or event in the story. Early
drama was usually written in poetic form, while the modern and
contemporary drama is usually written in prose.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAMA
• Drama is imitation of human experience. This human experience includes the
happy and the sad. It is two opposing human situations that resulted to the
two types of play namely, comedy and tragedy.
• Tragedy is taken from the Greek word “tragos” which means goat. The Greeks
discovered that of all animals in the world, goat has the most tragic cry before
it dies when butchered. In drama if the main character fails to solve his
problem, in other words his enemies outwit him, the play is labeled tragedy.
Usually the main character dies at the end of the play like Romeo and Juliet.
• On the other hand, if the main character solves the problems, or he defeats
his enemies, the play is categorized as comedy.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAMA

• 1. TRAGEDY – this involves the principal character or hero

struggling against dynamic forces. The action usually ends
unhappily where the principal character meets death or faces the
catastrophe with dignity and courage.
• 2. COMEDY – this is light n nature with a purpose of amusing the
audience. A true comedy is serious and full of deep meaning;
however, it is infused with wit, delicate and new ideas. It injects
humor and ends happily by showing repentance and confirmation to
be good
KINDS OF COMEDY: “HIGH” AND
“LOW”
• 1. FARCE – often considered a separate form (Plautus, Charley’s Aunt)
• Often considered to be “low comedy” (versus “high comedy”)
• Physical comedy: “slapstick” – physical action provokes the thought.
• Very high incongruity (surprise, something out of place or unexpected)
• Comedy of situation, but extreme incongruity – Buffoonery, accidents, mistaken
identities, ludicrous situations
• Often Stylized:
• “Aside” (sometimes referred to as breaking the proscenium or breaking the fourth wall,
the term refers to a speech or comment made by an actor directly to the audience about
the action of the play or another character. The audience is to understand that this
comment is not heard or noticed by the other characters in the play)
KINDS OF COMEDY: “HIGH” AND
“LOW”
• “TAKE” – ( broad look at the audience and/or another character(s) in
surprise, astonishment, disgust, etc.)
• “MUGGING” – (obviously paying to the audience, usually with broad facial
expressions and movement)
• 2. BURLESQUES – lampooning other works of arts, including theater pieces.
• 3. SATIRE – ridicule of public institutions and figures
• 4. DOMESTIC COMEDY – home and hearth
• 5. COMEDY OF MANNERS/WIT: similar to character and situation
aristocratic and witty characters
KINDS OF COMEDY: “HIGH” AND “LOW”

• 6. COMEDY OF IDEAS –
• Additional forms not mentioned in Wilson and Goldfarb
• a. comedy of situation: Character and ideas are minor hidden
identities, discoveries, reversals, etc. similar to farce, but less
unrealistic
• b. Comedy of character: Eccentricities of the protagonist (Moliere)
• c. Romantic comedy struggles of love, sympathetic characters,
ludicrous devices lovers use (Shakespeare’s Midsummer, 12 th Night)
• Restoration Drama (School for Scandal)
KINDS OF COMEDY: “HIGH” AND
“LOW”
• Concept or thought is essential
• Shaw (prostitution, English class system), Aristophanes
(Birds, Lysistrata)
LADDER OF COMEDY
“Pure Comedy” – High Comedy: Satire – biting humor –
criticisms of life
High complex, embracing a wide Incongruity – surprise, out of
range of approaches – from place
intellectual wit to slapstick
Verbal wit
“Low Comedy” Plot devices- misunderstandings,
mistaken identities
Comedy that depends on action Inopportune arrivals
and situation, usually involving
trivial theme in all farce
Embarrassing occurrences
KINDS OF TRAGEDY
• The Six (6) Elements of a Tragedy/ Play present in all plays, but some
standard forms can be discerned.
• VERISIMILITUDE – the “illusion of truth” – the method of achieving it
changes.
• Form: the shape given to something so it may serve a useful purpose
• For our purposes: form/genre/types are intended to be categories that are
not firm – there are endless sub-categories, and many plays will fit into a
number of different categories simultaneously.
• It can become dangerous to evaluate a play as one form, when it might not
indeed fit that form
KINDS OF TRAGEDY
• GENRE French for “category” or “type” – sharing a particular point
of view/ forming a group.
• Genre criticism – can show how a play does or does not fit into a
particularly category, but can also be useful as a way of examining
the plays and discovering more about them – as a learning tool.
• Such categories as “dramedy,” “tragic farce,” have been used to
show the merging of “type”
ORIGINS OF TRAGEDY
• “tragos” + “oide” – goat song usually involves a calamity (death, etc.), but
attention is focused on what those reactions can tell us about life.
• The “dithyramb” – hymns sung and danced in honor of Dionysus
• Usually about the struggles of the “protagonist,” moral issues, the effects of
suffering.
• Struggle is ethical, spiritual – protagonist’s integrity is tested
• Tragedy raises questions about the meaning of human existence, moral nature,
and social/ psychological relationships.
• Aristotle suggested a “certain magnitude”
• Evil often shown along with good, which does not always win
ORIGINS OF TRAGEDY

• Some tragedies (Greek) like Oedipus, suggest that the

protagonist has violated some moral order which must be
vindicated and reestablished.
• Often seems inevitable and predetermined (we can look
and decide for ourselves later.)
KINDS OF TRAGEDY
• MAGNITUDE: Characters have high stature – ethically superior but
sufficiently imperfect
• Modern tragedies – more common characteristics (Willy Loman)
• High Seriousness: Tries to arouse (effect) proper purgation of pity
and fear – the purgation is to be in the audience or in the characters
• CATHARSIS – a purification – the compassion accompanying shared
grief – a humanizing force – we return to a state of equilibrium after
release of tensions – Contradictory reactions – pessimistic, yet not
willing to surrender individuality – a form of victory
KINDS OF TRAGEDY
• THE TRAGIC HERO (PROTAGONIST) – has a flaw in character or
makes an error in judgment – “tragic flaw” – from the term hamartia
– literally “missing the mark.”
• “hubris” – a characteristic – overweening pride or self-confidence
• Aristotle suggest that the best plays (Oedipus) have the hubris being
too much of a good thing (what makes Oedipus strong is his self-
confidence and pride)
• Universality – Universal human values – when a play touches
something that is human in all of us and has lasting value through
time
CIVILIZATION
• The study of civilization should not only emphasize history, but
discusses culture, societies, politics, economics, and literature.
• The emergence of civilization began at the point in time when people
permanently settled down with the advent of agriculture or the
cultivation of the soil to produce food. These people found
settlements along rivers because the rivers that deposit minerals to
the soil make it a fertile ground for cultivation and as a source of
fresh drinkable water, as well as irrigation.
• The founding of a permanent settlement leads to the establishment of
society. A society is a geographical territory wherein people interact
and share a culture. It is the totality of
CIVILIZATION

• social organizations and social relationships. This society with

a subsistence economy through agriculture, subsequently, led
to the development of organized living, which in turn leads to
the emergence of civilizations.
• The term civilization is, etymologically derived, from the Latin
word “civitas” which means “city.” A civilization, at least
resembling a city, may be taken as a permanent settlement of
people having an organized way of life through its established
social institutions.
CULTURE

• CONCEPT OF CULTURE
• Part of civilization is the development of culture which gives the
distinct characteristics of a group of people. People develop their
own culture out of their learning and experiences from their
environmental exposure.
• In a general sense, culture is a way of life. Technically, it refers to
the totality of what man has learned as a member of society. The
elements of culture make up its totality
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
• 1. KNOWLEDGE – any information and perceived to be true. It does
not necessarily mean that such information is factual
• 2. BELIEFS – the perception of accepted reality. Reality refers to the
existence of things whether material or non-material but not
imaginary
• 3. SOCIAL NORMS – these are the stablished expectations of society
as to how a person is supposed to act depending on the
requirements of the time, place, or situation
• a.) FOLKWAYS – the patterns of repetitive behavior which become a
habitual and conventional part of living. Included, therein, are
customs and traditions
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
• b.) MORES – the set of moral obligations and standards that
distinguishes right from wrong or good from bad conduct
• c.) LAWS – the set of binding rules or measures that induces man to
act or restrain him from acting
• 4. VALUES – anything held to be relatively worthy, important,
desirable, or valuable. It is not concerned with morality, manners, or
conduct.
• 5. TECHNOLOGY and MATERIAL CULTURE – the practical
application of knowledge in converting raw materials into finished
products.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
CULTURE
• 1. Learnable – culture is acquired through training, instruction,
observation, and imitation
• 2. Transmittable – culture influences others attitudes, habits, and
behavior through communication.
• 3. Universal – culture is shared in common because people are
members of a society with established expectations on everybody
• 4. Dynamic – culture changes over time as people respond to
challenges and adapt to situations and environment.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
• A social institution is an established system of social norms revolving
around the needs of people. It provides the ways and means of achieving
these needs. There are 5 basic social institutions:
• 1. Family – a social structure built on personal relationships and affiliation
of consanguinity (blood relationship), affinity (marriage), or adoption that
forms the basic core of social norms. The basic unit of society
• 2. Education – the institution through which knowledge formation and
skills training is received for occupational preparation
• 3. Economy – the institution through which economic resources are utilized
for the satisfaction of human wants.
SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
• 4. Politics – the institution through which power is controlled and
exercised for the promotion and protection of interests.
• 5. Religion – the institution through which the spiritual or non-
material needs of the people are provided through a system of
beliefs and practices revolving around the divine or sacred.
RELIGION

• CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION

• 1. Ecclesia/ The Church – it is the dominant religion in a society, in
terms of, majority members and socio-political influence.
• 2. Sect – it refers to religious groups that have separated out of
protest or conflict from a parent church
• 3. Denomination – religious groups that were independently founded
and are originators of their own religion
• 4. Cult – is a small group with a fanatical following revolving around
a dominant charismatic leader
CULTURAL FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

• 1. It satisfies the emotional and spiritual needs of a person

• 2. It provides a sense of hope and assurance to a person in doubt,
fear, or trouble
• 3. It legitimizes and reinforces beliefs, mores, and values
• 4. It regulates and guides the lives of people in their social roles,
functions, and relationships.
• 5. It facilitates and promotes group integration and solidarity
RIDDLE
• A riddle is a statement or question or phrase having a
double or veiled meaning, put forth as a puzzle to be solved.
• Riddles are of two types: 
• Enigmas, which are problems generally expressed
in metaphorical or allegorical language that require
ingenuity and careful thinking for their solution, and 
• Conundra, which are questions relying for their effects on
punning in either the question or the answer.
RIDDLE
• Archer Taylor says that "we can probably say that riddling is a universal
art" and cites riddles from hundreds of different cultures including
Finnish, Hungarian, American Indian, Chinese, Russian, Dutch and
Filipino sources amongst many others.
•  In the assessment of Elli Köngas Maranda (originally writing about
Malaitian riddles, but with an insight that has been taken up more widely),
whereas myths serve to encode and establish social norms, "riddles make
a point of playing with conceptual boundaries and crossing them for the
intellectual pleasure of showing that things are not quite as stable as they
seem" – though the point of doing so may still ultimately be to "play with
boundaries, but ultimately to affirm them"
Definitions of Riddle

• Defining riddles precisely is hard and has attracted a fair amount of scholarly
debate.
• The first major modern attempt to define the riddle was by Robert Petsch in 1899,
with another seminal contribution, inspired by structuralism, by Robert A.
Georges and Alan Dundes in 1963. Georges and Dundes suggested that 'a riddle is
a traditional verbal expression which contains one or more descriptive elements, a
pair of which may be in opposition; the referent of the elements is to be guessed’.
• n some traditions and contexts, riddles may overlap with proverbs.
• An example from a different language, 'Nothing hurts it, but it groans all the time'
can be deployed as a proverb (when its referent is a hypocrite) or as a riddle (when
its referent is a pig)
Ancient and medieval riddles

• The riddle was at times a prominent literary form in the ancient and medieval
world, and so riddles are extensively, if patchily, attested in our written records
from these periods.
• Babylon
• According to Archer Taylor, "the oldest recorded riddles are Babylonian school texts
which show no literary polish". The answers to the riddles are not preserved; they
include "my knees hasten, my feet do not rest, a shepherd without pity drives me to
pasture" (a river? A rowboat?); "you went and took the enemy's property; the enemy
came and took your property" (a weaving shuttle?); "who becomes pregnant without
conceiving, who becomes fat without eating?" (a raincloud?). "It is clear that we
have here riddles from oral tradition that a teacher has put into a schoolbook
Ancient and medieval riddles

• Sanskrit and later Indic languages

• It is thought that the world's earliest surviving poetic
riddles survive in the Sanskrit Rigveda
• "The Sanskrit term that most closely corresponds to the
English 'riddle', and which is usually translated thereby,
is prahelikā—a term that is not only of uncertain
etymology but is also subject to widely differing
interpretations and classifications."
Old Testament and Hebrew riddles

• While riddles are not numerous in the Bible, they are present, most famously
in Samson's riddle in Judges xiv.14, but also in I Kings 10:1–13 (where the Queen of
Sheba tests Solomon's wisdom), and in the Talmud. Sirach also mentions riddles as a
popular dinner pastime.
• The Aramaic Story of Ahikar contains a long section of proverbial wisdom that in some
versions also contains riddles.
• However, under the influence of Arabic literature in medieval al-Andalus, there was a
flourishing of literary Hebrew riddles in verse during the Middle Ages. Dunash ben
Labrat (920–990), credited with transposing Arabic metres into Hebrew, composed a
number of riddles, mostly apparently inspired by folk-riddles. Exponents
included Moses ibn Ezra, Yehuda Alharizi, and Judah Halevi, Immanuel the
Roman wrote riddles, as did Israel Onceneyra
Ancient Greece and Rome

• Riddles are known to have been popular in Greece in Hellenistic times, and
possibly before; they were prominent among the entertainments and challenges
presented at symposia
• Oracles were also represented as speaking in often riddlic language
• However, the first significant corpus of Greek riddles survives in an anthology of
earlier material known as the Greek Anthology, which contains about 50 verse
riddles, probably put into its present form by Constantine Cephalas, working in
the tenth century CE. Most surviving ancient Greek riddles are in verse. In the
second chapter of Book III of Aristotle's Rhetoric, the philosopher stated that
"good riddles do, in general, provide us with satisfactory metaphors: for
metaphors imply riddles, and therefore a good riddle can furnish a good metaphor.
Ancient Greece and Rome

• Literary riddles were also composed in Byzantium, from perhaps the

tenth century with the work of John Geometres, into the fifteenth
century, along with a neo-Byzantine revival in around the early
eighteenth century. There was a particular peak around the long
twelfth century.
• Two Latin riddles are preserved as graffiti in the Basilica at Pompeii.
The principal collection of ancient Latin riddles is a collection of 100
hexametrical riddles by Symphosius, which were influential on later
medieval Latin writers: a further 63 were composed around the
seventh century in Italy in a collection known now as the Berne
Riddles, and Symphosius's collection inspired a number of Anglo-
Charades

• The term charade was borrowed into English from French in the

second half of the eighteenth century, denoting a "kind of riddle in
which each syllable of a word, or a complete word or phrase, is
enigmatically described or dramatically represented". The term
gradually became more popularly used to refer to acted charades,
examples of which are described in William Thackeray’s Vanity
Fair and in Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre
Contemporary riddles

• Britain and America

• The seminal collection of Anglophone riddles from the early modern
period through to the twentieth century is Archer Taylor’s
• Contemporary riddles typically use puns and double entendres for
humorous effect.
• These riddles are now mostly children's humour and games rather
than literary compositions.
Contemporary riddles

• Sub-Saharan Africa
• Anthropological research in Africa has produced extensive
collections of riddles over the last century or so.
•  Riddles have been characterized as "one of the most
important forms of oral art in Africa";
• Hamnett analyzes African riddling from an anthropological
viewpoint;
•  Yoruba riddles have enjoyed a recent monograph study.
Contemporary riddles
• In the Philippines
• Quite similar to its English counterpart, the riddle in
the Philippines is called Bugtong. It is traditionally used
during a funeral wake together with other games such
as tong-its or the more popular sakla, later generations
use Bugtong as a form of past time or as an activity. One
peculiarity of the Filipino version is the way they start with
the phrase Bugtong-bugtong before saying the riddle,
usually it is common to create riddles that rhyme.
FIGURES OF SPEECH
• Being conglomeration of many languages. English writers
and speakers cannot escape from using figures of speech
in their desire to give special effects to their thoughts.
Figures of speech are mostly of Greek origins.
• It is a phrase or word having different meanings than its
literal meanings. It conveys meaning by identifying or
comparing one thing to another, which has connotation or
meaning familiar to the audience. That is why it is helpful
in creating vivid rhetorical effect
FIGURES OF SPEECH
• A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is figurative language in
the form of a single word or phrase. It can be a special repetition,
arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a phrase
with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the
words. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of
expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their
use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal
and figurative interpretation
FIGURES OF SPEECH
• Figures of speech are plainly defined as saying one thing in terms of something
else. What does that mean? Well, it's simple, actually. Whenever you say
something, but you don't mean it literally, you are using a figure of speech. Let's
say you are about to head out to the store and your mother says, 'Ya better take a
jacket; it's raining cats and dogs out there.'
• Does your mom literally mean animals are falling from the sky? Of course not. Her
meaning is that it is raining hard outside. So why doesn't she just say, 'Take a
jacket. It's raining!' Because figures of speech are meant to clarify and describe in
more detail. Rain itself has many different forms. It could be drizzling, sprinkling,
misting or even downpouring. Your mother used a figure of speech to clarify that
the rain is hard and would probably soak anyone caught in it. Figures of speech
are very useful in giving a more detailed and accurate description.
The FOUR FUNDAMENTAL
OPERATIONS

• 1. ADDITION – also called repetition/expansion/superabundance

• 2. OMISSION – also called subtraction/ abridgement/lack
• 3. TRANSPOSITION – also called transferring
• 4. PERMUTATION – also called
switching/interchange/substitution/transmutation
THE ART OF LANGUAGE

• Language is truly an art form. There are so many variations

and intricacies available that can convey several different
meanings, all of which come together to serve one main
purpose: to communicate. Communication is crucial to the
function of our society, and we use many different methods
to express meaning. One of the most common methods
involves figures of speech. Figures of speech are so
common, you most likely use them on a daily basis and
don't even notice.
ALLEGORY

• Use of figurative narrative common in the Bible.

• Example: FABLES AND PARABLES are special forms of
Allegory
• Fables – it is a story in which animals or inanimate objects
are given mentality and speech of human being to point
out moral lesson
• Example of parable: The Parable of Prodigal Son
• The Good Samaritan; The Lost Sheep, etc.
ALLITERATION

• Use of words beginning with the same letter

• Example:
• a.) Gold, guns, and goons are common during election time
(3 G’s.)
• b.) Preplanning, prevent, poor performance (5 P’s.)
• The three T’s of music are time, tone, timbre (3 T’s.)
ALLONYM

• Name of someone is used by another person as an author.

(pseudonym)
• Severino Reyes is Lola Basyang in his writings
• Huseng Sisiw
• Plaridel – Marcelo H. del Pilar
ALLUSIONS

• Use of specific description in comparing persons or things

(alter ego)
• Examples:
• Executive Secretary is a little president
• The Late President Marcos is called a dictator
ANAPHORA

• Repetition of words in expressions

• Examples:
• a.) Judge not, be not judged
• b.) A true friend is forever a friend
• c.) take note: REDUNDANCY
• Cessation and closure of business
ANASTROPHE /INVERSION

• The reverse of normal sentence construction. This scheme is used in

poetry to create rhymes
• Examples:
• Dark-brown is the river
• Golden is the sand or hair
• It flows along forever
• With trees on either bank
ANTIHIMERIA
• Anthimeria (also known as antimeria) is the usage of a word in a
new grammatical form, most often the usage of a noun as a verb.
• Substitution of parts of speech
• Examples of Anthimeria
• I could use a good sleep.
• Here, the word “sleep,” usually a verb, is used as a noun.
• She headed the ball.
• In soccer, “heading” the ball is to hit the ball with one’s forehead.
Examples of Anthimeria

• Don’t forget to hashtag that post.

• This is a recent form of anthimeria, as “hashtagging” and “hashtag” have
only just recently been added to the lexicon with popular social networking
sites like Twitter and Instagram.
• Noun – substitute for pronoun
• Example: we = Tim, Tony and Manu
• Adjective = use to describe a person
• He is handsome = Enrique is handsome
• Adverb –use to modify noun, adjective or adverb itself
ANTITHESIS
• Antithesis” literally means “opposite” – it is usually the opposite of a statement,
concept, or idea. In literary analysis, an antithesis is a pair of statements or images
in which the one reverses the other. The pair is written with similar grammatical
structures to show more contrast. Antithesis is used to emphasize a concept, idea,
or conclusion.
• Examples
• a. The hardest thing to do is to do nothing
• b.) An empty wallet is a very heavy burden to carry
• c.) Drive slowly in order not to be late

•  
ANTONOMASIA
• is a literary term in which a descriptive phrase replaces a person’s name.  Antonomasia can
range from lighthearted nicknames to epic names.
• The phrase antonomasia is derived from the Greek phrase antonomazein meaning “to name
differently.”
• Examples of Antonomasia
• Normal sentence:
• “Oh, look! Sam’s arrived!”
• Sentence with Antonomasia:
• “Oh, look! The great chef has arrived!”

•  
ANTONOMASIA
• Normal sentence:
• “He’s grumpy, boring, doesn’t want to listen to anyone, and definitely doesn’t
want to help anyone.”
• Sentence with Antonomasia:
• “Mr. Grumps doesn’t want to listen to anyone, and definitely doesn’t want to
help anyone.”
• Replacing the teacher’s actual name with his defining characteristic,
grumpiness, serves to highlight just how much the mood is associated with
the man.
•  
ANTONOMASIA
• For a commonly use example of antonomasia, consider two women discussing men:
• Normal sentence:
• “He’s such a good guy. I enjoy his company so much! I just hope he’s the right guy
for me.”
• With the addition of antonomasia, we can emphasize the quality she hopes to find in
this man:
• Sentence with Antonomasia:
• “He’s such a good guy. I enjoy his company so much! I just hope he’s Mr. Right.“
• Giving a man the title “Mr. Right” is an everyday example of antonomasia in
conversation.
APHORISM
• Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty
manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral and literary
principles.
• Aphorisms often come with a pinch of humor, which makes them more
appealing to the masses. Proverbs, maxims, adages and clichés are
different forms of aphoristic statements that gain prevalence from
generation to generation and frequently appear in our day-to-day speech.
• To qualify as an aphorism, it is necessary for a statement to contain a truth
revealed in a terse manner. Aphoristic statements are quoted in writings as
well as in our daily speech. The fact that they contain a truth gives them a
universal acceptance. Scores of philosophers, politicians, writers, artists
and sportsman and other individuals are remembered for their famous
aphoristic statements.
Common Aphorism Examples

• Those who mind don’t matter, and those who matter don’t mind.—Bernard
Baruch (frequently misattributed to Dr. Seuss)
• I’d rather die on my feet, than live on my knees.—Emiliano Zapata (in
Spanish: Prefiero morir de pie que vivir de rodillas.)
• I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.
—Evelyn Beatrice Hall (frequently misattributed to Voltaire)
• The old law of ‘an eye for an eye’ leaves everyone blind. –Martin Luther King
Jr.
• A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. –Lao Tzu
• A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
APOSTROPHE
• More commonly known as a punctuation mark, apostrophe can also
refer to an exclamatory figure of speech. The definition of
apostrophe as a literary device is when a speaker breaks off from
addressing one party and instead addresses a third party. This third
party may be an individual, either present or absent in the scene. It
can also be an inanimate object, like a dagger, or an abstract
concept, such as death or the sun. Because there is a clear speaker
and change of addressee, apostrophe is most commonly found in
plays. It does, however, sometimes occur in poetry and prose.
• In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes
represented by exclamation “O”. A writer or a speaker, using an
Difference Between Apostrophe as a Literary
Device and Apostrophe as a Punctuation Mark

• Both senses of the word “apostrophe” come from the original Greek
meaning “turning back” or “turning away.” Apostrophe as a
punctuation mark took on the meaning of “elision” and therefore is
used when letters are omitted and sounds are elided. In English, for
example, we use apostrophes when contracted “I am” to “I’m,” “we
have” to “we’ve,” “do not” to “don’t,” and so on.
• The apostrophe definition as a literary device, on the other hand,
evolved to the turning from one addressee to another. Therefore,
though the terms have similar origins, their meanings are very
different.
Common Examples of Apostrophe

• Ugh, cell phone, why won’t you load my messages?”

• (While speaking on the phone with someone) “Hold, on, my kid’s
going crazy—Jim, come back here, stop running with scissors.”
• “Oh, Starbucks, how I love you! Your medium dark roast allowed me
to survive that meeting!”
• “Oh what a world it seems we live in.” –Rufus Wainwright (song)
• “O holy night! The stars are brightly shining!” (Christmas carol)
ASSONANCE

• Assonance is the repetition of a vowel sound or diphthong in non-

rhyming words. To qualify as assonance, the words must be close
enough for the repetition of the sound to be noticeable. Assonance is
a common literary technique used in poetry and prose, and is widely
found in English verse.
• The same vowel sound of the short vowel “-e-” repeats itself in
almost all the words, excluding the definite article. The words do
share the same vowel sounds, but start with different consonant
sounds – unlike alliteration, which involves repetition of the same
consonant sounds. Below are a few assonance examples that are
common.
Common Assonance Examples

• We light fire on the mountain.

• I feel depressed and restle
• Go and mow the lawn.
• Johnny went here and there and everywhere
• The engineer held the steering to steer the vehicle.
ANALOGY

• Analogy is a comparison between two things. Analogies function to

describe or explain one thing by examining its similarities with
another thing. The two things may be very dissimilar and the
analogy forces the reader or listener to understand the connection
between them. On the other hand, the analogy could provide a
comparison between two very similar things, one of which might be
more obscure; the analogy provides a way for a reader or listener to
understand the more obscure thing by picturing the more common
thing.
EXAMPLES OF ANALOGY
• A gang of boys is like a pack of wolves
• Obeying is to a servant, like ordering is to a master
• Green is to go as red is to stop
• A general is to an army, a CEO is to a company.
• Gas is to car as wood is to fire
ADJUNCTION

• It is a phrase or clause added to a sentence that is not necessary for

the meaning of a sentence , but it provides an additional information
• It is not necessary to the structure or the meaning of sentence. It
can be removed. However, it does provide information that clarifies
the action of the sentence (in most cases, it is a verb)
• Typically, adjunct elements function as adverbials-adding
information about when, where, why, or how.
EXAMPLES OF ADJUNCTION

• 1. Dinner will be ready, I am sure, by 6pm.

• 2. Please turn in your homework right now.
• 3. "I have a dream today." Martin Luther King, Jr.
• 4. "Four score and seven years ago, our forefathers brought forth on
this continent a new nation." Abraham Lincoln
• 5. "For every man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all
forms of poverty." John F. Kennedy
ANTICLIMAX
From the Greek, "down a ladder"

• Anticlimax is a rhetorical term for an abrupt shift from a serious or

noble tone to a less exalted one—often for comic effect.
Adjective: anticlimactic.
• A common type of rhetorical anticlimax is the figure of catacosmesis:
the ordering of words from the most significant to the least
significant. (The opposite of catacosmesis is auxesis.)
• A narrative anticlimax refers to an unexpected twist in the plot, an
incident marked by a sudden diminishment of intensity or
significance.
Common Examples of Anticlimax

• There are some notables examples of anticlimax from films, such as in the
following:
• Signs: The aliens that have come to take over planet Earth turn out to be
unable to touch water and all die without need of human intervention.
• Kill Bill 2: Uma Thurman’s character has been trying to get revenge on Bill
for two whole movies. She is able to take him down easily without a
protracted fight at the end of the second movie.
• Monty Python and the Holy Grail: A film set in medieval Europe ends with
a police car arresting King Arthur and Lancelot. Clearly this anticlimax is
meant to be humorous, unlike the other two examples.
ANADIPLOSIS

• The term anadiplosis is a Greek word which means “to reduplicate”.

It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in
such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which
marks the end of the previous clause.
• Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word
EXAMPLES OF ANADIPLOSIS
• “When I give, I give myself.”
• “This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a
reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city.”
• “……… you must make every effort to support your faith
with goodness, and goodness with knowledge,
and knowledge with self-control, and self-control with endurance,
and endurance with godliness, and godliness with mutual
affection, and mutual affection with love” ( The Bible, II Peter 1:5 –
7)
• “For Lycidas is dead, dead ere his prime,
Young Lycidas and hath not left his peer.”
APPOSITIVE
• When a noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that
renames or identifies it, this is called appositive. This is a literary
device that appears before or after a noun or noun phrase. It is
always used with commas. Simply, we can define it as a noun phrase
or a noun that defines or explains another noun, which it follows.
• In this grammatical structure, writers place elements like noun
phrases side by side where one element serves to define the other,
and one is in apposition to the other. For instance, “We were waiting
outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double
bars, like small animal cages.” (A Hanging by George Orwell) In this
line, “the condemned cells” is a noun phrase, while “a row of
Types of Appositive

• Restrictive Appositive - It gives essential information to identify the phrase or noun in

apposition. It clarifies the meaning of a phrase but if the appositive is removed, the
meaning of entire sentence changes. Commas are not necessarily used in this type of
appositive such as “John’s friend, Michael, likes chocolates.” Here John has others
friends, but the statement is restricted to only Michael.
• Non-Restrictive Appositive - It gives non-essential or extra information, which is not
important to identify the phrase or noun in apposition. This type of appositive is often
used with commas, for example, “John, my friend, likes to eat chocolates.” Here, my
friend is non-restrictive appositive, which is not necessary to be used for identifying
John.
EXAMPLES OF APPOSITIVE

• Sentences Beginning With Appositives

• My neighbor , Sam brought a new car
• Your bestfriend, Lily is performing at the art club tomorrow
• Appositives In Between Sentences
• The chief cardiac surgeon, an expert of heart transplants, came
home for dinner yesterday.
• Ms. Elizabeth, my vice-principal, punished me for not doing homework.
• My mother, a lovely woman, baked cupcakes for my birthday
Sentences Ending With Appositives

• I gave my lecture notes to Abby, who is a friend of mine.

• "Though her cheeks were high-colored and her teeth strong and
yellow, she looked like a mechanical woman, a machine with
flashing, glassy circles for eyes." (Kate Simon, 'Bronx Primitive',
1982)
• Michael was in all terms different from Sam,the unfaithful
husband.
ASYNDETON

• Asyndeton refers to the omission of a conjunction such as “and” or

“as” from a series of related clauses. The function of asyndeton is
usually to accelerate a passage and emphasize the significance of
the relation between these clauses. One famous example is Julius
Caesar’s comment “Veni, vidi, vici” after a swift victory in battle,
translated into English as “I came, I saw, I conquered.” The use of
asyndeton here works well because the rapidness of the sentence
reflects the rapidness of the victory.
Common Examples of Asyndeton
• “When I was a child I played basketball, football, and soccer”
• “…we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any
friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” –John F.
Kennedy
• “We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and
oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall
defend our Island, whatever the cost may be…” –Winston Churchill
• “Duty, Honor, Country: Those three hallowed words reverently dictate what you ought
to be, what you can be, what you will be. They are your rallying points: to build courage
when courage seems to fail; to regain faith when there seems to be little cause for
faith; to create hope when hope becomes forlorn.” –General Douglas MacArthur
ANTIMETABOLE

• The word antimetabole comes from a Greek word. Anti- means

“against” or “opposite” while –metabole means “turning about” or
“change.”
• Antimetabole is a figure of speech in which words or clauses from
the first half of a sentence are repeated in the second half of the
sentence in reverse order
Common Examples of Antimetabole

• Oh you have, have you?

• Oh it is, is it?
• Oh she will, will she?
• You can take the girl out of the country, but you can’t take the
country out of the girl.
• What is the difference between a crocodile and a baby?
One makes its bed in a river and the other makes a river in its bed
• “All for one, and one for all.” –Alexander Dumas (Motto of the Three
Muskiteers)
ANTECEDENT

• It is usually in grammar
• It is a word, a phrase, or a clause that is usually replaced
by a pronoun in a sentence but regularly so in a following
sentence
• Example: When I arrived to meet Caleb, He wasn’t to be
seen
• Violet is beautiful, It is my favorite color
CACOPHONY

• Cacophony is the use of a combination of words with loud, harsh

sounds—in reality as well as literature.  In literary studies, this
combination of words with rough or unharmonious sounds are used
for a noisy or jarring poetic effect. Cacophony is considered the
opposite of euphony which is the use of beautiful, melodious-
sounding words.
• Use of unpleasant sounds for particular effect
Examples of Cacophony

• “And being no stranger to the art of war, I have him a description of

cannons, culverins, muskets, carabines, pistols, bullets,
powder, swords, bayonets, battles, sieges, retreats, attacks,
undermines, countermines, bombardments, sea-fights…”
• ‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves,an
And the mome raths outgrabe.
• “Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don’t exactly
know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that’s
clear, at any rate”.
CHIASMUS

• Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are

balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in
order to produce an artistic effect.
• Construction of the first part of a sentence is the reverse of two
parallel ideas.
• Is the reversing the order of words in the second of two parallel
phrases.
Examples of Chiasmus

• Do I love you because you're beautiful? Or are you beautiful because I love you? -
Oscar Hammerstein
• The value of marriage is not that adults produce children, but that children produce
adults. - Peter de Vries
• "Never let a fool kiss you--or a kiss fool you." - Never Let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool
You - by Mardy Grothe
• You forget what you want to remember, and you remember what you want to
forget. - The Road
• But many that are first shall be last and the last shall be first. - Matthew 7:6
CONNOTATION

• Every word has a connotative or suggestive meaning aside from the

literal one. It is usually found in figurative expressions.
• refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing
which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional
associations or meanings in addition to their literal meanings or
denotations.
Positive and Negative
Connotations
• Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon
the social, cultural and personal experiences of individuals. For
example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same
denotative but different connotative meanings. Childish and childlike
have a negative connotation as they refer to immature behavior of a
person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and
energetic.
Common Connotation Examples
• A dog connotes shamelessness or an ugly face.
• A dove implies peace or tranquility.
• Home suggests family, comfort and security.
• Politician has a negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity
while statesperson connotes sincerity.
• Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating
• Mom and Dad when used in place of mother and father connote
loving parents.
CLIMAX

• Climax, a Greek term meaning “ladder”, is that particular point in a

narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point.
• Climax is a structural part of a plot and is at times referred to as a
crisis. It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at
which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a
climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak that
calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion).
• In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later
in the 19th century, the five-act plays were replaced by three-act
plays and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end
of the play.
Function Of CLIMAX

• A climax, when used as a plot device, helps readers understand the

significance of the rising action earlier to the point in the plot where
the conflict reaches its peak.
• The Climax of the story makes readers mentally prepared for the
resolution of the conflict. Hence, climax is important to the plot
structure of a story.
• Moreover, climax is used as a stylistic device or a figure of speech to
render balance and brevity to speech or writing. Being properly
employed, it qualifies itself as a powerful tool that can instantly
capture the undivided attention of listeners and readers alike.
Hence, its importance cannot be underestimated.
EXAMPLE OF CLIMAX

• taken from his Sonnet “The Passionate Pilgrim”:

• “Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good;
A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly;
A flower that dies when first it gins to bud;
A brittle glass that’s broken presently:
A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower,
Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour.”
• By William Shakespeare
CONSONANCE

• Refers to the repetition of consonant sounds, within the limits of a

sentence or a certain number of sentences.
• Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants
within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in
quick succession such as in pitter, patter.
• It is classified as a literary term used in both poetry as well as prose.
• For instance, the words chuckle, fickle, and kick are consonant with
one and other due to the existence of common interior consonant
sounds (/ck/).
Common Consonance Examples
• William Harmon his book A Handbook on Literature notes that “most so-called eye
rhymes (such as ‘word’ and ‘lord,’ or ‘blood,’ ‘food,’ and ‘good’) are the most
common examples.
• The ship has sailed to the far off shores.
• She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year.
• Shelley sells shells by the seashore.
• “Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile
Whether Jew or gentile, I rank top percentile
Many styles, more powerful than gamma rays
My grammar pays, like Carlos Santana plays.”
(The lines have been taken from the song ‘Zealots ‘by Fugees.)
CHARACTERIZATION
• Characterization is a literary device that is used step by step in
literature to highlight and explain the details about a character in a
story.
• It is in the initial stage where the writer introduces the character
with noticeable emergence and then following the introduction of
the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then as the
story progresses, the thought-process of the character. The next
stage involves the character expressing his opinions and ideas and
getting into conversations with the rest of the characters. The final
part shows how others in the story respond to the character’s
personality.
CHARACTERIZATION

• Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid 15th century.

Aristotle in his Poetics argued that “tragedy is a representation, not
of men, but of action and life”. Thus the assertion of the dominance
of plot over characters, termed as plot-driven narrative, is
unmistakable. This point of view was later on abandoned by many
because, in the 19th century, the dominance of character over plot
became clear through petty bourgeois novels.
Types of Characterization
• 1. Direct or explicit characterization
• This kind of characterization takes a direct approach towards
building the character. It uses another character, narrator or the
protagonist himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject.
• 2. Indirect or implicit characterization
• This is a more subtle way of introducing the character to the
audience. The audience has to deduce for themselves the
characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought
process, behavior, speech, way of talking, appearance, and way of
communication with other characters and also by discerning the
response of other characters.
Characterization in Drama
• On stage or in front of the camera, the actors usually do not have much time to characterize. This is
why the character faces the risk of coming across as underdeveloped. In dramaturgy, the realists
take a different approach by relying on implied characterization. This is pivotal to the theme of their
character-driven narrative. Examples of these playwrights are Anton Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, and
August Strindberg.
• Classic psychological characterization examples such as “The Seagull” usually build the main
character in a more indirect manner. This approach is considered more effective because it slowly
discloses the inner turmoil of the character during the three hours of the show and lets the audience
connect better.
• The actors who act in such roles usually work on them profoundly to get an in-depth idea of the
personality of their respective character. Often, during such shows, plays or dramas, no direct
statements about the character’s nature are found. This kind of realism needs the actors to build the
character from their own perspective initially. This is why realistic characterization is more of a
subtle nature, which cannot directly be recognized.
Function

• Characterization is an essential component in writing good

literature. Modern fiction, in particular, has taken great advantage
of this literary device. Understanding the role of characterization in
storytelling is very important for any writer. To put it briefly, it helps
us make sense of the behavior of any character in a story by helping
us understand their thought processes. A good use of
characterization always leads the readers or audience to relate
better to the events taking place in the story. Dialogues play a very
important role in developing a character because they give us an
opportunity to examine the motivations and actions of the characters
more deeply.
Characterization Examples

• “The Great Gatsby”

• There are many examples of characterization in literature. “The
Great Gatsby” is probably the best. In this particular book, the main
idea revolves around the social status of the characters. The major
character of the book, Mr. Gatsby, is perceptibly rich but he does not
belong to the upper stratum of society. This means that he cannot
have Daisy. Tom is essentially defined by his wealth and the abusive
nature that he portrays every now and then, while Daisy is explained
by Gatsby as having a voice full of money.
THE GREAT GATSBY
• Another technique to highlight the qualities of a character is to put them in certain areas
that are symbolic of a social status. In the novel, Gatsby resides in the West Egg, which is
considered less trendy than East Egg, where Daisy lives. This difference points out the
gap between Jay’s and Daisy’s social statuses. Moreover, you might also notice that Tom,
Jordan and Daisy live in East Egg while Gatsby and Nick reside in West Egg, which again
highlights the difference in their financial background. This division is reinforced at the
end of the novel when Nick supports Gatsby against the rest of the folks.
• Occupations have also been used very tactfully in the novel to highlight characteristics of
certain protagonists. The prime example is Gatsby who, despite being so rich, is known by
his profession: bootlegging. He had an illegal job that earned him a fortune but failed to
get him into the upper class of New York. In contrast, Nick has a clean and fair job of a
“bond man” that defines his character. The poor guy Wilson who fixes the rich people’s
cars befriends his wife; and then there is Jordon, who is presented as a dishonest golf pro.
CADENCE

• Cadence is derived from a Latin word “cadentia” that

means “a falling”. It is the term used to signal the rising
and falling of the voice when reading a literary piece. In
poetry, it is the momentary changes in rhythm and pitch.
Cadences help set the rhythmic paces of a literary piece.
Types of Cadence

• Most of the cadence examples in literature fall under either

one of these:
• 1. Imperfect or half cadence – In poetry, a half cadence is a
pause. Half cadence is represented with a comma and semi-colon in
poetry and prose. This rhythm does not sound final and often the
lines end with indecisive tension.
• 2. Perfect or authentic cadence – It comes at the end of the
phrase in a poem.
Function of Cadence

• Cadence is a musical movement. It can be described by melodic,

rhythmic or harmonic characteristics. It is used to establish sectional
articulation and closure. However, the basic purpose of cadence is a
communicative function that indicates to the listeners when a part
ends and therefore helps them elucidate the formal composition of
the piece.
• Cadences are used in poetry and in music where they sync with a
variety of musical idioms. Poets use cadence to put rhythm in their
poems. Cadence plays a significant role in making the sounds and
the senses in a poem connect to each other.
Examples of Cadence in
Literature
“The curved cane chair has dented cushions, the cats
Catch spiders and craneflies on the wardrobe tops,
The guitar lies in its funeral case, the road is quiet,
The apple trees have dropped their fruit in the grass;
Rain is coming in from the west; the garden is lush and damp,
The draught is over, and the day is at the eleventh hour,
Sleep is nearly here on fern-patterned pillowcases,
Books slither to the floor, cats is stretched on the quit;”
(Painting of a Bedroom with Cats by Elizabeth Bartlett)
INTERPRETATION

• In this poem, cadence appears in the middle of the fourth

line of each stanza that gives the speech a pause. This
pause is shown by a semi-colon. It also gives a momentary
variation to the rhythm of poem.
COMPARISON
• Comparison is a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer
compares or contrasts two people, places, things, or ideas. In our
everyday life, we compare people and things to express ourselves
vividly. So when we say, “as lazy as a snail,” you compare two
different entities to show similarity i.e. someone’s laziness to the
slow pace of a snail.
• Comparisons occur in literary works frequently. Writers and poets
use comparison in order to link their feelings about a thing to
something they compare it with. There are numerous devices in
literature that compare two different things to show the similarity
between them e.g. simile, metaphor, analogy etc.
Function of Comparison

• The above examples of comparison help us realize that in general,

writers utilize different kinds of comparisons to link an unfamiliar or
a new idea to common and familiar objects. It facilitates readers to
comprehend a new idea, which may have been difficult for them to
understand otherwise. The understanding of a new idea turns out to
be simpler when viewed with a comparison to something that is
familiar to them. In addition, by making use of various literary tools
for comparison, writers increase their chance of catching the
attention and interest of their readers, as comparisons help them
identify what they are reading to their lives.
CLICHÉ/TRITE
• Used of overused utterances
• refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its
original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events which
are predictable because of some previous events.
• All examples of Cliché are expressions that were once new and
fresh. They won popularity in public and hence have been used so
extensively that such expressions now sound boring and at times
irritable due to the fact that they have lost their original color. For
instance, the phrase “as red as a rose” must have been a fresh and
innovative expression at some point in time but today it is
considered universally as a cliché and does not sound good to be
Function of Cliché
• A cliché is a traditional form of human expression (in words,
thoughts, emotions, gestures, acts) which–due to repetitive use in
social life–has lost its original, often ingenious heuristic power.
Although it thus fails positively to contribute meaning to social
interactions and communication, it does function socially, since it
manages to stimulate behavior (cognition, emotion, volition, action),
while it avoids reflection on meanings.
Common Cliché Examples
• In describing time, the following expressions have turned into cliché
• in the nick of time – to happen just in time
• only time will tell – to become clear over time
• a matter of time – to happen sooner or later
• at the speed of light – to do something very quickly
• lasted an eternity – to last for a very long time
• lost track of time – to stop paying attention to time
Common Cliché Examples
• In describing people, these expressions have turned into
cliché
• as brave as a lion – a cliché to describe a very brave person
• as clever as a fox – a cliché to describe a very clever person
• as old as the hills – a cliché to describe an old person
• a diamond in the rough – a cliché to describe someone with a
brilliant future
• fit as a fiddle – a cliché to describe a person in a good shape
• as meek as a lamb – a cliché to describe a person who is too weak
Common Cliché Examples
• In describing various sentiments, a number of expressions have turned into cliché e.g.
• frightened to death – to be too frightened
• scared out of one’s wits – to be too frightened
• all is fair in love and war – to go to any extent to claim somebody’s love
• all is well that ends well – a happy ending reduces the severity of problems that come
in the way
• every cloud has a silver lining – problems also have something good in them
• the writing on the wall – something clear and already understood
• time heals all wounds – pain and miseries get will with the passage of time
• haste makes waste – people make mistakes in a rush
Common Cliché Examples
• Below is a list of some more common clichés:
• They all lived happily ever after.
• Read between the lines
• Fall head over heals
• Waking up on the wrong side of the bed
• The quiet before the storm
• Between the devil and the deep blue sea
DOUBLE NEGATIVE

• A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a

phrase or a figure of speech that might have multiple senses,
interpretations or two different meanings or that could be
understood in two different ways.
• it “conveys an indelicate meaning”. The first meaning in
double entendre is usually straightforward while the
second meaning is ironic, risqué or inappropriate.
Function of Double Entendre
• As double entendre is a phrase that expresses double meanings, the
purpose of using double entendre is usually to articulate one thing
perfectly and indirectly (which is generally an insult, or an
insinuation). Shakespeare made use of this device to add humor to
his work. If the audience are able to understand the different
meanings that the actors or characters are trying to convey, double
entendre will surely create laughter or to put forward a suggestion
to the audiences.
Double Entendre Examples

• “Marriage is a fine institution, but I’m not ready for an institution”

• “Nobody has hurt me. Nobody is going to kill me.”
• “They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them
worse.”
EPIGRAM

• a rhetorical device that is a memorable, brief, interesting and

surprising satirical statement. It has originated from a Greek word,
epigramma, meaning inscription or to inscribe.
• Often ingenious or witty statements are considered as epigrams
such as this quote by Eleanor Roosevelt, “No one can make you feel
inferior without your consent.”
• Oscar Wilde used an epigram, “As long as war is regarded as wicked,
it will always have its fascination. When it is looked upon as vulgar,
it will cease to be popular.”
• Both of these epigrams are not only interesting and brief but also
Function of Epigram

• Epigram is a clever and witty statement expressed in just a few

lines, pointing out foibles and truths of mankind. This is very
common in poetry, but we also find it in prose, film, fiction writing,
politics and everyday speeches. Epigrams serve the same purpose as
do maxims and proverbs. However, the main purpose of using such
statements is to leave a positive impression on the audience, as they
demonstrate pure humor coupled with wisdom. Besides, writers use
this literary device to cause the listeners and readers to think deeply
about their statements.
Common Used of Epigram
• Below are some popular examples of epigram used in common speech:
• “Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put and end to mankind.” – John F. Kennedy
• “It is better to light a candle than curse the darkness.” – Eleanor Roosevelt
• “A word to the wise ain’t necessary; it’s the stupid ones who need all the advice.” – Bill
Cosby
• “If we don’t end war, war will end us.” – H.G. Wells
• “Live simply, so that others may simply live.” – Mother Teresa
• “I’m starting with the man in the mirror.” – Michael Jackson
• “This is the moment when we must come together to save this planet. Let us resolve that
we will not leave our children a world where the oceans rise and famine spreads and
terrible storms devastate our lands.” – Barack Obama
• “Blessed are the peacemakers.” – Jesus Christ
EPITHET

• An adjective expressive of the character of

someone or something
• a descriptive literary device that describes a place,
a thing or a person in such a way that it helps in
making the characteristics of a person, thing or
place more prominent than they actually are. Also,
it is known as a by-name or descriptive title.
Types of Epithet
• Kenning as Epithet
Kenning examples may also be considered as epithet examples. Kenning is a type of an
epithet, which is a two-word phrase that describes an object by employing metaphors.
• The Fixed Epithet
Fixed epithets are found in epic poetry that involves the repetitive use of a phrase or word for
the same object. Such as in Homer’s Odyssey, the wife is “prudent”, Odysseus himself as
“many–minded” and their son Telemachus as “sound-minded”.
• Argumentative Epithet
Expert orators use argumentative epithets. Short arguments use this type of epithet to give
hints.
• Epithet used as Smear Word
An epithet used as a smear word means a derogatory word or name for someone or
something.
Function of Epithet

• With the use of epithets, writers are able to describe the characters
and settings more vividly in order to give richer meanings to the
text. Since they are used as a literary tool, they help in making the
description of someone or something broader and hence easier to
understand. With the help of epithets, the writers and poets develop
suitable images in fewer words. Besides, the metaphorical use of
epithets helps in making the poetry and prose vibrant and strong.
Common Examples of Epithet
• Magsaysay – Man of the Masses
• Mother Teresa – The Living Saint
• Baguio – The Summer Capital of the Philippines
• Apolinario Mabini – The Brains of the Revolution
• Alexander the Great
• coloured counties - “coloured” is an epithet used to describe the pleasant and
beautiful spring season in those countries where the poet wishes to enjoy his
beloved’s company.
EUPHEMISM/SUGAR COATING
• Use of inoffensive word for seemingly offensive ones
• refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and
phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something
unpleasant.
• Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal
meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its
unpleasantness.
• Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers
and writers where they feel the need to replace certain words which
may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a
particular situation.
Function of Euphemism

• Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have

become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to
mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate
words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which
otherwise are not published due to strict social censorship
e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death
etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to
write figuratively about the libelous issues.
Techniques for Creating Euphemism
• Euphemism masks a rude or impolite expression but conveys the concept clearly and
politely. Several techniques are employed to create euphemism.
• It may be in the form of abbreviations e.g. B.O. (body odor), W.C. (toilet) etc.
• Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression e.g. faux (fake), or faux pas
(foolish error) etc.
• Sometimes, they are abstractions e.g. before I go (before I die).
• They may also be indirect expressions replacing direct ones which may sound offensive
e.g. rear-end, unmentionables etc.
• Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words e.g. flatulence for farting,
perspiration for sweat, mentally challenged for stupid etc.
• Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by words e.g. gluteus maximus.
• Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity e.g. darn, shoot
etc.
Euphemism Examples in Everyday Life

• You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).

• Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
• He is always tired and emotional (drunk).
• We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
• He is a special child (disabled or retarded).
EPISTROPHE
• derived from a Greek word that means turning upon, which
indicates the same word returns at the end of each sentence
• Epistrophe is a stylistic device that can be defined as the repetition
of phrases or words at the end of the clauses or sentences.
• It is also called epiphora.
• Epistrophe examples are frequently found in literary pieces, in
persuasive writing and speeches.
EPISTROPHE
• the reverse of anaphora or the opposite where repeated words are
at the terminal lines
• Function of Epistrophe
• The rhetorical function of this stylistic device is to give a striking
emphasis to an idea, a thought or a passage. The repetition helps in
making the words memorable and pleasurable due to the regular
rhyme scheme. Also, it furnishes the artistic effects both in prose as
well as in poetry. In addition, it lends rhythm to the text and appeals
to the emotions of the readers.
EXAMPLE

• Tell me who your companions are, and I shall tell you who you are
• The rebel dresses in fantastic clothes, when everybody wears
fantastic clothes
• When everybody goes to the meeting, the rebel stays at home
and reads a book.
• When everybody says , yes please!, the rebel says , No thank you.
• Hourly joys be still upon you! Juno sings her blessings on you. . . .
Scarcity and want shall shun you,
Ceres’ blessing so is on you.”
ENTHYMEME

• An argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker

omits one of the major or minor premises, does not clearly
pronounce it, or keeps this premise implied is called enthymeme.
However, the omitted premise in enthymeme remains
understandable even if is not clearly expressed.
• For instance, “Where there is smoke, there is fire.” (The hidden
premise: The smoke causes fire.)
• Enthymeme is a rhetorical device like syllogism, and is known as
truncated or rhetoric syllogism. Its purpose is to influence the
audience and allow them to make inferences. They can be easily
recognized, as these statements comes after “because.”
Function of Enthymeme

• The usage of enthymeme is very common in advertisements,

political speeches and literature. It makes the readers work out
their own conclusions and nudges them further to read the text to
get a clearer picture of the premise or an idea. By forcing the
readers to take a final step, it strengthens the argument of the
writer. Often enthymemes help to hide the underlying idea upon
which a major argument relies. In addition, the purpose of using an
enthymeme is to persuade the readers by using implied arguments.
Popular Examples of Enthymene

• “Senator, I served with Jack Kennedy. I knew Jack Kennedy. Jack

Kennedy was a friend of mine. Senator, you’re no Jack Kennedy.”
(The hidden premise: Jack Kennedy was a great man, but you are not.)
• He could not have committed this heinous crime. I have known him
since he was a child.
(The hidden premise: He is innocent by nature and, therefore, can never be a
criminal)
FALSE ANALOGY

• An elaborate comparison of two dissimilar things

• Example:
• There has to be life on other planets because as of today no one has
been able to conclusively prove that there is no life.
HYPERBOLE

• derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting”

• is a figure of speech, which involves an exaggeration of
ideas for the sake of emphasis.
• It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance,
when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed
since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three or four
hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this
statement to add emphasis to your wait.  
• Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the
real situation.
Function of Hyperbole

• The above arguments make clear the use of hyperbole. In our daily
conversation, we use hyperbole to emphasize for an amusing effect.
However, in literature it has very serious implications. By using
hyperbole, a writer or a poet makes common human feelings
remarkable and intense to such an extent that they do not remain
ordinary. In literature, usage of hyperbole develops contrasts. When
one thing is described with an over-statement and the other thing is
presented normally, a striking contrast is developed. This technique
is employed to catch the reader’s attention.
Common Examples of
Hyperbole
• My grandmother is as old as the hills.
• Your suitcase weighs a ton!
• She is as heavy as an elephant!
• I am dying of shame.
• I am trying to solve a million issues these days.
• Walking stick could mean a thin person
• Match box mean a bungalow
• Chicken feed is a form of underestimating a big sum
INVECTIVE
• denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a
person, topic, or institution. It involves the use of abusive and
negative use of language. The tool of invective is generally employed
in both poetry and prose to reiterate the significance of the deeply
felt emotions of the writer.
• The use of violent language
Functions of Invective

• Invective is one of the most commonly used devices in the modern

poetic framework. The tool of invective can be used in a variety of
ways to highlight the depth of the writer’s emotions for the cause at
hand. For instance, the use of high invective involves formal
language and creative expression which creates an entirely different
impact than that of low invective, which concerns with the value of
stock words and images. The tool of invective also acts as an
opportunity for the speaker to convey his heartfelt bitter emotions in
respect of people in power or other such annoyances. Invective is
not, however, a powerful tool of persuasion as sometimes is thought
but is a device employed to get a sort of reaction from the
interlocutor.
Invective Examples in Prose

• “A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow,

beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking
knave… and art nothing but the composition of a knave, beggar,
coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel bitch…”
• “I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most
pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to
crawl upon the surface of the earth.”
• Common examples: Shut up!, Scoundrel!, Step out!
IMAGERY

• means to use figurative language to represent objects,

actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our
physical senses.
• Usually it is thought that imagery makes use of particular
words that create visual representation of ideas in our
minds. The word imagery is associated with mental
pictures. However, this idea is but partially correct.
Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than
just a picture.
Function of Imagery

• The function of imagery in literature is to generate a

vibrant and graphic presentation of a scene that appeals
to as many of the reader’s senses as possible. It aids the
reader’s imagination to envision the characters and
scenes in the literary piece clearly. Apart from the above
mentioned function, images , which are drawn by using
figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification,
onomatopoeia etc. serve the function of beautifying a
piece of literature.
Examples of Imagery
• It was dark and dim in the forest. – The words “dark” and “dim” are visual
images.
• The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. – “Screaming” and
“shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing or auditory sense.
• He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. – “whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of
smell or olfactory sense.
• The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. – The idea of “soft” in this example
appeals to our sense of touch or tactile sense.
• The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet. – “ juicy” and “sweet” when
associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste or gustatory sense.
IRONY

• is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way

that their intended meaning is different from the actual
meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may
end up in quite a different way than what is generally
anticipated.
• In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance
and the reality.
• Is used to stress on the opposite meaning of a word.
• When people are looking to be SARCASTIC/SARCASM,
Types of Irony

• 1. VERBAL IRONY - A verbal irony involves what one does not mean.
• When in response to a foolish idea, we say, “what a great
idea!” 
• 2. A situational irony occurs when, for instance, a man is
chuckling at the misfortune of the other even when the
same misfortune, in complete unawareness, is befalling
him.
Difference between Dramatic Irony and Situational Irony

• Dramatic Irony is a kind of irony in a situation, which the writers

frequently employ in their works.
• In situational irony, both the characters and the audience are fully
unaware of the implications of the real situation.
• In dramatic irony, the characters are oblivious of the situation but
the audience is not.
• For example, in “Romeo and Juliet”, we know much before the
characters that they are going to die.
In real life circumstances, irony may be comical, bitter or sometimes
unbearably offensive.
Function of Irony

• Like all other figures of speech, Irony brings about some added
meanings to a situation.
• Ironical statements and situations in literature develop readers’
interest.
• Irony makes a work of literature more intriguing and forces the
readers to use their imagination and comprehend the underlying
meanings of the texts.
• Moreover, real life is full of ironical expressions and situations.
Therefore, the use of irony brings a work of literature closer to the
life.
Common Examples of Irony

• I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube

is.
• The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny”.
• You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the
next thing you know, you slipped too.
• The butter is as soft as a marble piece.
• “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”
• “Go ask his name: if he be married.
My grave is like to be my wedding bed.”
IDIOM

• The term refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or

more words.
• An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not
interpreted literally.
• The phrase is understood as to mean something quite different from
what individual words of the phrase would imply.
• Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a
figurative sense.
• Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries.
Functions of Idiom

• Writers and public speakers use idioms generously. The purpose

behind this vast use of idioms is to ornate their language, make it
richer and spicier and help them in conveying subtle meanings to
their intended audience.
Not only do idioms help in making the language beautiful, they also
make things better or worse through making the expression good or
bad. For example, there are several idioms that convey the death of
a person in highly subtle meanings and some do the same in very
offensive terms. They are also said to be exact and more correct
than the literal words and sometimes a few words are enough to
replace a full sentence. They help the writer make his sense clearer
than it is, so that he could convey maximum meanings through
Functions of Idiom

• It has also been seen that idioms not only convey subtle meanings
but also convey a phenomenon that is not being conveyed through
normal and everyday language and also they keep the balance in the
communication. Furthermore, they provide textual coherence, so
that the reader could be able to piece together a text that he has
gone through and extract meanings the writer has conveyed.
EXAMPLES
• There’s a supermarket and a pharmacy in the mall, so if we go there, we can kill two
birds with one stone.
• A chip on your shoulder - means you are holding a grudge
• High as a kite - means you are drunk or on drugs
• Sick as a dog - means you are very ill
• “The blues” can refer to both a style of music and feeling sad.
• “Out of the blue” means something happens that was unexpected.
• “Break a leg” means good luck.
• If you say, “it takes two to tango” you mean that more than one person is at fault or involved.
• Being “in the spotlight” means you are the center of attention.
JARGON

• Use of secret language

• Jargon is a literary term that is defined as a use of specific phrases
and words by writers in a particular situation, profession or trade.
• These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings
accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in
literary and non-literary pieces of writing.
JARGON

• The use of jargon becomes essential in prose or verse or some

technical pieces of writing when the writer intends to convey
something only to the readers who are aware of these terms.
• Therefore, jargon was taken in early times as a trade language or as
a language of a specific profession, as it is somewhat unintelligible
for other people who do not belong to that particular profession.
• In fact, specific terms were developed to meet the needs of the
group of people working within the same field or occupation.
Jargon and Slang

• Jargon sometimes is wrongly confused with Slang and people often

take it in the same sense but a difference is always there.
• Slang is a type of informal category of a certain language developed
within a certain community and consists of words or phrases whose
literal meanings are different than the actual meanings. Hence, it is
not understood by people outside of that community or circle. Slang
is more common in spoken language than written.
Jargon and Slang

• Jargon, on the other hand, is broadly associated

with a subject, occupation or business that makes
use of standard words or phrases frequently
comprising of abbreviations e.g. HTH, LOL.
However, unlike slang, its terms are developed and
composed deliberately for the convenience of a
specific section of society.
Function of Jargon

• The use of jargon is significant in prose and verse. It seems

unintelligible to the people who do not know the meanings.
Examples of jargon used in literature are used to emphasize a
situation or to refer to something exotic to the readers or audience.
• In fact, the use of jargon in literature shows the dexterity of the
writer of having knowledge of other spheres.
• Writers use jargon to make a certain character a real one in fiction
as well as in plays and poetry.
Examples of Jargon

• Medical Jargon
• These are some examples of commonly used medical abbreviations and terminology.
➠STAT - Immediately
➠ABG - Arterial Blood Gas
➠Vitals - Vital signs
➠C-Section - Cesarean Section
➠Claudication - Limping caused by a reduction in blood supply to the legs
➠CAT/CT Scan - Computerized Axial Tomography
➠MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging
➠BP - Blood Pressure
➠FX - Bone Fracture
Examples of Jargon
• Computer Jargon
• Most of these examples are abbreviations, which can be likened to a shorthand code for the
computer literate and the Internet savvy.
➠FAQs - Frequently Asked Questions
➠CYA - See you around
➠RAM - Random Access Memory
➠GB - Gigabyte
➠ROM - Read-only Memory
➠Backup - Duplicate a file
➠BFF - Best Friends Forever
➠HTH - Hope This Helps
Examples of Jargon

• Military Jargon
The following are some military jargon examples.
➠AWOL - Away without official leave
➠BOHICA - Bend over, here it comes again
➠SOP - Standard Operating Procedure
➠AAA - Anti-aircraft Artillery
➠UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
➠11 Bravo - Infantry
➠WHOA - War Heroes of America
➠Fatigues - Camouflage uniforms
➠TD - Temporary Duty
➠SAM - Surface-to-Air missile
Law Enforcement Jargon

• Law Enforcement Jargon

• The following are some examples.
➠APB - All Points Bulletin
➠B&E - Breaking and Entering
➠DUI - Driving Under the Influence
➠CSI - Crime Scene Investigation
➠Clean Skin - A person without a police record
➠Miranda - Warning given during an arrest, advising about constitutional rights to
remain silent and the right to legal aid.
➠Perp - Perpetrator
➠Social - Social Security Number
Law Enforcement Jargon

• Business Jargon
The corporate world isn't far behind when it comes to developing
words and phrases that mean little to others. Business jargon
includes a lot of words and abbreviations, which change even from
department to department.
• Here are a few.

➠Ear to Ear - Let's discuss in detail over the phone

➠In Loop - Keep me updated continuously
➠Helicopter view - Overview
➠Boil the ocean - Try for the impossible
Other Common Examples of Jargon

• ➠UFO - Unidentified Flying Object

➠Poker face - A blank expression
➠Back burner - Something low in priority, putting something off till
a later date
➠On Cloud nine - Very happy
➠Sweet tooth - A great love of all things sweet
➠Ballpark figure - A numerical estimated value
➠Gumshoe/Private Eye - Detective
➠Shrink - Psychiatrist
➠Slammer - Jail
LITOTES

• derived from a Greek word meaning “simple”,

• is a figure of speech which employs an understatement by using
double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed
by negating its opposite expressions.
• It is a contrast to hyperbole, in that it implies humility
Function of Litotes

• Litotes uses ironical understatement in order to emphasize an idea

or situation rather than minimizing its importance. It rather
discovers a unique way to attract people’s attention to an idea and
that is by ignoring it.
• J.R. Bergmann in his book “Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional
Settings” talks about litotes in the following words: “I want
to claim that the rhetorical figure litotes is one of those methods
which are used to talk about an object in a discreet way. It clearly
locates an object for the recipient, but it avoids naming it directly.”
• This is the best that has ever been said about litotes – that to ignore
an object and still talk about it in a negative way is the best way to
Common Litotes Examples

• They do not seem the happiest couple around.

• The ice cream was not too bad.
• New York is not an ordinary city.
• Your comments on politics are not useless.
• You are not as young as you used to be.
• I cannot disagree with your point of view.
• William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all.
Common Litotes Examples

• He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.

• She is not unlike her mother.
• Ken Adams is not an ordinary man
• A million dollars is not a little amount.
• You are not doing badly at all.
• Your apartment is not unclean.
METAPHOR

• is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or

hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some
common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or
different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics.
• In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action
as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something
else,” you are speaking metaphorically. “He is the black sheep of the family” is
a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can
use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that
person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the
herd, and the person you are describing shares similar characteristics.
METAPHOR

• Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison which is different

from a simile.
• we do not use “like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor.
• It actually makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an
explicit one.
Functions

• From the above arguments, explanations and examples, we can

easily infer the function of metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a
piece of literature.
• Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of
listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend
what is being communicated to them.
• Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the
characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of
thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of
examining ideas and viewing the world.
Common Speech Examples of Metaphors

• My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)

• The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment
was not difficult.)
• It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear
skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships)
• The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat;
therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard
for him.)
• Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes
him feel happy)
METONYMY

• It is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing

with the name of something else with which it is closely
associated.
• We can come across examples of metonymy both from
literature and in everyday life.
Function of Metonymy

• Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it

gives more profound meanings to otherwise common ideas and
objects. By using metonymy, texts exhibit deeper or hidden meanings
and thus drawing readers’ attention.  In addition, the use of
metonymy helps achieve conciseness. For instance, “Rifles were
guarding the gate” is more concise than “The guards with rifles in
their hands were guarding the gate.”
• Furthermore, metonymy, like other literary devices, is employed to
add a poetic color to words to make them come to life. The simple
ordinary things are described in a creative way to insert this “life”
factor to the literary works.
Examples of Metonymy

• England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to

the government.)
• The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and
sword to military force.)
• The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The Oval Office” is a metonymy
as it stands for people at work in the office.)
• Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)
ONOMATPOEIA

• defined as a word, which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It

creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the
description more expressive and interesting.
• For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the forest” is a
more meaningful description than just saying, “The stream flows in
the forest.” The reader is drawn to hear the sound of a “gushing
stream” which makes the expression more effective.
• In addition to the sound they represent, many onomatopoeic words
have developed meanings of their own. For example, “whisper” not
only represents the sound of people talking quietly, but also
describes the action of people talking quietly
Function of Onomatopoeia

• Generally, words are used to tell what is happening. Onomatopoeia,

on the other hand, helps the readers to hear the sounds the words
they reflect. Hence, the reader cannot help but enter the world
created by the poet with the aid of these words. The beauty of
onomatopoeic words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an
effect on the readers’ senses whether they are understood or not.
Moreover, a simple plain expression does not have the same
emphatic effect that conveys an idea powerfully to the readers. The
use of onomatopoeic words helps create emphasis.
Common Examples of Onomatopoeia

• The buzzing bee flew away.

• The sack fell into the river with a splash.
• The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
• He looked at the roaring sky.
• The rustling leaves kept me awake.
Groups of Onomatopoeic Words

• A group of words reflecting different sounds of water are; plop,

splash, gush, sprinkle, drizzle, drip etc.
• Different kinds of human voice sounds; growl, giggle, grunt, murmur,
blurt, chatter etc.
• Different sounds of wind, such as; swish, swoosh, whiff, whoosh,
whizz, whisper etc.
OXYMORON

• is a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined

to create an effect
• The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective
proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, e.g. “cruel
kindness” or “living death”.
• However, the contrasting words/phrases are not always glued
together.
• The contrasting ideas may be spaced out in a sentence, e.g. “In order
to lead, you must walk behind.”
Function of Oxymoron

• Oxymoron produces a dramatic effect in both prose as well as

poetry. For instance, when we read or hear the famous oxymoron,
“sweet sorrow”, crafted by Shakespeare, it appeals to us instantly. It
provokes our thoughts and makes us ponder on the meaning of
contradicting ideas. This apparently confusing phrase expresses a
complex nature of love that could never be expressed through any
other simple expression.
• In everyday conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to
make some deep statement like the one mentioned above. Instead,
they do it to show wit. The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their
speech.
Common Examples of Oxymoron

• Open secret
• Tragic comedy
• Seriously funny
• Awfully pretty
• Foolish wisdom
• Original copies
• Liquid gas
PERSONIFICATION
• is a figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an animal is given
human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a
way that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings.
• For example, when we say, “The sky weeps” we are giving the sky
the ability to cry, which is a human quality. Thus, we can say that the
sky has been personified in the given sentence.
Function of Personification

• Personification is not merely a decorative device but it serves the

purpose of giving deeper meanings to literary texts.
• It adds vividness to expressions as we always look at the world from
a human perspective.
• Writers and poets rely on personification to bring inanimate things to
life, so that their nature and actions are understood in a better way.
• Because it is easier for us to relate to something that is human or
that possesses human traits. Its use encourages us to develop a
perspective that is new as well as creative.
Common Examples of
Personification
• Look at my car. She is a beauty, isn’t it so?
• The wind whispered through dry grass.
• The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.
• Time and tide waits for none.
• The fire swallowed the entire forest.
• A dictionary is referred to as Mr. Webster
• The environment is referred to as Mother Nature
• Luck is referred to as Mr. Fortune
• Love is referred to as Mr. Cupid
PARADOX

• The term Paradox is from the Greek word “paradoxon” that

means contrary to expectations, existing belief or
perceived opinion.
• It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or
silly but may include a latent truth. It is also used to
illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted
traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader
think over an idea in innovative way.
Function of Paradox
• the chief purpose of a paradox is to give pleasure.
• In poetry, the use of paradox is not confined to mere wit and pleasure; rather, it
becomes an integral part of poetic diction. Poets usually make use of a paradox to
create a remarkable thought or image out of words.
• Some types of paradox in poetry are meant to communicate a tone
of irony to its readers as well as lead their thoughts to the immediate
subject.
• Paradox in most poems normally strives to create feelings of intrigue
and interest in readers’ minds to make them think deeper and harder
to enjoy the real message of the poem.
Examples of Paradox

• Your enemy’s friend is your enemy.

• I am nobody.
• “What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.” – George
Bernard Shaw
• Wise fool
• Truth is honey which is bitter.
• “I can resist anything but temptation.” – Oscar Wilde
• The only difference between a madman and myself is that I am not
mad.
PUN

• is a play on words in which a humorous effect is produced by using a

word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar
sounding words having different meanings.
• Humorous effects created by puns depend upon the ambiguities
words entail. The ambiguities arise mostly in homophones and
homonyms.
• For instance, in a sentence “A happy life depends on a liver”, liver
can refer to the organ liver or simply the person who lives.
• Similarly, in a famous saying “Atheism is a non-prophet institution”
the word “prophet” is used instead of “profit” to produce a
Function of Pun

• Apart from being witty and humorous, puns add profound

meanings to texts and shape the way in which the text is
interpreted by the readers.
• By playing with the words, the writers reveal their
cleverness and the cleverness of their characters.
• Besides, puns in a literary works act as a source of comic
relief or an intentional effort on the part of the writer to
show his/her creative ability in using language.
Common Pun Examples

• In everyday life, pun examples are found intentionally or accidentally used

in jokes and witty remarks. Such as:
• The life of a patient of hypertension is always at steak.
• Why do we still have troops in Germany? To keep the Russians in Czech.
• A horse is a very stable animal.
• Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana.
• An elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight.
• What is the difference between a conductor and a teacher? The
conductor minds the train and a teacher trains the mind.
PALINDROME

• derived from two Greek words “palin” means again and “dromos”
means way or direction. It is defined as a number, a word, a
sentence, a symbol or even signs that can be read forward as well as
backward or in reserve order with the same effects and meanings.
• In English, Ben Jonson was the first writer to introduce this term in
the middle of the 17th century.
• There are two types of palindrome; word-unit palindrome or one-line
palindrome.
• Some words such as civic, radar, level, rotor, and noon or word-unit
palindrome,
Types of Palindromes

• Palindromes are of many types, depending upon the requirements of the

subject. The most commonly used types of palindromes are given here:
• Character by Character
• Name Palindromes
• Word Palindrome
• Number Palindromes
• Line-unit Palindrome
• Word-unit Palindrome
Function

• The purpose of using palindromes in writing, words, numbers and sentences is to

create light entertainment and fun. However, some supporters have taken great
initiatives in finding long palindromes that cover many sentences and in poetry. In
ancient times the palindromes appeared in magic spells, and many have taken this
reversibility as a convention.
• Palindromes can be traced in classical and modern music poetry for rhythmical
effects, in acoustics and in dates as well. Even several religious texts are full of
palindromes and it is not just a chance that biologically our genes are also
palindromes that their order is the same; forward as well as backward. A further
interesting point is that numbers also fall in order to create palindromes such as
88, 99, 101, 111, 121, 131, 141, 151, 161, and 171 which can be read backward
and forward in the same way.
Some famous names as fine palindrome examples:

• Lon Nol was a  was Prime Minister of Cambodia

• Nisio Isin was a Japanese novelist
• Robert Trebor was an actor
• Stanley Yelnats is a character of  a movie Holes
PARALIPSIS

•  from the Greek word paraleipein that means to omit or to

leave something on one side. It is defined as a rhetorical
device in which an idea is deliberately suggested through a
brief treatment of a subject, while most of the significant
points are omitted. It is explained through the use of this
device that some points are too obvious to mention. Also,
paralipsis is a way of emphasizing a subject by apparently
passing over it.
Features of Paralipsis

• Paralipsis is a literary device in which a speaker pretends

to hide what he exactly wants to say and enforce. It is a
type of irony in which an outline of a message is conveyed
in a manner that seems to suppress the exact message.
• Paraliptic strike-through is a form of paralipsis.
• It is a standard rhetorical device in journalism and print
media.
Function of Paralipsis

• The purpose of the employment of Paralipsis is to deliberately emphasize or

assert an idea by pretending to ignore or pass over it.
• Paralipsis examples are very common in literary works, journalism and
political speeches.
• The orators use this device to draw the attention of readers towards a
sensitive matter while the orator ostensibly seems detached from it. Often,
descriptive works that lack the direct meaning of an idea use paralipsis.
• Besides, as a rhetorical device, its approach is ironic because the intentions
of writers are different. However, writers use paralipsis in order to keep
themselves away from unfair claims, though they bring them up quite often.
EXAMPLE

• I’m not saying I’m responsible for this country’s longest

run of uninterrupted peace in 35 years! I’m not saying
that from the ashes of captivity, never has a
Phoenix metaphor been more personified! I’m not saying
Uncle Sam can kick back on a lawn chair, sipping on
an iced tea, because I haven’t come across any one man
enough to go toe to toe with me on my best day!”
POLYSYNDETON

• Polysyndeton is a stylistic device in which several coordinating

conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic
effect.
• Polysyndeton examples are found in literature and in day-to-day
conversations.
• The term polysyndeton comes from a Greek word meaning “bound
together”. It makes use of coordinating conjunctions like “and”, “or”,
“but” and “nor” (mostly and and or) which are used to join successive
words, phrases or clauses in such a way that these conjunctions are
even used where they might have been omitted. 
Function of Polysyndeton

• Polysyndeton performs several functions. Not only does it

join words, phrases and clauses and thus brings continuity
in a sentence, but it acts also as a stylistic device, brings
rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in
quick succession. It is also employed as a tool to lay
emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect.
Polysyndeton Example

• “And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son
of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of
gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his
asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had.”
(The Bible)
PARALLELISM

• is the use of components in a sentence that are

grammatically the same; or similar in their construction,
sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found
in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations.
• This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences giving
ideas a smoother flow and thus can be persuasive because
of the repetition it employs.
Function of Parallelism

• The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a
consistency within their work and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be
employed as a tool for persuasion as well because of the repetition it uses.
• Common Parallelism Examples
“Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts.”
• “Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you.”
• Like father, like son.
• The escaped prisoner was wanted dead or alive.
• Easy come, easy go.
• Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy.
• Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe.
PARENTHESIS

• is a stylistic device that comes from a Greek word, meaning to

place or alongside. 
• Parenthesis is a qualifying or explanatory sentence, clause or word
that writers insert into a paragraph or passage. However, if they
leave it out, even then grammatically the it does not affect the text
that is correct without it. Writers mark them off by round and square
brackets or by commas, dashes, little lines and brackets.
• As far as its purpose is concerned, this verbal unit provides extra
information, interrupts syntactic flow of words, and allows the
readers to pay attention on explanation. However, the overuse of
parenthesis may make sentences look ambiguous and poorly
Function of Parenthesis

• Parenthesis makes the statements more convincing, as it puts the

readers in a right form from the very beginning where they read it as
an explanation. However, its main function is to give more
explanation and add emphasis, while its repeated use can cause
focus and thus makes parenthetical insertions as a dominant feature
of a sentence. It also offers the readers an insight into true feelings
and opinions of characters and narrators, while they might tend to
evade parenthetical information as unimportant. Doing this,
parenthesis could leave them clueless to the actual purpose of a
sentence. In addition, often it creates humorous effect by
using hyperbole and understatements.
Parenthesis Examples

• —Even losing you (the joking voice, a gesture

I love) I shan’t have lied. It’s evident
the art of losing’s not too hard to master
though it may look like (Write it!) like disaster.
• “It is now necessary to warn you that your concern for the reader
must be pure: you must sympathize with the reader’s plight (most
readers are in trouble about half the time) but never seek to know
the reader’s wants. Your whole duty as a writer is to please and
satisfy yourself…”
RHETORICAL QUESTION/ RHETORIC

• is a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in

spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and
employs various methods to convince, influence or please
an audience.
• For instance, a person gets on your nerves, you start feeling
irritated, and you say, “Why don’t you leave me alone?” By posing
such a question, you do not ask for a reason. Instead, you simply
want him to stop irritating you. Thus, you direct language in a
particular way for effective communication or make use of rhetoric.
A situation where you make use of rhetoric is called a “rhetorical
situation”.
Function of Rhetoric

• Rhetoric, as explained above, is a tool for writers and orators which

empowers them to convince their readers and listeners about
their point of view. Often, we find rhetoric examples in religious
sermons and political speeches. They aim to make comparisons, to
evoke tender emotions, to censure rivals and all this is done to
persuade listeners.
• Advertisers give their ads a touch of rhetoric to boost their sales by
convincing people that their product is better than other products
in the market. For instance, in an advertisement, a girl – after
shampooing her hair – says, “I can’t stop touching my hair.” This is
an attempt to entice consumers, through visual rhetoric, to have
Common Rhetoric Examples

• “I am never ever going to rob anyone for you and never, never ever give in to your sinful
wish.”
• The repetition in the above example does lay emphasis on the statement but does not alter
the sense of it.
• How did this idiot get elected? – A rhetorical question to convince others that the “idiot”
does not deserve to be elected.
• Here comes the Helen of our school. – An allusion to “Helen of Troy” to emphasize the
beauty of a girl.
• I would die if you asked me to sing in front of my parents – A hyperbole to persuade others
not to use force to make you do something which you don’t want to do.
• All blonde-haired people are dumb. – Using a stereotype to develop a general opinion about a
group.
SIMILE

• is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing

similarities between two different things. Unlike a 
metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the
words “like” or “as”. Therefore, it is a direct comparison.
• We can find simile examples in our daily speech. We often
hear comments like “John is as slow as a snail.” Snails are
notorious for their slow pace and here the slowness of John
is compared to that of a snail. The use of “as” in the
example helps to draw the resemblance.
Common Examples of Simile

• Our soldiers are as brave as lions.

• Her cheeks are red like a rose.
• He is as funny as a monkey.
• The water well was as dry as a bone.
• He is as cunning as a fox.
SYNECDOCHE

• is a literary device in which a part of something represents

the whole or it may use a whole to represent a part.
• Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller
groups or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name
of the material it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a
container or packing by the name of that container or
packing.
Synecdoche Examples from
Everyday Life
• The word “bread” refers to food or money as in “Writing is my bread and butter” or
“sole breadwinner”.
• The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man.
• The word “sails” refers to a whole ship.
• The word “suits” refers to businessmen.
• The word “boots” usually refers to soldiers.
• The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks.
• “Pentagon” is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers.
• The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.
• “Coppers” often refers to coins.
TAUTOLOGY

• is a repetitive use of phrases or words which have similar

meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same
thing, an idea or saying two or more times. The word
tautology is derived from the Greek word “tauto” (the
same) and “logos” (a word or an idea).
Types of Tautology

• There are several types of tautology which are commonly used in everyday
life, in poetry, in prose, in songs, and in discussions depending on the
requirements of a situation. Some of the common categories are:
• Due to inadequacies in Language
• Intentional ambiguities
• Derision
• As a Poetic Device
• Psychological significance
• Used by inept Speakers
Function of Tautology

• The importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary

writing. Today, however, writers try to avoid using tautological
words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It has almost
become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead
of repetitious and redundant piece.
• Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers
commonly use tautology as a powerful tool to emphasize a
particular idea or draw their readers’ attention to a certain aspect
of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar;
rather it has been taken as a specific rhetorical device.
Examples of Tautology 

• ”Your acting is completely devoid of emotion.”

• “Repeat that again” and “reiterate again”
• “This is like deja vu all over again” 
• “To Carthage then I came
Burning burning burning burning.”
 (T. S. Eliot, The Wasteland)
• “Polonious: What do you read, my lord?
Hamlet: Words, words, words.”
(Hamlet, II: ii] Shakespeare)
UNDERSTATEMENT

• is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers

to intentionally make a situation seem less important
than it really is.
• An understatement usually has an ironic effect as an equally intense
response is expected in severe situations but the statement in
response is the opposite of what was expected i.e. less intense but of
course with an ironical tone. For instance, your friend returns your
new coat with blots all over it; in response, you make an
understatement, “It doesn’t look too bad”. Therefore, an
understatement is opposite to another figure of speech hyperbole or
Function of Understatement

• An understatement is a tool that helps to develop other

figures of speech such as irony and sarcasm by
deliberately decreasing the severity of a situation when an
intense response is expected by the listeners or the
readers.
Common Understatement Examples

• “Deserts are sometimes hot, dry and sandy” while describing deserts
of the world.
• “He is not too thin” while describing an obese person.
• “It rained a bit more than usual” while describing an area being
flooded after heavy rainfall.
• “It was O.K.” is an understatement if someone who got the highest
score in a test said this when asked about his result.
• “It is a bit cold today,” when the temperature is 5 degrees below
freezing.
ZEUGMA

• from Greek “yoking” or “bonding”, is a figure of speech in which a

word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun,
blending together grammatically and logically different ideas.
• For instance, in a sentence “John lost his coat and his temper”, the
verb “lost” applies to both noun “coat” and “temper”. Losing a coat
and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas
that are brought together in the above-mentioned sentence.
Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique artistic effect
making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves
to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive 
style.
Function of Zeugma

• The above examples of Zeugma show that this literary

device may create confusing or dangling sentences.
However, if used correctly, it adds flavor to literary texts
as it helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly
be shocking in its result. Zeugma examples are also found
in literary works of famous writers and poets from several
centuries ago to add vividness and conciseness to their
texts.
Zeugma Examples 

• “And all the people saw the thundering, and the lightning, and the
noise of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking: and when the
people saw it, they removed, and stood afar off.”
• “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
• Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle;
natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to
contend.
• “Here Thou, great Anna! whom three Realms obey,
Dost sometimes Counsel take – and sometimes Tea.”