CHAPTER 2

AC Circuit & Diode Basic

Sinusoids
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the
sine or cosine function.
A general expression for the sinusoid,
v(t )  Vm sin(t   )

where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
Ф = the phase

Lyly_AC Circuit 2
Sinusoids (cont..)

1
f  Hz
T
2
T

  2f

Only 2 sinusoidal values with same frequency can be

compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
If phase difference is zero – in phase
If phase difference is not zero – out of phase
Lyly_AC Circuit 3
5 sin( 4t  60 o )
Example 1: Given a sinusoid, , calculate its
amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and frequency.

 Solution
 Amplitude : 5
 Phase, θ : -600
 Angular frequency, ω : 4 π rad/sec
2 2
T   0.5 sec
 4
 Period, T :
1 1
f    2 Hz
T 0.5
 Frequency, f :

Lyly_AC Circuit 4
Example 2: Find the phase angle
between V1 and V2.
v1  10 cos(t  500 )
v 2  12 sin(t  100 )

 Steps:
 Express both voltage in same form.
 Negative change to positive
 Sine convert to cosine
 Find the different in the phase angle.
Lyly_AC Circuit 5
Phasor
 A complex number that
represents the amplitude
and phase of a sinusoid.
 It also indicate the phase
different between
voltage, V and current, I.
 It can be represented in 3
forms:

a.Rectangul z  x  jy  r (cos   j sin  )

ar z  r  r x2  y2
b.Polar z  re j where y
  tan 1
c.Exponenti x
al Lyly_AC Circuit 6
PHASOR (cont..)
• Steps to calculate the phasor between I and V:
– Express the function given in the same function
• Sine convert to cosine function
• Subtract from the phase
– Transform time domain to phasor domain form

v(t )  Vm cos(t   ) V  Vm 
TIME DOMAIN PHASOR DOMAIN

Lyly_AC Circuit 7
Example 3: Evaluate the following
complex number
 2  j 3   7  j8 
       
 240750  160  300 
 1  j 6    5  j11   
 67  j 
84  20 
32 0 


Lyly_AC Circuit 8
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements

• Purely resistive
– Consist ONLY resistor Z  R  jX
V  IR  IZ
V0 o
I 
R
I  I M 0 o

 Phase current INPHASE with phase

voltage by 0o

Lyly_AC Circuit 9
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
(cont..)
Z  R  jX L
• Purely inductive R  0
– Consist ONLY inductor X L  jL  j 2f
V  I Z
V0o V0o
I 
XL Zz o

I  I M  0o  z o
I  IM  0  90 
o o

I  IM   90 
o

 Phase current LAGGING phase voltage by 90 o

Lyly_AC Circuit 10
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
(cont..)
Z  R  jX C
• Purely capacitive R  0
– Consist ONLY capacitor 1
XC    j C
j C
V  I Z
V0o V0 o
I 
XC Z   o
I  I M  0 o     o  
I  I M  0o  90o 
I  I M  90o 

 Phase current LEADS phase voltage by 90o

Lyly_AC Circuit 11
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements (cont..)

• Inductive circuit
Z  R  jX L
– Consist R and L
V  I Z
V0o V0o
I 
R  jX L Z o

I  I M  0o  i o
I  IM   i 
o

 Phase current LAGGING phase voltage by θo

Lyly_AC Circuit 12
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements (cont..)

• Capacitive circuit
– Consist R and C Z  R  jX C
V  I Z
V0 o V0o
I 
R  jX C Z   o
I  I M  0 o     o  
I  I M  0o  i o 
I  I M i o 

 Phase current LEADING phase voltage by θo

Lyly_AC Circuit 13
Phasor Relationships
for Circuit Elements (cont..)
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v  Ri V  RI

L vL
di
V  jLI
dt
C iC
dv V 
I
dt j C

Lyly_AC Circuit 14
Impedance and Admittance
 Impedance, Z
 Ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor
current.
 Combination of resistance, R and reactance, jX
 Measured in ohm, Ω

V
Z   R  jX
I

 Admittance, Y
 The reciprocal of impedance. 1 I
 Measured in Siemens (S). Y 
Z V
Lyly_AC Circuit 15
Impedance and Admittance (cont..)
Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
ZR Y
R
L 1
Z  j L Y
jL
C 1
Z  Y  j C
j C

Lyly_AC Circuit 16
Example 6 : Determine v(t) and i(t)

vs  5 cos(10t )

Answers: i(t) = 1.118cos(10t – 26.56o) A; v(t) = 2.236cos(10t + 63.43o) V

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Impedance Combinations
• Example 7: Determine the input impedance of
the circuit. Given ω = 10 rad/sec.

Answer: Zin = 32.38 – j73.76

Lyly_AC Circuit 18
POWER in AC Circuits
 Indicates the amount of power required by
the equipment - (power rating)
 Exceed power rating – damage the equipment
 ~ 50 to 60Hz ac power
 3 types of power in AC circuit
 Complex power, S (VA) S
 Also refer as Apparent power,
 Real power, P (W)
 Reactive power, Q (VAR)

Lyly_AC Circuit 19
COMPLEX POWER, S
 Is the product of the voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current.
 It consist of real power and reactive power.
V  Vm θ v I  I m θ i

S  P  jQ  S m  o

1 
S  VI
2
S  Vrms I rms  θ v  θ i
S  Vrms I rms cos θ v  θ i   j Vrms I rms sin  θ v  θ i  
Lyly_AC Circuit 20
COMPLEX POWER, S (cont..)
• Power Factor • Power triangle

• Impedance triangle

Lyly_AC Circuit 21
Apparent Power, |S|
• Is the product of the r.m.s. values of voltage
and current.
• Unit : volt-ampere (VA)
S  P  jQ
S  S m  o
S  Vrms  I rms

S   P   Q
2 2

Lyly_AC Circuit 22
Root Mean Square (RMS)
• Effective voltage that
1
Vrms      v (t ) dt
were used in actual T 
2

practice.  1  T
Vrms    0  v(t ) dt
 2 
2

Vm
1/ 2
 1  2 
 0 Vm sin t  dt 
2
Vrms  
Vrms   2  

2  
1/ 2
 1  2 
 0 Vm   sin  t dt 
2 2
Vrms  
 2  
1/ 2
  V  2  2 
Vrms  
  m    sin  t dt 
2

Im  2  0 
I rms    V  2  t sin 2t 
1/ 2

2 Vrms   m  

 2  2 4 


Vrms 
Vm  2 
Vm
2 2

Lyly_AC Circuit 23
Real Power, P
Average power that delivered to the load.
Power dissipated by the load.
Usually caused by resistor, R.
Unit : watt (W)

P  S cosv  i 
P  Vrms  I rms cosv  i 

Lyly_AC Circuit 24
Reactive Power, Q
• Energy exchange between source and reactive load
(inductive circuit and RC circuit).
• Unit : VAR
• Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
• Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
• Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).

Q  S sin v  i 
Q  Vrms  I rms sin v  i 
Lyly_AC Circuit 25
Power Factor
 Ratio of the real power , P flowing to the
load, to the apparent power,   S in the
circuit.
pf  cosv  i 
Purely resistive θ – θ = 0, pf = 1 P/S = 1, all power are
v i
load (R) consumed
Purely reactive θ – θ = ±90o, pf P = 0, no real power
v i
load (L or C) consumption
=0
Resistive and θv– θi > 0 • Lagging - inductive
reactive load load
θv– θi < 0 • Leading - capacitive
(R and L/C)
Lyly_AC Circuit
load 26
Example 8
• Calculate the power factor, average power,
reactive power, apparent power and complex
power shown in Figure below. Given
Vs = 60 cos (100t) V

Lyly_AC Circuit 27
Power Factor Correction
• Increased the power factor
without changing the original
value of voltage and current.
• Done to reduce the harmonic
distortion occur in power system.
– Failure of
capacitors/equipment
– Tripping of circuit breaker/
protective devices
• Advantages
– Reduce the overall cost
– Supply able to support
additional load
• Parallel the circuit with
CAPACITOR

Lyly_AC Circuit 28
Power Factor Correction (cont..)

Qc = Q1 – Q2
= P (tan θ1 - tan θ2)
= ωCV2rms

Q1 = S1 sin θ1 Qc P (tan θ1  tan θ 2 )

C  2
 2
= P tan θ1 ωVrms ω Vrms

P = S1 cos θ1 Q2 = P tanLyly_AC
θ2 Circuit 29
Example 9
• A 240 Vrms, 50 Hz power line is connected to
load. Find the value of capacitance needed to
raise the power factor to 0.9.

Lyly_AC Circuit 30
Conservation of AC Power
• Sum of complex power = sum of
individual complex power.

ST  S1  S 2  S 3
1 * 1 * 1 *
ST   V1 I1    V2 I 2    V3 I 3 
2  2  2 
Lyly_AC Circuit 31
Example 10
 Three loads A, B and C are connected in parallel
across 1400 Vrms, 50 Hz line. Load A has an
apparent power of 25kVA with an 80% lagging
power factor. Load B consumes 10kW with a 0.9
leading power factor and load C consumes 20kW
at unity power factor. Determine the following:
 Total apparent power in the system.
 The current drawn from the supply.
 Calculate the capacitance necessary to establish 0.99
lagging power factor.

Lyly_AC Circuit 32
DIODE
• Semiconductor device that has two terminal.
• It ONLY allow current to flow in one direction.
• Two types of material that use to fabricate
diode
– Silicon (Si)
– Germanium (Ge)

Lyly_Diode 33
DIODE OPERATION
• OFF state • ON state
– Open circuit – Short circuit
– I = 0A – Voltage = Vsi =0.7V,
VGE = 0.3V, Videal = 0V

Lyly_Diode 34
Example 11: Determine ID, VR and
VO
Ge Si ID
10V + Vo
+ V1 - + V2 -
2.2k

Lyly_Diode 35
Example 12 : Determine ID and VO
+20V

Ge Si ID

+ Vo

2.2k

- 5V

Lyly_Diode 36
TYPES OF DIODES

Lyly_Diode 37
Diode as Rectifier
• Rectifier – convert AC to DC Voltage
• 2 types
– Half wave rectifier,
– Full wave rectifier

Lyly_Diode 38
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
• Made up of a diode, D and a resistor, R
• Has ability to conduct current in one direction
and block current in the other direction.
+ +

Vi R Vo

-
-

Figure show the basic half wave rectifier circuit

Lyly_Diode 39
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER OPERATION
• Positive half cycle of Vi

• Negative half cycle of Vi

Lyly_Diode 40
FUL WAVE RECTIFIER
• The rectification process can be improved by using
more diodes in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
• It can improve 100% of the DC level obtained from a
sinusoidal input.
• Full-wave rectification produces a greater DC output.
• 2 types
– Center tapped transformer,
– Bridge network.

Lyly_Diode 41
Center Tapped Rectifier
• Consist of 2 diodes and 1 resistor

Lyly_Diode 42
Operation of Center Tapped
Positive Cycle Rectifier

Vo
Vm
Vdc=0.636Vm

Negative Cycle T/2 T

Lyly_Diode 43
Bridge Rectifier
• Consist of 4 diode and 1 resistor

Lyly_Diode 44
OPERATION OF BRIDGE
Positive half cycle of V : DRECTIFIER
i 2& D – ‘ON’
3

Negative half cycle of Vi : D1 & D4 – ‘ON’

Lyly_Diode 45