Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Fundamentals of Materials: Behavior and

Manufacturing Properties
1. The Structure of Metals
2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and
Manufacturing Properties of Materials
3. Physical Properties of Materials
4. Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by
Heat Treatment
5. Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production,
General Properties and Applications
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Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Fundamentals of Materials: Behavior and

Manufacturing Properties
6. Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production,
General Properties and Applications
7. Polymers: Structure, General Properties and
Applications
8. Ceramics, Graphite and Diamond: Structure,
General Properties and Applications
9. Composite Materials: Structure, General
Properties, and Applications
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Chapter Objectives
• Types tests for determining the mechanical behavior of materials.
• Elastic and plastic features of stress-strain curves and their
significance.
• Relationship between stress and strain and their significance, as
influenced by temperature and deformation rate.
• Characteristics of hardness, fatigue, creed, impact, and residual
stresses, and their role in materials processing.
• Effects of inclusions and defects in the brittle and ductile behavior
of metals.
• Why and how materials fail when subjected to external forces.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Tension
3. Compression
4. Torsion
5. Bending
6. Hardness
7. Fatigue
8. Creep
9. Impact
10. Failure and Fracture of Materials in Manufacturing and Service

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Chapter Outline
11. Residual Stresses
12. Work, Heat and Temperature

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.1 Introduction
• In manufacturing operations, numerous parts and components are formed into various
shapes by applying external forces to the workpiece, typically by means of various
tools and dies.
• There are variety of metallic and nonmetallic materials and have an equally wide
range of properties, as shown qualitatively in Table 2.1.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.1 Introduction

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2 Tension
• The tension test is the most common test for determining such mechanical properties
of materials as strength, ductility, toughness, elastic modulus, and strain-hardening
capability.
• The test first requires the preparation of a test specimen, typically as shown in Fig.
2.1a.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2 Tension

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension
• Fig 2.2 shows a A typical stress–strain curve obtained
from a tension test, showing various features.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension
• When the load is first applied, the specimen elongates in proportion to
the load; this behavior is called linear elastic.
• The engineering stress (nominal stress) is defined as the ratio of the
applied load, P, to the original cross-sectional area, A0 of the specimen:

P
Engineering stress,   (2.1)
A0

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension
• The engineering strain is defined as

 l l 
where l is the instantaneous length of the specimen.
• As the load is increased, the specimen begins (at some level of stress) to undergo permanent (plastic) deformation.

Engineering strain, e  0
(2.2)
• The stress at which this phenomenon occurs is known as the yield stress, Y, of the material.
• Properties for various metallic and nonmetallic materials are given in Table 2.2.
l0

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension
• Y usually is defined as the point on the stress–strain curve that is offset by a strain of 0.002, or 0.2% elongation.
• As the specimen (under a continuously increasing load) begins to elongate, its cross-sectional area decreases
permanently and uniformly throughout its gage length.
• Fig 2.3 shows a Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a tensile-test specimen. Note that,
during unloading, the curve follows a path
parallel to the original elastic slope.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension
• The maximum engineering stress is called the tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of the
material.
• If the specimen is loaded beyond its ultimate tensile strength, it begins to neck or neck down.
• As the test progresses, the engineering stress drops further and the specimen finally fractures at the necked
region.
• The engineering stress at fracture is known as the breaking or fracture stress.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.1 Tension
• The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region is the modulus of elasticity, E, or Young’s modulus:

• This linear relationship is known as Hooke’s law.

• The modulus of elasticity is essentially a measure of the slope of the elastic portion of the curve and, hence, the stiffness of the material.


• The absolute value of the ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is known as Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by the symbol .

Modulus of elasticity, E  (2.3)

e

v
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.2 Ductility
• Ductility is the extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes before fracture.
• There are two common measures of ductility. The first is the total elongation of the specimen:

where and are measured.

Elongation 
 l f  l0 
100 (2.4)
l0
l l0

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.2 Ductility
• The second measure of ductility is the reduction of area:

• where

metals. Reduction of area 

 A A 
and are the original and final (fracture) cross-sectional areas, respectively, of the test specimen.
• Fig 2.4 shows the approximate relationship between elongation
 100
0 and
f tensile reduction of area for various groups of
(2.5)
A0

A0 Af

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.2 Ductility

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.3 True stress and true strain

• The engineering stress is based on the original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen.
• True stress is defined as the ratio of the load, P, to the actual (instantaneous, hence true) cross-sectional area,
A, of the specimen:

• It can be shown that the true strain (natural or logarithmic strain) is calculated as

P
True stress,   (2.6)
A

l 
True strain, e  ln   (2.7)
 l0 
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.4 Construction of stress-strain curves

• The procedure for constructing an engineering stress-engineering strain curve is to take
the load-elongation curve (Figs. 2.2 and 2.5a) and then to divide the load (vertical axis) by
the original cross-sectional area, A0 and the elongation (horizontal axis) by the original
gage length, lo
• The true stress–true strain curve in Fig. 2.5c can be represented by the equation

  K n (2.8)

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.4 Construction of stress-strain curves

• where K is known as the strength coefficient and n as the strain-hardening (or work-hardening) exponent. Typical
values for K and n for several metals are given in Table 2.3.
• The area under the true stress–true strain curve at a particular strain is the energy-per-unit volume of the material deformed
(specific energy) and indicates the work required to plastically deform a unit volume of the material to that strain.
• The area under the true stress–true strain curve up to fracture is known as the material’s toughness.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.4 Construction of stress-strain curves

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.4 Construction of stress-strain curves

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.4 Construction of stress-strain curves

• Fig 2.6 shows the true stress–true strain curves in tension at room temperature for
various metals.
• The curves start at a finite level of stress: The elastic regions have too steep a slope
to be shown in this figure, and thus each curve starts at the yield stress, Y, of the
material.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.5 Strain at necking in a tension test

• The true strain at the onset of necking is equal numerically to the strain-hardening exponent, n, of the
material.
• Thus, the higher the value of n, the higher the strain which a piece of material can experience
uniformly throughout before it begins to neck.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Example 2.1 Calculation of ultimate tensile strength

This example will show that the UTS of a material can be

calculated from its K and n values. Assume that a
material has a true stress–true strain curve given by

  690 0.5
MPa
Calculate the true ultimate tensile strength and the
engineering UTS of this material.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Example 2.1 Calculation of ultimate tensile strength

Q: Because the necking strain corresponds to the

maximum load and the necking strain for this material is
  n  0.5
the true ultimate tensile strength is
  Kn  690  0.5 
0.5
n
 488 MPa
The true area at the onset of necking is obtained from

 A0 
ln    0.5
 Aneck 

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Example 2.1 Calculation of ultimate tensile strength

Thus, Aneck  A0 0.5

and the maximum load, P, is

P   Aneck   A0 e 0.5
where  is the true ultimate tensile strength. Hence,

P   488   0.606   A0   296 A0 N  2900 A0 kg

Since UTS  P A0

UTS  296MPa
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.6 Temperature effects

• Increasing the temperature generally has the following effects on stress–strain curves
a. It raises the ductility and toughness.
b. It lowers the yield stress and the modulus of elasticity.
• Fig 2.7 shows the Typical effects of temperature on stress–strain curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield
stress, the ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness (area under the curve) of materials.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.6 Temperature effects

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.7 Rate-of-Deformation effects

• Deformation rate is defined as the speed at which a tension test is being carried out, in units of, say, m/s.
• The strain rate is a function of the specimen length.
• Table 2.4 shows the deformation rates employed in various testing and metalworking processes and the true strains involved.
• Fig 2.8 shows The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of
the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.7 Rate-of-Deformation effects

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.7 Rate-of-Deformation effects

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.7 Rate-of-Deformation effects

• Note that increasing the strain rate increases the
strength of the material (strain-rate hardening).
• The slope of these curves is called the strain-rate
sensitivity exponent, m.
• The relationship between stress and m is

  C m (2.9)

where C is the strength coefficient, similar to (but not

to be confused with) the strength coefficient K in Eq.
(2.8).
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.7 Rate-of-Deformation effects

Superplasticity
• The term superplasticity refers to the capability of
some materials to undergo large, uniform elongation
prior to necking and fracture in tension.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.8 Hydrostatic pressure effects

• Various tests have been performed under hydrostatic
pressure to determine the effect of hydrostatic
pressure on mechanical properties of materials.
• Increasing the hydrostatic pressure substantially
increases the strain at fracture, both for ductile and
for brittle materials.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.2.9 Radiation Effects

• Changes in the properties of steels and other metals
exposed to high-energy radiation will increased yield
stress, tensile strength, and hardness and decreased
ductility and toughness.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.3 Compression
• The compression test is carried out by compressing
a solid cylindrical specimen between two well-
lubricated flat dies (platens).
• Because of friction between the specimen and the
platens, the specimen’s cylindrical surface bulges;
this effect is called barreling.
• When a metal with a certain tensile yield stress is
subjected to tension into the plastic range, and then
the load is released and applied in compression, the
yield stress in compression is found to be lower than
that in tension.
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.3 Compression
• This phenomenon is known as the Bauschinger
effect.
• Because of the lowered yield stress in the direction
opposite the original load application, this
phenomenon is also called strain softening or work
softening.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.3 Compression

Disk Test
• Fig 2.9 shows a disk test on a brittle material,
showing the direction of loading and the fracture
path.
• The tensile stress, in the disk is uniform along the
centerline and can be calculated from the formula
2P
Tensile stress,   (2.10)
 dt
where P is the load at fracture, d is the diameter of the
disk, and t is its thickness.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.3 Compression

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.4 Torsion
• Fig 2.10 shows a typical torsion-test specimen; it is
mounted between the two heads of a testing
machine and twisted.
• Note the shear deformation of an element in the
reduced section of the specimen.

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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.4 Torsion
• The shear stress can be calculated from the formula
T
Shear Stress,  (2.11)
2 r t
2

where T is the torque, r is the average radius of the

tube, and t is the thickness of the tube at its narrow
section.
• The shear strain can be calculated from the formula
r
Shear Strain,  (2.12)
l
where l is the length of tube due to torsion and  is
the angle of twist in radians.
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2. Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

2.4 Torsion
• The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain in the
elastic range is known as the shear modulus, or
modulus of rigidity, G (a quantity related to the
modulus of elasticity, E).

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