WELDING PROCESSES

1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Two Categories of Welding
Processes
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by
melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases
adding filler metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding,
oxyfuel gas welding
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to
achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals
occurs and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction
welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Arc Welding (AW)

A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces temperatures ~
10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint

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What is an Electric Arc?

An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a

gap in a circuit
 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas (plasma)
through which the current flows
 To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated from it
by a short distance

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Arc Welding

 A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip,

and as electrode is moved along joint, molten weld
pool solidifies in its wake

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Manual Arc Welding
and Arc Time
 Problems with manual welding:
 Weld joint quality
 Productivity
 Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours
worked)
 Also called “arc-on time”
 Manual welding arc time = 20%
 Machine welding arc time ~ 50%

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Two Basic Types of AW
Electrodes
 Consumable – consumed during welding process
 Source of filler metal in arc welding
 Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding
process
 Filler metal must be added separately if it is
added

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Consumable Electrodes

 Forms of consumable electrodes

 Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches in
length and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must
be changed frequently
 Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools
with long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent
interruptions
 In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by
the arc and added to weld joint as filler metal

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Nonconsumable Electrodes

 Made of tungsten which resists melting

 Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is
principal mechanism)
 Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate wire
fed into weld pool

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Arc Shielding

 At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by
these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux
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Flux

A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other

contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and
facilitates removal
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
 Stabilizes arc
 Reduces spattering

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Various Flux Application Methods

 Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

 Stick electrode coated with flux material that melts
during welding to cover operation
 Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the
core and released as electrode is consumed

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Power Source in Arc Welding

 Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

 AC machines less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to ferrous metals
 DC equipment can be used on all metals and is
generally noted for better arc control

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Consumable Electrode
AW Processes
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Flux‑Cored Arc Welding
 Electrogas Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal

rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and
shielding
 Sometimes called "stick welding"
 Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode
holder available for a few thousand dollars

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)

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Welding Stick in SMAW

 Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal

 Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with oxides and
carbonates, and held together by a silicate binder
 Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder
connected to power source
 Disadvantages of stick welding:
 Sticks must be periodically changed
 High current levels may melt coating prematurely

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Shielded Metal Arc Welding

 Shielded metal arc

welding (stick welding)
performed by a human
welder (photo courtesy
of Hobart Brothers Co.)

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SMAW Applications

 Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons,

and certain nonferrous alloys
 Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its
alloys, copper alloys, and titanium

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with

shielding by flooding arc with a gas
 Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun
 Shielding gases include argon and helium for
aluminum welding, and CO2 for steel welding
 Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate
slag on weld bead
 No need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag

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Gas Metal Arc Welding

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GMAW Advantages over SMAW

 Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode

 Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
 Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
 End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
 Higher deposition rates
 Eliminates problem of slag removal
 Can be readily automated

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Flux‑Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome

limitations of stick electrodes - two versions
 Self‑shielded FCAW - core includes compounds
that produce shielding gases
 Gas‑shielded FCAW - uses externally applied
shielding gases
 Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in
coils) containing flux and other ingredients (e.g.,
alloying elements) in its core

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Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas

distinguishes: (1) self‑shielded - core provides ingredients for
shielding, (2) gas‑shielded - uses external shielding gases

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Electrogas Welding (EGW)

Uses a continuous consumable electrode, flux‑cored

wire or bare wire with externally supplied shielding
gases, and molding shoes to contain molten metal
 When flux‑cored electrode wire is used and no
external gases are supplied, then special case of
self‑shielded FCAW
 When a bare electrode wire used with shielding
gases from external source, then special case of
GMAW

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Electrogas Welding

 Electrogas welding using flux‑cored electrode wire: (a)

front view with molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b)
side view showing molding shoes on both sides

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,

with arc shielding by a cover of granular flux
 Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
 Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by
gravity from a hopper
 Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation

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Submerged Arc Welding

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SAW Applications and Products

 Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I‑beams)

 Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
 Welded components for heavy machinery
 Most steels (except hi C steel)
 Not good for nonferrous metals

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Nonconsumable Electrode
Processes
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding
 Carbon Arc Welding
 Stud Welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert
gas for arc shielding
 Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
 A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
 In Europe, called "WIG welding"
 Used with or without a filler metal
 When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool
from separate rod or wire
 Applications: aluminum and stainless steel mostly
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Advantages and Disadvantages
of GTAW

Advantages:
 High quality welds for suitable applications
 No spatter because no filler metal through arc
 Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages:
 Generally slower and more costly than consumable
electrode AW processes

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc

is directed at weld area
 Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that
focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon)
into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely hot
plasma arc stream
 Temperatures in PAW reach 17,000C (30,000F), due
to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet of small
diameter and very high energy density

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Plasma Arc Welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Advantages and Disadvantages
of PAW
Advantages:
 Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
 Better penetration control than other AW processes
 High travel speeds
 Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Larger torch size than other AW processes
 Tends to restrict access in some joints

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Carbon Arc Welding (CAW)

 It is an arc-welding process in which a non

consumable carbon (graphite) electrode is used
 Graphite electrodes for welding have been largely
superseded by tungsten (in GTAW & PAW)
 The carbon arc process is used as a heat source for
brazing and for repairing iron castings

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Stud Welding (SW)

 It is a specialized AW process for joining studs or

similar components to base parts.
 A typical SW operation is illustrated in figure
 SW applications include threaded fasteners for
attaching handles to cookware, heat radiation fins on
machinery etc.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Resistance Welding (RW)

A group of fusion welding processes that use a

combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
 Heat generated by electrical resistance to current
flow at junction to be welded
 Principal RW process is resistance spot welding
(RSW)

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Resistance Welding

 Resistance welding,
showing components
in spot welding, the
main process in the
RW group

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Components in Resistance Spot
Welding
 Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
 Two opposing electrodes
 Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
 Power supply from which a controlled current can be
applied for a specified time duration

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Advantages and Drawbacks of
Resistance Welding
Advantages:
 No filler metal required
 High production rates possible
 Lends itself to mechanization and automation
 Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
 Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
 High initial equipment cost
 Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying

surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by
opposing electrodes
 Used to join sheet metal parts
 Widely used in mass production of automobiles, metal
furniture, appliances, and other sheet metal products
 Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
 Annual production of automobiles in the world is
measured in tens of millions of units

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Spot Welding Cycle

 (a) Spot welding cycle

 (b) Plot of force and
current
 Cycle: (1) parts
inserted between
electrodes, (2)
electrodes close, (3)
current on, (4) current
off, (5) electrodes
opened

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Resistance Seam Welding
(RSEW)

Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint
 Can produce air‑tight joints
 Applications:
 Gasoline tanks
 Automobile mufflers
 Various sheet metal containers

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Resistance Seam Welding

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Resistance Projection Welding
(RPW)

A resistance welding process in which coalescence

occurs at one or more small contact points on the
parts
 Contact points determined by design of parts to be
joined
 May consist of projections, embossments, or
localized intersections of parts

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Resistance Projection Welding

 (1) Start of operation, contact between parts is at

projections; (2) when current is applied, weld nuggets
similar to spot welding are formed at the projections

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 (a) Welding of fastener on sheetmetal and (b) cross-
wire welding

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Other Resistance-Welding
Operations

 Flash welding (FW)

 Upset welding (UW)
 Percussion welding (PEW)
 High-frequency resistance welding (HFRW)
 High-frequency induction welding (HFIW)

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Flash welding: In Flash welding, normally used for
butt joints, the two surfaces to be joined are brought
into contact and electric current is applied to heat the
surfaces to the melting point, after which the surfaces
are forced together to form the weld.

 In addition to resistance heating , some arcing occurs

(called flashing) which is the reason of its name.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Upset welding: It is similar to flash welding except
that in UW, the faying surfaces are presses together
during heating and upsetting

 In flash welding, the heating and pressing steps are

separated during the cycle whereas Heating in UW is
accomplished entirely by electrical resistance at the
contacting surfaces and no arcing occurs

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Percussion welding: It is also similar to flash
welding, except that the duration of the weld cycle is
extremely short, typically lasting only 1 – 10 ms

 Fast heating is accomplished by rapid discharge of

electrical energy between the two surfaces to be
joined, followed immediately by percussion of one
part against the other to form the weld

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 High-frequency resistance welding: In this
process, a high-frequency alternating current is used
for heating, followed by the rapid application of an
upsetting force to cause coalescence

 High-frequency induction welding: In this process,

the heating current is induced in the parts by a high-
frequency induction coil.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

Group of fusion welding operations by a high temperature

flame that burns various fuels mixed with oxygen
 Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut
and separate metal plates and other parts
 Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding
(has high temperatures – up to 3480C)

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces
and prevent oxidation
 Low cost for welding system: $400

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Oxyacetylene Welding

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Oxyacetylene Torch

 Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone, while

outer envelope spreads out and shields work surface from
atmosphere
 Shown below is neutral flame of oxyacetylene torch
indicating temperatures achieved

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Oxyacetylene Gas
Welding Applications

 Suitable for low quantity production and repair jobs

 Used for welding thinner parts

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Other Fusion Welding Processes

FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,

resistance, or oxyfuel welding
 Use unique technologies to develop heat for melting
 Applications are typically unique
 Processes include:
 Electron beam welding
 Laser beam welding
 Electroslag welding
 Thermit welding

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Electroslag welding

 It is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence is

achieved by hot, electrically conductive molten slag
acting on the base parts and filler material

 The general configuration of ESW is similar to

electrogas welding. It is performed in a vertical
orientation using water-cooled molding shoes to
contain the molten slag and weld metal

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Thermit welding

 It is a fusion-welding process in which the heat for

coalescence is produced by superheated molten
metal from the chemical reaction of Thermit
 Filler metal is obtained from the liquid metal; and
although the process is used for joining, it has more
in common with casting than it does with welding
 Applications: joining of railroad rails, repair of cracks
in large steel castings etc

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©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Solid-State Welding

 Forge welding
 Cold welding
 Roll welding (ROW)
 Hot pressure welding (HPW)
 Diffusion welding (DFW)
 Explosion welding (EXW)
 Friction welding (FRW)
 Ultrasoinc welding (USW)

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Forge Welding

 It is a welding process in which the components to be

joined are heated to hot working temperature and
then forged together by hammer or other means.

 This process dates from 1000 B.C however it is of

minor commercial importance today.

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Cold Welding (CW)

 This welding process is accomplished by applying

high pressure between clean contacting surfaces at
room temperature.
 Cleaning is usually done by degreasing & wire
brushing immediately before joining.
 At least one of metals (preferably both) to be welded,
must be very ductile and free of work hardening.
 The applied compression forces in the process results
in cold working of metal parts and reducing thickness
by as much as 50 %.
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Roll Welding (RW)

 In this welding process, pressure sufficient to cause

coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with
or without external application of heat.
 If no external heat is supplied, the process is called
‘cold roll welding’. If heat is supplied, the term ‘hot roll
welding’ is used.
 Applications of roll welding include making bimetallic
strips for measuring temperature.

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©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Hot Pressure Welding (HPW)

 It is a variation of forge welding in which coalescence

occurs from the application of heat & pressure
sufficient to cause considerable deformation of the
base metals.
 The deformation disrupts the surface oxide film, thus
leaving clean metal to establish a good bond
between the two parts.
 The operation is carried out in a vacuum chamber or
in the presence of a shielding medium.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Diffusion welding (DFW)

 It is a welding process which results from the

application of heat and pressure, usually in a
controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time allowed for
diffusion and coalescence to occur.
 Temperatures are well below the melting points of the
metals (about 0.5 Tm is the maximum) and plastic
deformation at the surface is minimal.
 The coalescence is solid-state diffusion, which
involves migration of atoms across the interface
between contacting surfaces.
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Explosion welding (EXW)

 In this process rapid coalescence of two metallic

surfaces is caused by the energy of a detonated
explosive
 No filler metal is used in EXW and no external heat is
applied and also no diffusion occurs during the
process
 The nature of bond is metallurgical, in many cases
combined with a mechanical interlocking that results
from a rippled or wavy interface between the metals

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©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Friction Welding (FRW)

SSW process in which coalescence is achieved by

frictional heat combined with pressure
 When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
 No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally used
 Can be used to join dissimilar metals
 Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Friction Welding

 (1) Rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact

to generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial
pressure applied; and (4) weld created

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Applications and Limitations of
Friction Welding

Applications:
 Shafts and tubular parts
 Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment,
petroleum and natural gas
Limitations:
 At least one of the parts must be rotational
 Flash must usually be removed (extra operation)
 Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be
taken into consideration in product design)
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Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

SSW process in which a rotating tool is fed along a joint

line between two workpieces, generating friction heat
and mechanically stirring the metal to form the weld
seam
 Distinguished from FRW because heat is generated
by a separate wear-resistant tool rather than the
parts
 Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts in
aerospace, automotive, and shipbuilding

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Friction Stir Welding

 (1) Rotating tool just before entering work, and (2)

partially completed weld seam

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Friction Stir Welding
 Advantages
 Good mechanical properties of weld joint
 Avoids toxic fumes, warping, and shielding issues
 Little distortion or shrinkage
 Good weld appearance
 Disadvantages
 An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn
 Heavy duty clamping of parts is required

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Ultrasonic welding

 It is a solid-state welding process in which two

components are held together under modest
clamping force, and oscillatory shear stresses of ultra
sonic frequencies are applied to the interface to
cause coalescence

 The oscillatory motion between the two parts breaks

down any surface films to allow intimate contact and
strong metallurgical bonding between the surfaces

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Welding Defects

 Cracks
 Cavities
 Solid inclusions
 Incomplete fusion
 Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
 Miscellaneous defects

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Cracks

Fracture‑type interruptions either in weld or in base

metal adjacent to weld
 Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in the
metal that significantly reduces strength
 Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of weld
and/or base metal combined with high restraint
during contraction
 In general, this defect must be repaired

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Various forms of welding cracks

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Cavities

Two defect types, similar to defects found in castings:

1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed by
gases entrapped during solidification
 Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
sulfur in weld metal, or surface contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by shrinkage
during solidification

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Solid Inclusions

Nonmetallic material entrapped in weld metal

 Most common form is slag inclusions generated
during AW processes that use flux
 Instead of floating to top of weld pool, globules
of slag become encased during solidification
 Other forms: metallic oxides that form during welding
of certain metals such as aluminum, which normally
has a surface coating of Al2O3

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Incomplete Fusion

A weld bead in which fusion has not occurred

throughout entire cross section of joint
 Several forms of incomplete fusion are shown below

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Imperfect shape or
Unacceptable Contour
 (a) Desired profile for single V-groove weld joint, (b)
undercut - portion of base metal melted away, (c)
underfill - depression in weld below adjacent base
metal surface, and (d) overlap - weld metal spills
beyond joint onto part surface but no fusion occurs

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Miscellaneous Defects

 Arc strikes: In this defect, the welder accidently

allows the electrode to touch the base metal next to
the joint, leaving a scar on the part

 Excessive spatter: In this defect, drops of molten

weld metal splash onto the surface of the base parts

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Inspection and Testing Methods

The inspection and testing procedures can be divided

into three categories:

 Visual Inspection
 Non destructive testing
 Destructive testing

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Visual Inspection

In visual inspection, the inspector visually examines the

weldment for:
 Conformance to dimensional specifications
 Warping
 Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion etc

In Visual inspection only surface defects are detectable

and internal defects can not be discovered by visual
methods

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Non destructive Testing

The non destructive testing methods do not damage

the specimen being evaluated. These methods
include:
 Dye-penetrant & Fluorescent-penetrant tests:
These methods are used for detecting small defects
such as cracks and cavities that are open to the
surface
Fluorescent penetrants are highly visible when
exposed to ultraviolet light

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Magnetic Particle Testing: It is limited to
ferromagnetic materials. A magnetic field is
established in the subject part and magnetic particles
(e.g., iron fillings) are sprinkled on the surface

Sub surface defects such as cracks and inculsions

reveal themselves by distorting the magnetic field,
causing the particles to be concentrated in certain
regions on the surface

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Ultrasonic Testing: It involves the use of high-
frequency sound waves (over 20 kHz) directed
through the specimen. Discontinuities (cracks,
inclusions, porosity) are detected by losses in sound
transmission

 Radiographic Testing: It uses X-rays or gamma

radiation to detect flaws internal to the weld metal. It
provides photographic film record of any defects

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Destructive Testing

In these testing methods the weld is destroyed either

during the test or to prepare the test specimen.

 Mechanical tests: These tests are similar in purpose

to conventional testing methods such as tensile tests
and shear tests. The difference is that the test
specimen is a weld joint.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
 Metallurgical Tests: These tests involve the
preparation of metallurgical specimens of the
weldment to examine such features as metallic
structure, defects, extent and condition of heat-
affected zone, presence of other elements and
similar phenomena.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Weldability

It is the capacity of a metal or combination of metals

to be welded into a suitably designed structure and for
the resulting weld joints to possess the required
metallurgical properties to perform satisfactorily in the
intended service.
Factors that affect weldability include:
 Welding process
 Base metal properties
 Filler metal
 Surface conditions
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Design Considerations in
Welding

The following design guidelines for permanent weld

joints should be followed by the designer:
 Design for welding: The most basic guideline is that
the product should be designed from the start as a
welded assembly and not as casting or forging or
other formed shape.
 Minimum parts: Welded assemblies should consist
of the fewest number of parts possible. It is more cost
efficient to perform bending operations on a part than
to weld an assembly from flat plates and sheets.
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Guidelines for Arc welding

 Good fit-up of parts to be welded is important to

maintain dimensional control and minimize distortion.
Machining is sometimes required to achieve
satisfactory fit-up.
 The assembly must provide access room to allow the
welding gun to reach the welding area.
 Whenever possible, design of the assembly should
allow flat welding to be performed, as this is the
fastest and most convenient welding position.

©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e
Guidelines for Resistance spot
welding
 Low-carbon sheet steel up to 3.2 mm is ideal metal
for resistance spot welding.
 Additional strength and stiffness can be obtained in
large flat sheet metal components by : (1) spot
welding reinforcing parts into them, or (2) forming
flanges and embossments into them.
 The spot-welded assembly must provide access for
the electrodes to reach the welding area.
 Sufficient overlap of sheet-metal parts is required for
electrode tip to make proper contact in spot welding.
©2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 4/e