Starting Out with C++ Early Objects

Tenth Edition

Chapter 6
Functions
6-2

Topics 1 of 2

6.1 Modular Programming

6.2 Defining and Calling Functions
6.3 Function Prototypes
6.4 Sending Data into a Function
6.5 Passing Data by Value
6.6 The return Statement
6.7 Returning a Value from a Function
6.8 Returning a Boolean Value
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Topics 2 of 2

6.9 Using Functions in a Menu-Driven Program

6.10 Local and Global Variables
6.11 Static Local Variables
6.12 Default Arguments
6.13 Using Reference Variables as Parameters
6.14 Overloading Functions
6.15 The exit() Function
6.16 Stubs and Drivers

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6-4

6.1 Modular Programming

• Modular programming: breaking a program up

into smaller, manageable functions or modules.
It supports the divide-and-conquer approach to
solving a problem.
• Function: a collection of statements to perform a
specific task
• Motivation for modular programming
–Simplifies the process of writing programs
–Improves the maintainability of programs
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6.2 Defining and Calling Functions

• Function call: a statement that causes a function

to execute
• Function definition: the statements that make up
a function

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Function Definition 1 of 2
• A definition includes
name: the name of the function. Function names follow
the same rules as variable names
parameter list: the variables that hold the values that are
passed to the function when it is called
body: the statements that perform the function’s task
return type: data type of the value the function returns to
the part of the program that called it

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Function Definition 2 of 2

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Function Header

• The function header consists of

– the function return type
– the function name
– the function parameter list
• Example:
int main()
• Note: There is no ; at the end of the header

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Function Return Type

• If a function returns a value, the type of the

value must be indicated
int main()
• If a function does not return a value, its return
type is void
void printHeading()
{
cout << "\tMonthly Sales\n";
}

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Calling a Function 1 of 2

• To call a function, use the function name

followed by () and ;
printHeading();
• When a function is called, the program
executes the body of the function
• After the function terminates, execution
resumes in the calling module at the point of
call

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Calling a Function 2 of 2

• main is automatically called when the program

starts
• main can call any number of functions
• Functions can call other functions

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6.3 Function Prototypes 1 of 2

The compiler must know the following about a

function before it is called
–its name
–the return type
–the number of parameters
–the data type of each parameter

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Function Prototypes 2 of 2
There are multiple ways to notify the compiler
about a function before making a call to the
function:
– Place the function definition before the calling
function’s definition
– Use a function prototype (similar to the header of the
function)
▪ Header: void printHeading()
▪ Prototype: void printHeading();

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Prototype Notes

• Place prototypes near the top of the program

• A program must include either a prototype or full
function definition before any call to the function,
otherwise a compiler error occurs
• When using prototypes, the function definitions can
be placed in any order in the source file.
Traditionally, main is placed first.

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6-15

6.4 Sending Data into a Function

• You can pass values into a function at time of a call

c = sqrt(a*a + b*b);
• Values passed to a function are arguments
• Variables in a function that hold values passed as arguments
are parameters
• Alternate names:
– argument: actual argument, actual parameter
– parameter: formal argument, formal parameter

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6-16

Parameters, Prototypes, and Function

Headings
• For each function argument,
– the prototype must include the data type of each parameter
in its (). It may also include a parameter name:
void evenOrOdd(int); or
void evenOrOdd(int num); // prototype
– the header must include a declaration, with variable type
and name, for each parameter in its ()
void evenOrOdd(int num) //header
• The call for the above function could look like this:
evenOrOdd(val); //call

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Function Call Notes

• The value of the argument is copied into the

parameter when the function is called
• A function can have > 1 parameter
• There must be a data type listed in the prototype
() and an argument declaration in the function
heading () for each parameter
• Arguments will be promoted/demoted as necessary
to match parameters. Be careful!

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Calling Functions with Multiple Arguments

When calling a function with multiple

arguments
– the number of arguments in the call must match
the function prototype and definition
– the value of the first argument will be copied into
the first parameter, the value of the second
argument into the second parameter, etc.

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Calling Functions with
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Multiple Arguments Illustration

displayData(height, weight); // call

void displayData(int h, int w)// header

{
cout << "Height = " << h << endl;
cout << "Weight = " << w << endl;
}

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6.5 Passing Data by Value

• Pass by value: when an argument is passed to a

function, a copy of its value is placed in the
parameter
• The function cannot access the original
argument
• Changes made to the parameter in the function
do not affect the value of the argument in the
calling function

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Passing Data to Parameters by Value

• Example: int val = 5;

evenOrOdd(val);
val num
5 5
argument in parameter in

calling function evenOrOdd function

• evenOrOdd may change the variable num, but it

will have no effect on variable val

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6.6 The return Statement

• Is used to end execution of a function

• It can be placed anywhere in a function
–Statements that follow the return
statement will not be executed
• It can be used to prevent abnormal
termination of program
• Without a return statement, the function
ends at its last }

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6.7 Returning a Value from a Function

• The return statement can be used to return a
value from a function to the module that made the
function call
• The prototype and function header must indicate
the data type of return value (not void)
• The calling function should use the returned value,
e.g.,
– assign it to a variable
– send it to cout
– use it in an arithmetic computation
– use it in a relational expression
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Returning a Value – the return Statement

• Format: return expression;

• expression may be a variable, a literal value, or
an expression.
• expression should be of the same data type as
the declared return type of the function (it will be
converted if not)

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6.8 Returning a Boolean Value

• A function can return true or false
• You can declare the return type in the function
prototype and header as bool
• The function body must contain return
statement(s) that return true, false, or bool
variables or expressions.
• The calling function can use the return value in a
relational expression

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Boolean return Example

bool isValid(int); // prototype

bool isValid(int val) // header
{
int min = 0, max = 100;
if (val >= min && val <= max)
return true;
else
return false;
}
if (isValid(score)) // call
…
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Programming Style and return
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statements
A function may calculate a return value and use a
single return statement. The previous example
could be written as:
bool isValid(int val) // header
{
bool result;
int min = 0, max = 100;
if (val >= min && val <= max)
result = true;
else
result = false;
return result; // single return
}
…
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6.9 Using Functions in a Menu-Driven
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Program

Functions can be used

• to implement user choices from menus
• to implement general-purpose tasks
- Higher-level functions can call general-purpose
functions
- This minimizes the total number of functions and
speeds program development time

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Screen Management in a Menu-Driven
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Program

You can clear the screen to remove prior output while a

program is running:
– Windows: system("cls");
– Linux and Mac OS: system("clear");
To allow the user enough time to read output before the
screen clears, use code like:
cout << "Press the Enter key to continue.";
cin.get(); // clear the input buffer
cin.get(); // get the Enter key
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6.10 Local and Global Variables

• local variable: is defined within a function or a
block; accessible only within the function or
the block. Parameters are also local
variables.
• Other functions and blocks can define
variables with the same name
• When a function is called, local variables in
the calling function are not accessible from
within the called function
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Local Variable Lifetime

• A local variable only exists while its defining

function is executing
• Local variables created when a function
defines them and are destroyed when the
function terminates
• Data cannot be retained in local variables
between calls to the function in which they are
defined

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Local and Global Variables

• global variable: a variable defined outside all

functions; it is accessible to all functions within
its scope
• Can be sean as an easy way to share data
between functions
• Scope of a global variable is from its point of
definition to the program end
• Use sparingly

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Initializing Local and Global Variables

• Local variables must be initialized by the
programmer
• Global variables are initialized to 0 (numeric) or
NULL (character) when the variable is defined.
These can be overridden with explicit initial
values.

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Global Variables – Why ‘Use Sparingly’?

Global variables make:

• Programs that are difficult to debug

• Functions that cannot easily be re-used in other
programs
• Programs that are hard to understand

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Global Constants

• A global constant is a named constant that can be

used by every function in a program

• It is useful if there are unchanging values that are

used throughout the program
• They are safer to use than global variables, since
the value of a constant cannot be modified during
program execution

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Local and Global Variable Names

• Local variables can have same names as global

variables
• When a function contains a local variable that has
the same name as a global variable, the global
variable is unavailable from within the function.
The local definition "hides" or "shadows" the global
definition.

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6.11 Static Local Variables

• Local variables
– Only exist while the function is executing
– Are redefined each time function is called
– Lose their contents when function terminates
• static local variables
– Are defined with key word static
static int counter;
– Are defined and initialized only the first time the function
is executed
– Retain their values between function calls

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6.12 Default Arguments 1 of 2

• Values that are passed automatically if

arguments are missing from a function call
• Must be a constant or literal declared in the
prototype or header (whichever occurs first)
void evenOrOdd(int x = 0);
• Multi-parameter functions may have default
arguments for some or all parameters
int getSum(int, int=0, int=0);

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Default Arguments 2 of 2
• If not all parameters to a function have default
values, the ones without defaults must be declared
first in the parameter list
int getSum(int, int=0, int=0);// OK
int getSum(int, int=0, int); // wrong!
• When an argument is omitted from a function call,
all arguments after it must also be omitted
sum = getSum(num1, num2); // OK
sum = getSum(num1, , num3); // wrong!

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6.13 Using Reference Variables as

Parameters

• This is a mechanism that allows a function to

work with the original argument from the
function call, not a copy of the argument
• It allows the function to modify values that are
stored in the calling environment
• It provides a way for the function to ‘return’ more
than 1 value

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Reference Variables
• A reference variable is an alias for another
variable
• When used as a function parameter, it is
defined with an ampersand (&) in the
prototype and in the header
void getDimensions(int&, int&);
• Changes made to a reference variable are
made to the variable it refers to
• Use reference variables to implement passing
parameters by reference

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Pass by Reference Example

void squareIt(int &); //prototype

void squareIt(int &num)
{
num *= num;
}
int localVar = 5;
squareIt(localVar); // localVar now
// contains 25

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Reference Variable Notes

• Each reference parameter must contain &

• An argument passed to a reference parameter
must be a variable. It cannot be an expression
or a constant.
• Use only when it is appropriate, such as when
the function must input or change the value of
the argument passed to it.
• Files (i.e., file stream objects) should be
passed by reference.
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6.14 Overloading Functions

• The signature of a function is the function name and the data
types of the parameters, in order. The return type is not part
of the signature.
• Overloaded functions are two or more functions that have
the same name but different signatures
• This can be used to create functions that perform the same
task but take different parameter types or a different number
of parameters
• The compiler will determine which version of the function to
call by the argument and parameter lists

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Overloaded Functions Example

If a program has these overloaded functions,
void getDimensions(int); // 1
void getDimensions(int, int); // 2
void getDimensions(int, float); // 3
void getDimensions(double, double);// 4
then the compiler will use them as follows:
int length, width;
double base, height;
getDimensions(length); // 1
getDimensions(length, width); // 2
getDimensions(length, height); // 3
getDimensions(height, base); // 4
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6.15 The exit() Function

• Terminates the execution of a program

• Can be called from any function
• Can be used to pass a value to operating system
to indicate the status of program execution
• Usually used for abnormal termination of program
• Requires cstdlib header file
• Use it with caution

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exit() – Passing Values to Operating
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System

• Use an integer value to indicate program status

• Often, 0 means successful completion, non-zero
indicates a failure condition
• Can use named constants defined in cstdlib:
–EXIT_SUCCESS and
–EXIT_FAILURE

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6.16 Stubs and Drivers

• Stub: A dummy function used in place of an

actual function
• It usually displays a message indicating it was
called. May also display the values of the
arguments and return a test value.
• Driver: A function that tests a function by calling
it
• Stubs and drivers are useful for testing and
debugging program logic and design
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Copyright

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