Sixth Edition

Defining and Measuring

Variables
Preview
• Measurement
• Constructs
• Types of Variables
• Modalities of Measurement
Identifying Good Measurement

Science requires that we measure things well (not perfectly).

Measurement is often not straightforward in psychology.

 Motivation, emotion, reasoning may all be more difficult to measure than some things in the
“hard” sciences.

Types of variables involved in research

• Well-defined, easily observed, and easily measured
• Examples: height and weight
• Intangible, abstract attributes
• Examples: motivation or self-esteem
• Measurement is more complicated.
Constructs and Operational Definitions
Third step in the research process:
• Determining a method for defining and measuring the variables being studied
• Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values
for different individuals
Constructs
What are constructs (hypothetical constructs)?
• Hypothetical entities created from theory and speculation
• Cannot be seen, but are assumed to exist
• Help explain and predict behavior in a theory
• Examples: Intelligence can be operationally defined as a score on an IQ test; and
“hunger” can be operationally defined as the number of hours of food deprivation.
Limitations of Operational Definitions
An operational definition is not the same as the construct itself.

Concerns about the quality of operational definitions and

measurements produced
• It is easy for operational definitions to leave out important components of a
construct.
• Operational definitions often include extra components that are not part of
the construct being measured.
Variables
Variable: anything that can take on a different quality or quantity.

Independent Variable (IV): influences the DV; is manipulated in an

experiment.

Levels: the treatment conditions within IV.

Dependent Variable (DV): outcome variable. It is the one that is assessed to

determine if the experimental treatment had any effect. Note: DVs do NOT
have levels!
Types of Variables
Qualitative: a discrete variable that VARIES IN KIND, but does not
reflect size or extent of what is being measured.

Quantitative (Categorical): a variable that VARIES in AMOUNT and HAS

MAGNITUDE information associated with it. It tells you something
about how much of the variable you have.
Categorical Variables

Categorical variables name or identify a particular characteristic.

To ease data entry and analysis, we may assign numbers to categorical

variables, but the numbers are arbitrary, not meaningful.

We might code nationality as:

1=US, 2=Canadian, 3=Mexican, 4=Other

But it would be just as meaningful to code them like this:

3=US, 1=Canadian, 4=Mexican, 2=Other

The numbers indicate that we are noticing a difference, but there’s no claim
that US citizens are three times as _____ as Canadians are.
Scales of Measurement
Measurement is a procedure for classifying individuals.
• Scale of measurement is the set of categories used for classification.

The process of measurement involves two components:

• Set of categories
• Procedure for assigning individuals to categories.
Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal: from the LATIN “nomen” which means name. Data are
characterized by category. It’s the SAME thing as a QUALITATIVE
variable.
• Mutually Exclusive: one category only, cannot be in two or more.
• Collectively Exhaustive: must have a category for every observation or case.
• No true zero.
• Examples: Sex, Political Affiliation
2. Ordinal: Ranked observations based on whether they are greater or
less than another. Does not tell you how close or distant the
observations are from one another.
• No true Zero
• Examples: class rank, Finishing position in a race
3. Interval: equal separation between each value, so the difference
between values is known. We can tell which is greater than the other
and by how many units.
• No true zero, 0 does not imply absence
• Therefore, CANNOT say that 100 is twice as large as 50!
• Examples: SAT test scores; Fahrenheit & Celsius temperature (temp.’s < 32º F
& 0º C)
4. Ratio: has all the properties of the interval scale and has an
ABSOLUTE ZERO, representing a true absence.
• Therefore, can make ratio statements – “A is twice as much as B”.
• Examples: Kelvin temperature scale; Height
Nominal, Ordinal, Ratio, or Interval?

• Marital status?
• Nominal
• IQ of your classmates?
• Interval
• Olympic medals of gold, silver, & bronze?
• Ordinal
• Hometown of WSU students?
• Nominal
• Number of words remembered on a memory test?
• Ratio
• Driving speed?
• Ratio
Selecting a Scale of Measure
What is the scale’s ability in comparing different measurements?
• Nominal: reveals whether a difference exists
• Ordinal: indicate the direction of the difference (which is more and which is
less)
• Interval: determines the direction and the magnitude of a difference
• Ratio: determines the direction, magnitude, and ratio of a difference
Types of Variables
Discrete/Discontinuous: A variable that comes in whole units or
categories; it is either there or not – usually expressed as some finite
number.

Continuous: A variable that forms a continuum. It can be represented

by fractional and whole units.
Modalities of Measurement
Self-report measures ask participants direct questions to study
behavior.
• Provides a direct measure; validity is dubious.

Physiological measures are based on manifestations of the underlying

construct.
• e.g., galvanic skin response (GSR) and MRIs
• Provide objective measures
• Require expensive equipment; may not provide valid measures of constructs
Modalities of Measurement
Behavioral measures are based on overt behaviors that can be
observed and measured.
• Provide researchers with a vast number of options
• Possible to select the behavior(s) that seems to be best for defining and measuring the
construct
• Behaviors may be only a temporary or situational indicators of an underlying
construct.
Other Aspects of Measurement
Multiple measures provide more confidence in the validity of the
measurements.
• Can introduce problems
• Complex statistical analysis and interpretation
• Lack of agreement between two measures
• Method for limiting problems
• Combine the measures into a single score or each individual
Sensitivity and Range Effects
Range effect: a measurement that is not sensitive enough to detect a
difference
• Ceiling effect: clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale
• Allowing little or no possibility of increases in value
• Floor effect: clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale
• Allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value
Artifacts: Experimenter Bias and Participant
Reactivity
Artifact (Error): a non-natural feature accidentally introduced into
something being observed
• Experimenter bias: measurements are influenced by the experimenter’s
expectations regarding the outcome of the study.
Limiting Experimenter Bias
Standardize or automate the experiment

Single-blind study
• The research study is conducted by an experimenter who does not know the
expected results.

Double-blind study
• Neither the experimenter nor the participants know the expected results of
the study.
Demand Characteristics and Participant
Reactivity
Demand characteristics refer to any of the potential cues or features of
a study that:
• suggest to the participants the purpose and hypothesis of the study, and
• influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.

Reactivity
• Participants modify their natural behavior in response to knowing they are in
a study.
Demand Characteristics and Participant
Reactivity
Good subject role
• Supports the experimenter’s hypothesis

Negativistic subject role

• Acts contrary to the hypothesis

Apprehensive subject role

• Presents himself in a “good light”

Faithful subject role

• Follows instructions to the letter (ideal participant)
Selecting a Measurement Procedure
Start by reviewing past literature.

Use the conventional way of measuring a variable so that your results

can be compared to previous studies.

If more than one procedure exists, consider which will best answer
your question.
• Especially consider how much sensitivity in measurement you will need.
Review
• Measurement
• Constructs
• Types of Variables
• Modalities of Measurement