Lecture 8

Data sources in GIS

Introduction
• Since the purpose of any GIS is to generate
information it will have to utilize data.

• GIS utilises data from many sources and should have

the capacity to capture these.

• Some of these may be in digital format whilst others

may be in analogue format.

• Some may be spatial whilst others may be non-

spatial (attribute).

• Further some may be existing and some will be

derived.

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1. Maps
A map is defined as a graphic representation in which real-
world features have been replaced with symbols in their
correct spatial location at a reduced scale

Maps are frequently used as a method to determine location

in space

Thematic and topographic maps generally represent features

or some aspect of the real world. They are thus an
abstraction of reality

Hence may contain some degree of generalization and

distortion in their spatial properties

Much smaller size than true features they represent

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Two Types of Maps
a. Analogue (paper maps): geographic data about the
environment are conventionally represented in the form of
paper maps, which are analog models of the real world.

• In these “real” maps, features are represented using

different symbols (lines,points, polygons, etc) in different
lengths, thicknesses, colours.

• All visual maps display characteristics of projection, scale

and symbolization.

• Some examples of analog maps are topographical maps,

geological maps, soil maps and vegetation maps.

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Types of Maps Cont’d

b. Digital maps: a digital map on the other hand stores the

spatial data together with all the properties required to draw
the map in a coded format, without any of these properties
being fixed.

• Only when it is necessary to produce a graphic image of the

map are these parameters specified.

• Thus the digital map is subject to changes in projection, scale

and symbolization by mathematical manipulations at the time
of displaying and production.

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Types of Maps Cont’d
• Example, a road may be represented in both analog and
digital map form. In the analog version it is depicted at a
fixed scale and a standard symbol e.g. a red line, whose
thickness indicates its width and the only information which
the map reader can derive is that which is directly
measurable from the visual image (such as the distance
between two intersections).

• In its digital form the road is represented by a series of

coordinates and attribute information about its width and
name etc. here it should be noted that the coordinates of
the road may be reprojected or drawn with different scale
and symbolization.

• A GIS would be able to use the digital information to

calculate the exact distance between two features (subject
to the accuracy of the input data), without recourse to a
graphic image at all.
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Types of Maps Cont’d
• Additionally many fields of attribute information may be
held which could not all be shown in a single visual analog
map, but any of which may be included in database
manipulation and query.

• unlike the analog model where the visual image is always

required, in GIS answers to questions may be derived
directly from the digital data base through different queries.

• Despite these advantages, it is important to remember that

most digital maps begin with one or more analog maps
which are encoded (digitized), and the resulting
representation cannot be of greater accuracy or precision
than the source data.

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Analog and Digital Maps Illustrated

Digital map

Analog Topographical map

Essential Elements of a Map

• A Good map should contains the following key elements

– Map title
– Legend (key)
– North arrow
– Scale bar
• These elements make a map to “speak for itself”
• However other essential features that contribute to the
beauty of a map are or provide additional information are:
– Neatline or border
– Name of producer
– Data
– Attribute or written texts inserted on the map
Differentiate Between Analog & Digital Maps
• Analog • Digital
2. Aerial Photographs

1:60 000
• Sometimes simply referred as air photos
• These are photos taken by special cameras, mounted on an
air craft
• These photos can be black & white or in colour (colour sir
photos)
• They are scanned & imported into GIS where they are geo-
referenced to facilitate further analysis
• Features on black & white air photos must be interpreted
using techniques of air photo interpretation to enable
proper feature extraction and analysis.
• Features are extracted from air photos by a process known
as digitizing.
• Features are digitized as lines, points & polygons.
• The process of taking air photos, interpreting & analysing
them is known as photogrammetry
3. Orthophotographs

1:10 000
Orthophoto
• Simply known as orthophotos
• They are modified versions of aerial photographs, they are in
fact smaller sub-divisions of aerial photos that have been
corrected.
• Because they are zoomed in portions of aerial photos, they
are larger in size, large scale, high resolution in comparison
to aerial photos
• In South Africa, most common have a scale of 1:10 000,
hence contain more details.
• Like air photos, they too most be scanned, imported into GIS
and geo-referenced.
• Data is then extracted from them through digitizing.
4. Derived Data
• Information can be generated or extrapolated from existing
data to fill missing gaps in the existing data.
• The method to accomplish this is resampling or interpolation
• The principle behind resampling and interpolation is that if
you have two or more known points with known values (or
data), you can be able to deduce the unknown value in the
space between them.
• Resampling takes place in two ways:
– By creating additional data points from known ones to fill
the gaps
– By summarizing or grouping the existing data for
simplification
• In raster images one can resample the raster cells (create new
cells) and give them calculated values, in other words, read
the surrounding cell values & use this as a basis for estimating
the values of the new cell or for improving the data quality.
Derived: additional data creation
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Derived: Simplification
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Derived Data Cont’d
• Data can also be derived by digitizing from existing maps
(topographical maps, orthophotos and aerial photos).
• Digitizing is the process of ‘converting geographic data either
from a hard copy or a scanned image into vector data by
tracing features’.
• They are two types:
- Manual digitizing
- Digital digitizing
5. Field Surveys
• Generally two main kinds of surveys
• 1st social survey using questionnaires, carried out in social
studies e.g population survey (income, age groups,
educational levels, etc.)
• In order to be mapped in GIS, the GPS location for each
survey location is essential
• 2nd Scientific survey carried out by architects, scientist and
engineers.
• May use equipments like theodolite and a calibrated staff or
modern sophisticated GPS
• In scientific surveys, it is also very important to obtain the
coordinates of each point.
• Survey data from engineering come as CAD (Computer
assisted design)data and must be converted into GIS
shapefiles to be used in ArcGIS.
Surveying with a theodolite
6. Interviews
• Interviews are a sampling method used mostly in socio-
economics studies.
• But can be integrated with scientific data
• To be mapped in GIS, the coordinates of all those
interviewed must be obtained.
7. Paper Files
• Many organizations and government institutions keep
records on paper stored on shelves or in filing cabinets
• Examples include:
– The housing department with property records
– Department of land affairs with land records
– The department of Agriculture with farm records
– Utility companies (water, electricity, telephone, gas, etc)
• Many of these are now gradually transforming their paper
records into digital format making them easy to be mapped
in GIS
• Hence these records are GIS data sources
• Geocoding addresses
8. Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

The GPS System

• GPS is a constellation of 24 satellites that transmit (24 hrs a
day to Earth), timing and ranging information, which when
received and processed by suitable receivers will report the
instrument's spatial location to a given geographic
referencing system.
• GPS is based on satellite ranging (i.e. figuring our position on
earth by measuring our distance from a group of satellites).
• Mathematically we need four measurements to determine
exact position
• GPS vary in their capabilities, simple single position GPS may
only record the long/lat position of a feature. You then have
to records the attributes in a notebook to be later
transferred into GIS along with the long/lat positions
• Some GPS like Trimble not only allows you to capture points
but also lines & polygons by walking along the line or round
the polygon. You can also capture attribute info in Trimble
GPS.
• These are later transferred into GIS for further analysis.
Trimble GPS data collection
9. REMOTE SENSING (RS)
• REMOTE SENSING IS DEFINED AS THE SCIENCE, ART OR
TECHNIQUE OF GATHERING DATA OR INFORMATION ABOUT
MATERIAL OBJECTS BY MEANS OF MEASUREMENTS MADE
OVER A DISTANCE WITHOUT ANY PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH
THE OBJECT.
• THE INSTRUMENTS USED ARE SENSORS (DETECTORS)
MOUNTED ON PLATFORM (AIRBORN AND SPACEBORN)
• GENERALLY THEY USE RADIANT ENERGY FROM THE SUN OR
PRODUCE THEIR OWN ENERY.
• ENERGY INTERACT WITH GROUND FEATURES AND REFLECTED
BACK TO THE SENSOR WHICH THEN REGISTERS THE SIGNATURE
OF THE FEATURE
• THIS DATA IS SENT TO A GROUND LAB WHICH PRINTS AN
IMAGE OF THE GROUND FEATURES CAPTURED BY THE SENSOR
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A: Energy
source
B: Energy
C: Interaction
with features
D: Recording by
sensor
E: Transmission
to ground lab
F: Image &
Analysis
G: Application

The Remote Sensing Process

REMOTE SENSIG CONT’D
• SATELLITE IMAGES ARE CORRECTED FOR VARIOUS DISTORTIONS AND
PROCESSED FOR CLARITY BEFORE ENTRY INTO GIS
• AN ESSENTIAL STEP TO DATA IMPUT FROM RS TO GIS IS IMAGE
CLASSIFICATION
• THIS IS THE PROCESS IN RS DURING WHICH FEATURES ARE GROUPED
ACCORDING TO COLOURS THEY REFLECT. DIFFERENT FEATURES
REFLECT DIFFERENT COLOURS AND ARE GROUP DIFFERENTLY
ACCORDING TO THE COLOUR THEY REFLECT, E.G WATER BODIES,
FOREST, URBAN, ETC
• SOME SENSORS DO NOT CAPTURE THE TRUE COLOURS OF THE
FEATURES BUT MAY REPRESENT THEM WITH A “FALSE COLOUR” E.G
VEGETATION IN RED, RIVERS & SEAS IN BLACK AND URBAN AREAS IN
PALE YELLOW
• ONCE THE WHOLE IMAGE HAS BEEN CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE
FEATURES REPRESENTED (LANDCOVER), THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES
OR FEATURE TYPES ARE THEN EXPORTED FROM RS AS A DATA SOURCE
INTO GIS FOR FURTHER ANALYSIS
A Remotely Sensed image in “false colour” 29
Comparing RS, Air Photos, Orthopotos & Topo Maps
Remote Air Photos Orthophotos Topo Maps
Sensing
Maps and
Plans
Digital data Paper files

Data

GIS

Data
Data

Photogrammetry Interviews

Data

Remote Sensing Field survey

GIS Data Sources: A Summary

10 Internet Sources
Organizations and Institutions
• eThekwini Corporate GIS: www.gis.durban.gov.za
• National Geospatial Information: http://www.ngi.gov.za/
• ESRI SA: https://www.esri-southafrica.com/data/
• SANBI: www. http://bgis.sanbi.org/SpatialDataset
• Department of Environmental affairs: ??
• Department of water affairs: ??
• Department of transport: ??
• South African weater services:??
• South African National Space Agency:??
• Companies: ????