CHAPTER 11

MOTIVATION

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–1
LECTURE OUTLINE

• Nature of motivation
• Needs theories
• Cognitive theories
• Reinforcement theory
• Social learning theory

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–2
NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is the force energising,
or giving direction to, behaviour.
It is a complex interaction of
behaviours, needs, rewards,
reinforcement and cognitive
activities.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–3
NATURE OF MOTIVATION

ability X motivation X environmental = performance

conditions

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–4
NEEDS THEORIES

• Hierarchy-of-needs theory
(Maslow)
• Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
• ERG theory (Aldefer)
• Acquired-needs theory
(McClelland)

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–5
NEEDS THEORIES

Hierarchy-of-needs theory (Maslow)

Theory arguing that individual needs
form a five-level hierarchy

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–6
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Self-actualisation

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological
Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–7
NEEDS THEORIES
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)

Herzberg’s theory that hygiene factors

are necessary to keep workers from
feeling dissatisfied, but only
motivators can lead workers to feel
satisfied and motivated.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–8
NEEDS THEORIES

• Hygiene factors
Factors seeming to make individuals feel
dissatisfied with their jobs
• Motivators
Factors seeming to make individuals feel
satisfied with their jobs

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–9
NEEDS THEORIES
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Hygiene factors
• PAY
• WORKING CONDITIONS
• SUPERVISORS
• COMPANY POLICIES
• FRINGE BENEFITS
These factors help prevent dissatisfaction.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–10
NEEDS THEORIES
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Motivators
• ACHIEVEMENT
• RESPONSIBILITY
• WORK ITSELF
• RECOGNITION
• GROWTH
• ADVANCEMENT
These factors promote satisfaction.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–11
NEEDS THEORIES
ERG theory (Alderfer)
Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs theory, which argues that there
are three levels of individual needs.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–12
NEEDS THEORIES
ERG theory (Alderfer)
• Existence needs
Material & physiological desires
• Relatedness needs
Need to be accepted & to interact
• Growth needs
Need for creativity & productive impact

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–13
NEEDS THEORIES
Existence
Existenceneeds
needs Relatedness
Relatednessneeds
needs
Physiological
Physiological(food,
(food,water)
water) Relationships
Relationshipswith
withfamily,
family,
Pay
Pay work
workandandprofessional
professional
Benefits
Benefits groups
groups
Working
Workingconditions
conditions

Growth
Growthneeds
needs Satisfaction-progression
Satisfaction-progression
Creativity
Creativity principle
principle
Innovation
Innovation Frustration-regression
Frustration-regression
Productivity
Productivity principle
principle

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–14
NEEDS THEORIES

Acquired-needs theory (McClelland)

Theory stating that our needs are

acquired or learned on the basis of
our life experiences.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–15
NEEDS THEORIES
Acquired needs theory (McClelland)
• Need for achievement
Desire to accomplish challenging tasks
• Need for affiliation
Desire to have warm, friendly relationships
• Need for power
Desire to influence & control

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–16
NEEDS THEORIES
Acquired needs theory
Developed
Developedby byDavid
DavidMcClelland
McClelland
Cites
Citesthe
theneeds
needsfor
for achievement,
achievement, power,
power,
and
andaffiliation
affiliationas
asmajor
major motives
motivesin
inwork
work

Need
Needfor
forachievement—drive
achievement—driveto toexcel
excel
Need
Needfor
forpower—influence
power—influenceothers’
others’behaviour
behaviour
Need
Needfor
foraffiliation—desire
affiliation—desirefor
for friendly
friendly
and
andclose
closeinterpersonal
interpersonalrelationships
relationships

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–17
COGNITIVE THEORIES

• Expectancy theory
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–18
COGNITIVE THEORIES

Expectancy theory (Vroom)

Theory arguing that we consider

three main issues (effort-performance,
performance-outcome, and valence)
before we expend effort necessary to
perform at a given level.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–19
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Expectancy theory (Vroom)

• Effort-performance expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the
required level of performance.
• Performance-outcome expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our successful
performance will lead to desired outcomes.
• Valence
Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or
rewards.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–20
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Equity theory (Adams)
Theory arguing that we prefer
situations of balance, or equity.
Implications for managers:
– Communication essential to assess
equity/inequity perceptions in employees
– Complementary to expectancy theory

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–21
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory [technique] works
by focusing attention & action,
mobilising effort, increasing
persistence, & encouraging the
development of strategy to achieve
goals.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–22
REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Theory arguing that our behaviour can

be explained by consequences in the
environment.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–23
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Types of reinforcement:
• Positive
Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to
encourage desired behaviour. Use of shaping.
• Negative
Stimuli (unpleasant) so an individual will engage in
the desired behaviour to stop the stimuli.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–24
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Types of reinforcement (cont.):
• Extinction
Stopping previously available positive outcomes
from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour.
• Punishment
Providing negative consequences to decrease or
discourage a behaviour.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–25
REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Fixed Using
Using
Fixed
Fixedinterval:
interval: Fixedratio:
ratio:
given
givenon onfixed
fixedtime
time given
givenafter
afterfixed
fixednumber
number reinforcement
reinforcement
schedule.
schedule.Uneven
Uneven ofofcases
casesofofdesired
desiredbehaviour.
behaviour. theory:
theory:
responses;
responses;extinction High
Highresponse
responserates,
rates,rapid encourage
extinction rapid encouragedesired
desired
rapid
rapidififreinforcement
reinforcement extinguishment
extinguishmentififstopped
stopped behaviour,
even behaviour,be beclear
clear
late,
late,ororstops
stops eventemporarily.
temporarily. on
onwhat
whatisisdesired.
desired.
Use
Usevariable
variableinterval
interval
Variable
Variableinterval:
interval: &&variable
variableratio
ratio
Variable
Variableratio:
ratio:
given
givenononvariable
variableoror reinforcement.
reinforcement.
given
givenononvariable
variableoror
random
randomtimetimebasis.
basis. random Punish
Punishmoderately
moderately
High, randomfrequency
frequency
High,steady
steady ofofbehaviour
behaviourbasis.
basis. severely
severely&&promptly.
promptly.
response
responserate,rate,slow
slow High
extinguishment, Highresponse
responserate,
rate,
extinguishment, very
veryslow
slowextinguishment
extinguishment
ififstopped
stopped

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–26
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory (Bandura)

Theory arguing that learning occurs
through continuous reciprocal
interaction of our behaviours, various
personal factors and environmental
forces.

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–27
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Learning occurs by continuous

interaction between our behaviours,
personal factors and environmental
forces, viz.:
• Symbolic processes
• Self-control/regulation
• Vicarious learning

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–28
LECTURE SUMMARY
• Nature of motivation
Motivational process
Motivation & performance
• Needs theories
Hierarchy of needs
Two-factor
ERG
Acquired needs

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–29
LECTURE SUMMARY
• Cognitive theories
Expectancy
Equity
Goal-setting
• Reinforcement theory
Positive, negative, extinction, punishment as
reinforcement
• Social learning theory
Symbolic processes, self-control, vicarious
learning

Copyright  2005 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd

PPTs t/a Management: A Pacific Rim Focus 4e by Bartol, Tein, Matthews, Martin 11–30