Introduction to Histology

By
Martha Orendu Oche Attah Ph.D.
Terminology
 Histology is coined from two words:
 Histos – Tissue
 Logos – study of
 Histology means study of tissues
 These tissues are organized to form organs and these organs are
viewed using a microscope
(microscopic anatomy)
Applications of Histology

 Uses/values of histology
 Education- way to understand the function (physiology) of cells/tissues/organs/systems. If
one understands the structure then one can deduce the function and vice versa. It also helps
students understand the microstructures of biological tissues.
 Diagnosis – to inform treatment options
 Research – Histology is indispensable in biological research
 Forensic investigations (Autopsy)- to determine possible causes of sudden death.
 Archeology – for tissues recovered from archeological sites ie bone and teeth, provide
insights into history and past events
Tissue Preparation

 Steps in slide preparation

 Tissue collection and preparation
 Fixation
 Processing
 Embedding
 Sectioning
 Staining
 Mounting
 Microscopy
Tissue Processing Procedures
Basic Histological Equipment for Tissue
Harvest
Freshly Harvested Tissue
Tissue Fixation
Tissue Fixation
Fixation of Tissue in 10% Formalin
Tissue Trimming
Tissue dehydration using Series of Alcohol
Placing the Tissue in a Mold
Embedding of Tissue in Molten Paraffin wax
Tissue Block
Paraffin Block with Embedded Tissue
Tissue Sectioning
Tissue Sectioning Using a Microtome
Tissue Stretching, Mounting on slides and
Rehydration
Stainer
Staining of Tissues
Covering of the slide with a coverslip
Stained Tissue
Tissue Labelling and Viewing
Micrograph

 A micrograph or photomicrograph is a
photograph or digital image taken through a
microscope or similar device to show a
magnified image of an object.
 Micrography is the practice or art of using
microscopes to make photographs.
Basophilia, Eosinophilia and Chromophilia
Microscopes

 Microscopes are specialized optical instruments designed to produce magnified images of

specimens that are too small to be seen with the naked eye
 It is a very powerful tool for understanding the structure and function of tissues and is
widely used in biomedical science courses, as well as in research and diagnostic
laboratories
 The ability to identify structures and specific cell types has been greatly aided by different
staining techniques and by immunohistochemistry.
Microscopes used in study of Cells

 Light Microscope
 Electron Microscope:
 Transmission Electron Microscope
 Scanning Electron Microscope
Light Microscope
How the Microscope Works
 The specimen is placed on the staged
 Light is reflected or projected through or onto the specimen.
 Reflected or projected light from the specimen passes through the objective lenses which magnify the
resultant image (e.g. 10 X).
 The light forming the image from the objective then passes through the eyepiece lenses which again
magnify the image (e.g. 10X).
 The spacing of the of the lenses relative to each other and to the specimen and the position of ones eyes
acts to focus the image on the retina.
 In the example above, the magnification of the image would be, …… 10 x 10 = 100X
Definition of Terms

 Cells: this is the basic unit of life capable of independent survival

 Tissue: interwoven masses of cells and extracellular material
 Organ: Formed by collection of tissues that forms functional unit
specialized for a specific function
 Organ systems: Formed by a collection of organs
Embryonic Tissue
• 3 major germ layers that form the embryonic disc (source of stem cells)
– Endoderm
• Inner layer
• Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives
– Mesoderm
• Middle layer
• Forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels
– Ectoderm
• Outer layer
• Forms skin and neuroectoderm
Embryonic Tissue
Histological Study of Structures

 Tissue structure can be studied to observe how cells combine with extracellular material.
 Cellular structure can be studied to observe the cellular shape, arrangements,
specializations
 Subcellular structures are studied to observe cellular organelles and inclusions.
 Histochemical structure is studied to observe energy molecules (lipid, protein and
carbohydrates), structural molecules (actin, myosin, tubulin etc), information molecules
(DNA, RNA), catalysts (enzymes) and antigenicity molecules (immunoglobins).
Basic Tissue
 All the tissues of the body are formed from four basic
types of tissue
 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue
 Nervous tissue
Epithelial Tissue
 It’s a type of tissue with one or more layers of cells
lining the
 Outer surface of the body
 Luminal surface of cavities
 Lines the ducts and glands (Secretory function)
 Lies on a basement membrane
General Features of Epithelial Tissue
 Covers the surface of the body
 Lines all cavities and tubular organs.
 Forms glands
 The edge of the adjacent cells are closely packed together and their
intercellular substance is sparse
 The edge of the adjacent cells are connected by cell junctions such as cell
junction /desmosomes.
 The cells in the basal layer of the epithelium rests on the basement
membrane.
 The epithelium is avascular (no direct blood supply) and is nourished by
diffusion from the underlying connective tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Simple Epithelium

 Simple Squamous Epithelium

 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
 Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium
 Pseudostratified Columnar Ciliated Epithelium
Simple Epithelium
Stratified Epithelium

 Stratified Squamous Keratinizing Epithelium

 Stratified Squamous Non- Keratinizing Epithelium
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
 Stratified Columnar Epithelium
 Transitional Epithelium
Stratified Epithelium
Connective Tissue

 Tissues which connects or binds other tissues of the body is called connective
tissues
 As its name implies, connective tissue ‘connects’ the other tissues in the body.
 All connective tissues are Embryological derivative from Mesenchyme
(Mesoderm)
 Common forms of connective tissue
 Embryonic connective tissue
 Connective tissue proper
 Specialized connective tissue – blood / bone / cartilage
Constituents of Connective Tissue
 The major components of connective tissue are:
 Fibers: collagen, elastin or reticular
 Cells e.g. Fibroblasts, adipocytes, lymphocytes
 Ground substance: semisolid gel containing glycoproteins and
other mucopolysaccharides.
Connective Tissue

a b c
Loose Connective Tissue (a)Areolar (b)Adipose (c)Reticular
Connective tissues

a b c
Dense Connective Tissue (a) Dense regular (b) Dense Irregular (c) Elastic
Specialized Connective Tissue

a b
Specialized Connective Tissue (a) Hyaline Cartilage (b) Bone
Muscle Tissue : General Features
 They are composed of cells that are specialized to shorten in length by
contraction resulting in movements.
 Basically made of myocytes.
 It is elongated in one direction = Muscle fibers
 Each muscle fiber is closely invested by connective tissue, which in
turn is connected to other muscle fibers.
 Force of contraction by muscle fiber is transmitted to other structures
through connective tissue.
 Muscle fibers are generally classified into three types: Skeletal, Cardiac
and Smooth
Types of Skeletal Muscle

 Skeletal Muscle
 Smooth Muscle
 Cardiac Muscle
Types of Muscles: Skeletal Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Nervous Tissue

 Nervous tissue is a tissue that is adapted for transmission

of impulses
 The basic cell is the neuron.
 The neuron transmits impulses through its axon .
 Neuroglia supports the neurons
Generic neuron

 Large cell body (aka soma or

perikaryon)
 Large, euchromatic nucleus (and
usually a prominent nucleolus)
 Extensive cytoplasmic extensions:
 Dendrite(s): single or multiple
extensions specialized for
receiving input
 Axon: single, large extension
specialized for conveying output
(in humans, can be up to 1.5m in
length)
Motor neuron with Nissl bodies

D
NU N
D
NB
NB

AH
V
A
D

Figure showing the micrograph of a neuron

A-axon D-dendrite N-nucleus NB-Nissl body AH-axon hillock V-blood vessel NU-nucleolus