COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

AND ARCHITECTURE
INTRODUCTION

In computer science and engineering computer

architecture is the practical art of selecting and
interconnecting hardware components to create computers
that meet functional, performance and cost goals and the
formal modeling of those systems.
The functional blocks in a computer are of four types:

1. Central Processing Unit

2. Memory
3. Input Unit
4. Output Unit
STRUCTURE OF DESKTOP COMPUTERS
Data Path
Control Signals
Auxilliary Storage
(Backing Storage)
To Supplement main storage

Memory
Output
Input
Unit
Unit

Control Unit ALU

Registers

Processor
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
 The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is
referred as the brain of a computer system.
 CPU consists of three main subsystems, the Control Unit
(CU), the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and the
Registers.
 Speed of the computer system is defined by the
architecture of the processor being used.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT
 The ALU contains electronic circuits necessary to
perform arithmetic and logical operations.
 The arithmetic operations are ADD, SUBSTRACT,
MULTIPLY, DIVIDE, etc.
 The logical operations include COMPARE, SHIFT,
ROTATE, AND, OR, etc
 The control unit analyses each instruction in the program
and sends the relevant signals to all other units – ALU,
Memory, Input unit and Output unit
COMMUNICATION INSIDE A COMPUTER
CONTROL UNIT
 It is responsible for directing and coordinating most of
the computer system activities.
 It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other
parts of the computer system what to do.
 It determines the movement of electronic signals
between the main memory and arithmetic logic unit as
well as the control signals between the CPU and
input/output devices.
CONTROL UNIT(CONDT…)
 According to instruction, control unit issues signals to
other units.
 After instruction is executed, the result of the instruction
is stored in memory or stored temporarily in the registry,
so that this can be used by the next instruction.
 The results of a program are taken out of the computer
through the output unit.
REGISTER
 Group of flip flop used to store a word(data)
 Flip flop is nothing but hardware

 High speed temporary storage for holding data,address and

instructions
 Registers are a type of computer memory built directly
into the processor or CPU (Central Processing Unit)
that is used to store and manipulate data during the
execution of instructions. A register may hold
an instruction, a storage address, or any kind of data
(such as a bit sequence or individual characters).
 Register may be 8/16/32/128 bit depending on its use

 1 flip flop hold one bit (0 and 1)

GENERAL REGISTER ORGANIZATION
 CPU Registers – General Purpose Registers
Special Purpose Registers
General Purpose Registers: these components are general
use memory storage in the CPU that can be accessed
very fast (as compared to RAM); they are created from
combining latches with a decoder.
Special Purpose Registers: these components are
dedicated memory storage in the CPU that can be
accessed very fast.(Execution time)
FIVE REGISTERS ARE SHOWN:
 Program Counter (PC)
 Instruction Register (IR)

 Memory address register (MAR)

 Memory data register(MDR)

 Accumulator.

Program Counter (PC): The Program Counter keeps

track of the memory address of the next instruction
to be fetched and executed.
Instruction Register (IR): The Instruction Register
holds the currently fetched instruction being
executed.
Memory Address Register (MAR): it holds the address
of the location to be accessed from memory.
Memory data register(MDR): A register used for holding
information (either program words or data words) that is in
the process of being transferred from the memory to the
central processor, or vice versa.

Accumulator: This is the most frequently used register

used to store data taken from memory. It is in different
numbers in different microprocessors.
CONTROL WORD
 Control address means the address of a particular control
word. This address is stored in control address register
just like MAR in instruction cycle. The address of the
next microinstruction to be performed is provided by
micro sequencer just like program counter (PC) in
instruction cycle.
 Number of cycles = Number of microinstructions (Basic
assumption is 1 microinstruction takes 1 cycle to
operate) = 6

 Hence total number of microinstructions = 215 * 6 =

1290
STACK ORGANIZATION
 Stack is a linear data structure.
 It uses Last in First out (LIFO) access method which
is the most popular access method in most of the CPU.
 Stack is a part of register unit or memory unit with a
resistor that holds the address for the Stack
 A register is used to store the address of the topmost
element of the stack which is known as Stack pointer
(SP).
THE MAIN TWO OPERATIONS THAT ARE
PERFORMED ON THE OPERATORS OF
THE STACK ARE PUSH AND POP. THESE
TWO OPERATIONS ARE PERFORMED
FROM ONE END ONLY
 Push –This operation results in inserting one operand at the
top of the stack and it decrease the stack pointer register.
 POP-This operation results in deleting one operand from the
top of the stack and it increase the stack pointer register

• In a 64-word stack, the stack pointer contains 6 bits because

26 = 64.

INSTRUCTION FORMAT
 A computer performs a task based on the instructions
provided. Instructions in computers are comprised of
groups called fields.
 These fields contain different information for computers
which are all written in 0s and 1s.
 Each field has a different significance or meaning, based
on which a CPU decides what to perform
 The most common fields are:

 The operation field specifies the operation to be

performed, like addition.
 Address field which contains the location of the operand,
i.e., register or memory location.
 Mode field which specifies how operand is to be
founded.
TYPES OF INSTRUCTION FORMAT
 There are 4 types of instruction fomat
 Zero Address Instructions:These instructions do not
specify any operands or addresses.
 One Address Instructions:These instructions specify
one operand or address.
 Two Address Instructions:These instructions specify
two operands or addresses, which may be memory
locations or registers.
 Three Address Instructions:These instructions specify
three operands or addresses, which may be memory
locations or registers.
I/O SYSTEM BUS
 A group of wires called bus is used to provide necessary
signals for communication between modules
 Each component should be able to communicate with
other for proper execution of instructions and
information flow.
 A bus is a shared transmission medium, it must only be
used by one device at a time and when used to connect
major computer components (CPU, memory, I/O) is
‘called a system bus.
DATA BUS:
 As the name suggests, data bus is used for transmitting
the data / instruction from CPU to memory/IO and vice-
versa.
 It is bi-directional.

• The width of a data bus refers to the number of bits

(electrical wires) that the bus can carry at a time.
• Each line carries 1 bit at a time. So, the number of lines
in data bus determine how many bits can be transferred
parallely.
• The width of data bus is an important parameter because
it determines how much data can be transmitted at one
time.
• The wider the bus width, faster would be the data flow
on the data bus and thus better would be the system
performance.
 Examples-
• A 32-bit bus has thirty two (32) wires and thus can
transmit 32 bits of data at a time.
• A 64-bit bus has sixty four (64) wires and thus can
transmit 64 bits of data at a time.
CONTROL BUS:
 As the name suggests, control bus is used to transfer the
control and timing signals from one component to the
other component.
 The CPU uses control bus to communicate with the
devices that are connected to the computer system
 The CPU transmits different types of control signals to
the system components
 It is bi-directional.
 Typical control signals hold by control bus-
• Memory read – Data from memory address location to
be placed on data bus.
• Memory write – Data from data bus to be placed on
memory address location.
• I/O Read – Data from I/O address location to be placed
on data bus.
• I/O Write – Data from data bus to be placed on I/O
address location.
 Example-

 When CPU wants to read or write data, it sends the

memory read or memory write control signal on the
control bus to perform the memory read or write
operation from the main memory. Similarly, when the
processor wants to read from an I/O device, it generates
the I/O read signal
ADDRESS BUS:
•As the name suggests, address bus is used to carry address
from CPU to memory/IO devices.
•It is used to identify the particular location in memory.

•It carries the source or destination address of data i.e.

where to store or from where to retrieve the data.
•It is uni-directional.

•The width of address bus determines the amount of

physical memory addressable by the processor.
•In other words, it determines the size of the memory that
the computer can use.
•The wider is the address bus, the more memory a
computer will be able to use.
 Example-
 When CPU wants to read or write data, it sends the
memory read or memory write control signal on the
control bus to perform the memory read or write
operation from the main memory and the address of the
memory location is sent on the address bus.
 If CPU wants to read data stored at the memory location
(address) 4, the CPU send the value 4 in binary on the
address bus.
REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE:
 Symbolic natation used to describe the micro operations
transfer among register is called a register transfer
language
 Registers are a type of computer memory built directly
into the processor or CPU (Central Processing Unit) that
is used to store and manipulate data during the execution
of instructions.
 Micro-operations : The operation executed on the data
store in registers are called microoperations. They are
detailed low-level instructions used in some designs to
implement complex machine instructions.
 Example- Shift , Count , Clear , Load (Operations)
BUS TRANSFER:
 A digital computer has many registers and it is necessary
to provide data path between them to transfer
information from one register to another. There will be
excess number of wires and controlling of those wires
make circuit complex.
 A bus consists of a set of common lines, one for each bit
of register, through which binary information is
transferred one at a time. Control signals determine
which register is selected by the bus during a particular
register transfer.
 The common bus scheme can be implemented in two
ways.
⦁ Using multiplexers.
⦁ Using tri-state bus buffers
TRANSFER FROM REGISTER TO BUS
USING MULTIPLEXERS FOR 4 REGISTER:
USING TRI-STATE BUS BUFFERS:
 A three-state bus buffer is an integrated circuit that
connects multiple data sources to a single bus. The open
drivers can be selected to be either a logical high, a
logical low, or high impedance which allows other
buffers to drive the bus
 tri-state buffers at the input side are control by a
common control signal Rin. When Rin is active the n-bit
data from the common bus is loaded into the register.
MEMORY TRANSFER:
MEMORY
 Memory is the computer's electronic scratchpad or local
store in computer terminology.
 Used for temporary storage of calculations, data, and
other work in progress.
 Two types: Primary and Secondary

 Primary memory or the main memory is part of the main

computer system. The primary memory itself is of two
types.
 The first is called random access memory (RAM) and
the other is read only memory (ROM).
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
 The processor directly stores and retrieves information
from it.
 Memory is organized into locations. Each memory
location is identified by a unique address. The access
time is same for all location.
 It is volatile: when turned off, everything in RAM
disappears.
 Two types:
TYPES OF RAM
 Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM):
This type RAM retain the content of any location only
for a few milliseconds. Within that period, each
location must be written again with the same contents.
This is known as refreshing.

 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):

This type of RAM preserves the contents of all the
locations as long as the power supply is present. SRAM
is generally included in a computer system by the name
of cache.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)
 Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be
modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly
used to distribute.
 The instructions in ROM are built into the electronic
circuits of the chip which is called firmware.
 Random access in nature and non-volatile.
TYPES OF ROM
 Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time
programmable ROM can be written to or programmed via a
special device called a PROM programmer.
 Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be
erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light then rewritten
with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage
applied.
 Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
(EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor structure to
EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to
be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they
need not be removed from the computer
FLASH MEMORY
 Modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984.
 Random access memories and are non-volatile.

 Use one transistor per memory cell and come in

capacities ranging from 1 MB to 32 GB by the year
2007.
 The read time is much smaller (tens of nanoseconds)
compared write time (tens of microseconds).
VARIETIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORIES

Main memory of Read Only Memory

computers (ROM)

Read/Write
memory Factory User Erasable PROM
Programmed Programmable
PROM
SRAM DRAM
Permanent
non-erasable (Non-erasable)
UVEPROM EEPROM
CACHE MEMORY
 High speed memory kept in between processor and
RAM to increase the data execution speed.
 Kept near to the processor.

 Major reason for incorporating cache in the system is

that the CPU is much faster than the DRAM and needs a
place to store information that can be accessed quickly.
 Cache fetches the frequently used data from the DRAM
and buffers (stores) it for further processor usage.
CACHE MEMORY
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CACHE
 L1-cache is the fastest cache and it usually comes within
the processor chip itself. L1 cache typically ranges in
size from 8KB to 64KB and uses the high-speed SRAM
instead of the slower and cheaper DRAM used for main
memory.
 L2 cache comes between L1 and RAM and is bigger
than the primary cache.
 L3 cache is not found nowadays as its function is
replaced by L2 cache. L3 caches are found on the
motherboard rather than the processor. It is kept between
RAM and L2 cache.
PROCESSOR SPEED
 Speed of a computer system is determined by several
factors, clock speed of the processor and the speed and
size of the data bus.
 Clock speed is the rate at which the processor processes
information and this is measured in millions of cycles
per second(Megahertz)
 The more the number of hertz, the faster is the
processing speed
 The larger the bus width and the faster the bus speed, the
greater the amount of data can travel on it in a given
amount of time.
INPUT DEVICES
 Any peripheral used to provide data and control signals
to an information processing system such as a computer
or other information appliance.
 Common input devices: Keyboard, Mouse

 Other devices: microphone, digital camera, scanner.

OUTPUT DEVICES
 Any piece of computer hardware equipment used to
communicate the results of processed data to the user.
 Examples: Monitors, Printers, Speakers, etc.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Computer organization and architecture is defined as the
science of selecting and interconnecting hardware
components to create computers that meet functional,
performance and cost goals.
 The central processing unit is the brain of the computer
system where all the computing is done. It consists of
three main components, the control unit (CU), the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the registers.
 The control unit controls the Input/Output devices and
transfer of data to and from the primary storage.
ANSWER IN BRIEF
 Write a note on computer architecture
 What is a system bus? Name the various units of the
system bus.
 What is the significance of main memory in proper
functioning of a processor.
 What is an Instruction cycle?
ANSWER IN DETAIL
 What do you understand by Central Processing Unit?
Describe in details various units of the CPU.
 Write a detailed note on Instruction Cycle describing the
various steps involved.
 Describe in details:

 a. Processor to Memory Communication

 b. Processor to I/O Devices Communication

LET US SUMMARISE..
 The Arithmetic Unit is responsible for carrying out the
arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
 The Logic Unit provides CPU the ability to make logical
operations like comparing two data items and taking
different actions based on the results of the comparison.
 Registers are special purpose, high-speed temporary
memory units used by the processor for holding data.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 The System bus is a set of wires used for interconnection
of different units of a computer system. The three logical
units of a system bus are the address bus, the data bus,
and the control bus.
 A cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from high-
speed static RAM that reduces the access time of the
data. It is very expensive and generally incorporated in
the processor, where valuable data and program
segments are kept.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Instructions comprise two parts, namely, the op-code and
the operand. They are transferred one at a time into the
processor, where they are decoded and the executed.
 The Instruction Cycle details the sequence of events that
takes place as an instruction is read from memory and
executed.
 In a Fetch Cycle, instruction to be executed is fetched
from the memory to the processor.
 The Decode Cycle is responsible for recognizing which
operation the instruction represents activating the correct
circuitry to perform that operation.
LET US SUMMARISE..
 During the Execute Cycle, the operation specified by the
op-code is performed on user provided data in the ALU.
 In the Store Cycle, the results from the execution cycle
are stored back to the memory.
 Processors are built with the ability to execute a limited
set of basic operations called the Instruction Set.
 The speed of the processor is measured in millions of
cycles per second or Megahertz (MHz).
LET US SUMMARISE..
 Two notables factors on which the speed of a processor
depends are the clock speed of the processor and the
speed and the size of the data bus