CSEg2202

Object Oriented Programming

CHAPTER - 2

Object and Class

Identifier

 Identifiers are names given to elements in a program, such as variables,

functions, constants, classes, objects, arrays, maps, etc.
 Identifiers help programmers to refer to the elements and manipulate
them in the code.
 Identifiers must follow certain rules and conventions depending on the
programming language.
 Identifiers should be meaningful and descriptive to make the code
more
readable and maintainable.
Java –Identifier naming rules

 Can contain letters, digits, underscores (_) and dollar signs ($)
 Should begin with a letter, an underscore (_) or a dollar sign ($).
 Should not contain special characters (!,@,#,
%,^,&,*,>,?,/).
 Should not contain space.
 Are case sensitive, meaning that myVar and myvar are different
identifiers.
Java –Identifier naming rules

 Should not be Java reserved or keywords, such as int, double,

class,
etc.
 Should be descriptive and meaningful, but not too long.
 Should follow the Java naming conventions, such as using camelCase
for variables and methods, and PascalCase for classes and interfaces.
Java –Keywords

Java keywords or reserved words are words that have a special meaning or function in the Java
programming language. They cannot be used as identifiers for variables, methods, classes or any other
elements.
Java –Identifier example

Valid Identifiers Invalid identifiers

minutesPerHour sum_&_difference (contains a special character)

_nextPage 123myVariable (starts with a digit)

$test_variable a+c (contains a special character)

numbers123 variable-2 (contains a special character)

First_Name my Variable (contains a space)

B5 while (while is a keyword)

Variables

 Variables are names given to memory locations that store data values
during program execution.
 Variables have a data type that specifies the type and size of the value
they can hold.
 Variables can be declared using the syntax:
dataType variableName = value;

 Example : int counter=0;

 Variable name should follow valid identifier naming rule.

Variables

The Java programming language defines the following kinds of variables:

1. Instance Variables (Non-Static Fields)
2. Class Variables (Static Fields)
3. Local Variables
4. Parameters
Variables

1. Instance Variables (Non-Static Fields) :

 Declared within a class but outside of any method or block of code.
 They are accessible to all methods and constructors in the class.
Variables

2. Class Variables (Static Fields)

 Declared with the static keyword.
 They are shared by all objects of the class and are only
initialized once, when the class is loaded.
Variables

3. Local variables
 Declared within a method or block of code.
 They are only accessible within the method or block in which they
are declared.
Variables

4. Parameters
 Used to pass information between methods or classes.
 Can be declared in the method signature.
 Can also be declared in a constructor.
Java – Data types

Java has two types of data types: primitive and reference.

 Primitive data types : are the basic building blocks of data in Java.
 They are used to store simple values, such as numbers, characters,
and Boolean values.
 Reference (Non Primitive) data types : are used to store references to
objects.
 Objects are more complex than primitive values, and they can contain
multiple data fields and methods. Includes Classes, Interfaces,
and Arrays.
Java – Primitive data types

Data type Description Range Default value

boolean A Boolean value, either true or false. false
byte A signed 8-bit integer. -128 to 127 0
short A signed 16-bit integer. -32768 to 32767 0
int A signed 32-bit integer. -2147483648 to 2147483647 0
long A signed 64-bit integer. -9223372036854775808 to 0L
9223372036854775807
float A single-precision 32-bit floating-point number. ±3.402823466E+38 0.0f

double A double-precision 64-bit floating-point number. ±1.7976931348623157E+308 0.0d

char A single character, represented by its Unicode '\u0000'

code point.
Java – Default value

 Fields that are declared but not initialized will be set to a reasonable
default by the compiler.
 Local variables are slightly different; the compiler never assigns a
default value to an uninitialized local variable.
 If you cannot initialize your local variable where it is declared, make
sure to assign it a value before you attempt to use it.
 Accessing an uninitialized local variable will result in a compile-
time
error.
Java – Reference data types

Data type Description

Object The base class for all other reference types.
Class A blueprint for creating objects.

Interface A contract that defines a set of methods that must be implemented by

a class.
String A sequence of characters.
Array A collection of objects of the same type.
Exception An object that represents an error condition.
Java – Literal

 Literal is a constant value that appears directly in the source code.

 Literals can be used to represent numbers, characters, strings, and
boolean values.
Boolean literals
 A boolean literal in Java is a literal that represents a logical value of
either true or false.
 It is declared using the keyword boolean.
 Boolean literals can also use the values of “0” and “1.”
Java – Literal

Integer literal :
int decVal = 26; // The number 26, in decimal

int hexVal = 0x1a; // The number 26, in hexadecimal

int binVal = 0b11010; // The number 26, in binary

long longVal= 243L // long

Java – Literal

Floating-Point Literals:
double d1 = 123.4;

// same value as d1, but in scientific notation

double d2 = 1.234e2;

float f1 = 123.4f;
Java – Literal

Character and String Literals

Literals of types char and String may contain any Unicode (UTF-16)
characters.
 'single quotes' for char literals
(Example : 'a', '1', '$', '\u0108' )and
 "double quotes" for String literals
(Examples : "Hello, world! ", "1234567890" , "This is a string. " ,
"S\u00ED Se\u00F1or“)
Java – Escape Sequence characters

 An escape sequence character is a special character in Java that starts

with a backslash (\) and is followed by another character.
 Escape sequence characters are used to represent characters that cannot
be typed directly, such as newline (\n), tab (\t), or quotation marks (\")
Java – Escape Sequence characters

\b (backspace),
\t (tab),
\n (line feed),
\f (form feed),
\r (carriage return),
\" (double quote),
\' (single quote), and
\\ (backslash).
Java – Escape Sequence characters

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Java – Comments

 Comments are annotations that can be added to the source code to

provide additional information or explanation.
 They are ignored by the compiler and do not affect the execution of the
program. Java comments can be used for various purposes, such as:
 Documenting the functionality and purpose of the code
 Making the code more readable and understandable
 Debugging or testing the code by temporarily disabling some
statements.
 Generating documentation using tools like Javadoc
Java – Comments

There are three types of java comments

1. Single-line comments:
 They start with two forward slashes (//) and comment only one line of
code.
 They are widely used for short comments.
Java – Comments

2. Multi-line comments:
 They start with /* and end with */ and comment multiple lines of code.
 They can be used to explain complex code snippets or comment out
multiple lines of code at a time.
Java – Comments

3. Documentation comments:
 Java documentation comments are special comments that are used to
generate HTML documentation for Java source code using the Javadoc
tool.
 They are also known as doc comments or Javadoc comments. They start
with /** and end with */, and can have multiple lines.
 They help to create documentation API using the javadoc tool.
 They can use various tags and HTML elements to depict parameters,
headings, author names, etc.
Java – Comments
Java – Operators

 Operators are special symbols that perform specific operations on one,

two, or three operands, and then return a result.
 Operator precedence is a rule in programming languages that
determines the order in which operators are evaluated in an
expression.
 Operators with higher precedence are evaluated before
operators with lower precedence.
 The operators in the following table are listed according
to precedence order.
Java – Operators

Operators Precedence
postfix expr++ expr--
unary ++expr --expr +expr -expr ~ !
multiplicative */%
additive +-
shift << >> >>>
relational < > <= >= instanceof
equality == !=
bitwise AND &
bitwise exclusive OR ^
bitwise inclusive OR |
logical AND &&
logical OR ||
ternary ?:
assignment = += -= *= /= %= &= ^= |= <<= >>= >>>=
Java – Operators

Simple Assignment Operator

= Simple assignment operator
Arithmetic Operators
+ Additive operator (also used for String
concatenation)
- Subtraction operator
* Multiplication operator
/ Division operator
% Remainder operator
Java – Operators

output
Java – Operators

Unary Operators
+ Unary plus operator; indicates positive value
- Unary minus operator; negates an expression
++ Increment operator; increments a value by 1
-- Decrement operator; decrements a value by 1
! Logical complement operator; inverts the value of a
boolean
Java – Operators

output
Java – Operators

Equality and Relational Operators

== Equal to
!= Not equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or
equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or
equal to
Java – Operators

output
Java – Operators

Logical Operators
&& Conditional-AND
|| Conditional-OR
! Negation -NOT
Conditional operator
?: Ternary (shorthand for if-then-else
statement)
Type Comparison Operator
Java – Operators

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Java – Operators

output
Java – Operators

output
Java – Operators

Bitwise and Bit Shift Operators

~ Unary bitwise
complement
<< Signed left shift
>> Signed right shift
>>> Unsigned right
shift
& Bitwise AND
^ Bitwise exclusive
Java – Operators

output
Basic Java program structure

 Java Program Structure is the way a Java program is organized and

written.
 It consists of different sections that have specific roles and functions.
 A basic Java program structure involves the following sections:

 Documentation section  Interface section

 Package declaration  Class definition
 Import statements  Main method
Basic Java program structure

Documentation section
 It is an optional section that contains basic information about the
program, such as author name, date, version, description, etc.
 It uses comments to write the information.
Package declaration
 It is an optional section that declares the package name in which
the
class is placed.
 It helps to organize the classes into different modules and
directories.
 It uses the keyword package to declare the package name..
Basic Java program structure

Import statements
 They are used to import the classes or interfaces from other packages
that are needed in the program.
 They use the keyword import to import the classes or interfaces.
Interface section
 It is an optional section that declares one or more interfaces that are
implemented by the class.
 An interface is a collection of abstract methods and constants that
define
a common behavior for a class.
Basic Java program structure

Class definition
 It is a mandatory section that defines the class name, variables, methods
and constructors of the program.
 A class is a blueprint for creating objects that have state and behavior. It
uses the keyword class to define a class.
Main method
 It is a mandatory method that is the entry point of any Java program.
 It contains the instructions for executing the program.
 It uses the keyword public static void main(String[] args) to declare
the main method.
Basic Java program structure
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks

Expressions
 An expression is a construct made up of variables, operators, and
method invocations, that evaluates to a single value.
 The data type of the value returned by an expression depends on
the
elements used in the expression.
 Example: of expression highlighted below
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks

Expressions
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks

Statements
 Statements are roughly equivalent to sentences in natural languages.
 A statement forms a complete unit of execution.
 The following types of expressions can be made into a statement by
terminating the expression with a semicolon (;).
 Assignment expressions
 Any use of ++ or --
 Method invocations
 Object creation expressions
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks

Statements
 Such statements are called expression statements. Here are some
examples of expression statements.
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks

Statements
 In addition to expression statements, there are two other kinds of
statements: declaration statements and control flow statements.
 A declaration statement declares a variable.
// declaration statement
double aValue = 8933.234;
 Control flow statements regulate the order in which statements get
executed.
Expressions, Statements, and Blocks

Block
 A block is a group of zero or more statements between balanced braces
and can be used anywhere a single statement is allowed.
Control flow structures

Conditional Branches :are used to choose between two or more paths.

There are three types of conditional branches in Java:
 if/else/else if statements: These statements allow you to check for a
condition and execute different code depending on whether the
condition is true or false.
 Ternary operator: The ternary operator is a shortcut for writing an
if/else statement. It takes three operands: a condition, a value if the
condition is true, and a value if the condition is false.
 switch statements: Switch statements allow you to choose
between
multiple paths based on the value of a variable.
Control flow structures

Loops are used to repeatedly execute a block of code. There are three types
of loops in Java:
 for loops: For loops allow you to iterate over a range of numbers or a
collection of objects.
 while loops: While loops allow you to execute a block of code as long
as a condition is true.
 do-while loops: Do-while loops are similar to while loops, but the
block
of code is executed at least once, even if the condition is false.
Control flow structures

Branching Statements are used to alter the flow of control in loops. There
are three types of branching statements in Java:
 break statements: Break statements are used to exit a loop.
 continue statements: Continue statements are used to skip the current
iteration of a loop and continue with the next iteration.
 return : used to exit from a method, with or without value.
Control flow structures

The if-then Statement

It tells your program to execute a certain section of code only if a particular
test evaluates to true.
the opening and closing braces are optional, provided that the
"then"
clause contains only one statement:
Control flow structures

The if-then-else Statement

The if-then-else statement provides a secondary path of execution when an
"if" clause evaluates to false.
Control flow structures

The if-then-else Statement

Control flow structures

The switch Statement

 Unlike if-then and if-then-else statements, the switch statement can have
a number of possible execution paths.
 A switch works with the byte, short, char, and int primitive data types.
 It also works with enumerated types, the String class, and a few
special classes that wrap certain primitive types: Character, Byte, Short,
and Integer
Control flow structures

The switch Statement

Control flow structures

The while and do-while Statements

The difference between while and do while loops in Java is that
 while loop checks the condition before executing the statements inside
the loop, whereas
 do while loop checks the condition after executing the statements inside
the loop.
This means that while loop may execute zero times if the condition is false
initially, but do while loop will execute at least once regardless of the
condition.
Control flow structures

The while and do-while Statements

The syntax for while loop

The syntax for do-while loop

Control flow structures

output
Control flow structures

The for Statement

The for loop statement provides a compact way to iterate over a range of
values.
Control flow structures

The for Statement

When using this version of the for statement, keep in mind that:
 The initialization expression initializes the loop; it's executed once, as
the loop begins.
 When the condition expression evaluates to false, the loop terminates.
 The increment/decrement expression is invoked after each iteration
through the loop; it is perfectly acceptable for this expression to
increment or decrement a value.
Control flow structures

output
Control flow structures

The break Statement

 The break statement in Java is used to terminate a loop or a switch
statement immediately.
 It breaks the current flow of the program at a specified condition .
 The break statement has two forms: labeled and unlabeled.

Unlabeled Labeled
Control flow structures
Control flow structures

The continue Statement

 The continue statement skips the current iteration of a for, while , or do-
while loop.
 The unlabeled form skips to the end of the innermost loop's body and
evaluates the boolean expression that controls the loop.

Unlabeled Labeled
Control flow structures
Control flow structures

The return Statement

 The return statement exits from the current method, and control flow
returns to where the method was invoked.
 The return statement has two forms: one that returns a value, and
one
that doesn't.
return ++count;
 The data type of the returned value must match the type of the method's
declared return value. When a method is declared void, use the form of
return that doesn't return a value.
Array

 An array in Java is a group of like-typed variables referred to by a

common name.
 Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable,
instead of
declaring separate variables for each value.
 Arrays are dynamically allocated in Java, which means they are
created at run time and their size can change.
 Arrays are stored in contiguous memory locations, which
means they
are placed next to each other in memory
Array

Declaring and Initializing Arrays

 To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets:
String[] cars;
 To initialize an array, you can place the values in a comma-separated
list, inside curly braces: String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford",
"Mazda"};
 Alternatively, you can specify the size of the array and assign values to
each element using the index:
int[] myNum = new int[4];
myNum[0] = 10;
myNum[1] = 20;
Array

Accessing and Modifying Array Elements

 You can access an array element by referring to the index number:
System.out.println(cars[0]); // Outputs Volvo
 Note that array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element, 1 is the
second element, etc.
 To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:
cars[0] = "Opel"; // Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo
Array

Array Length and Copying

 To find out how many elements an array has, use the length property:
System.out.println(cars.length); // Outputs 42
 To copy an array, you can use the clone() method or the
System.arraycopy() method.
 The clone() method returns a new array object with the same
elements
as the original array: int[] copy = myNum.clone();
 The System.arraycopy() method copies a source array to a destination
array: System.arraycopy(myNum, 0, copy, 0, myNum.length);
Array

Arrays Class
 The Arrays class in the java.util package provides various methods for
manipulating arrays (such as sorting and searching).
 Some of the methods in the Arrays class are:
 Arrays.sort(array): Sorts the specified array into ascending order.
 Arrays.binarySearch(array, key): Searches the specified array for the
specified value using the binary search algorithm.
Array

Arrays Class
 Arrays.equals(array1, array2): Returns true if the two specified arrays
are equal to one another.
 Arrays.fill(array, value): Assigns the specified value to each element
of
the specified array.
 Arrays.asList(array): Returns a fixed-size list backed by the specified
array.
Classes and objects

 A class is like a blueprint or a template for creating objects.

 A class defines the attributes (data) and behaviors (methods) of
the objects of that class.
 An object is an instance of a class.
 It has its own state (values of the attributes) and can perform actions
(invoke methods) defined by the class.
 A class can be `Car`, and an object can be `myCar`, which is a
specific car with a certain color, model, speed, etc.
Classes and objects

 For example, in real life, a car is an object that has attributes like
color, weight, model, etc. and methods like drive, brake, etc.
 A class named Car can define these attributes and methods for all
car
objects.
Classes and objects

Declaring Classes
⁻ A class is defined using the keyword `class`, followed by the name of the
class and a pair of curly braces `{ }` that enclose the body of the class.
⁻ The name of the class should start with a capital letter and follow the
camel case convention (e.g. `MyClass`, `Student`, `BankAccount`).
⁻ The body of the class can contain fields (variables that store data) and
methods (functions that perform actions).
Classes and objects

Declaring Classes
The class body (the area between the braces) contains all the code that
provides for the life cycle of the objects created from the class:
 constructors for initializing new objects,
 declarations for the fields that provide the state of the class and its
objects, and
 methods to implement the behavior of the class and its objects.
Classes and objects

Declaring Classes
Classes and objects

How to create an object?

 An object is created using the keyword new, followed by the name of
the class and a pair of parentheses () that can optionally contain
arguments (values passed to the constructor method).
How to access each fields and methods?
 The fields and methods of an object can be accessed using the dot
operator ( . ) followed by the name of the field or method.
 The fields can be read or modified, and the methods can be invoked
with or without arguments.
Classes and objects

Example : for the car class created above the object can be created and the
fields and methods can be accessed as follows.
Classes and objects

Example
Classes and objects

Example (cont…)
Access modifiers

Access modifiers in Java are keywords that specify the visibility and
accessibility of classes, methods, and variables.
They are an important feature of object-oriented programming that
allows
you to control how your code is accessed by other classes and
methods.
There are four types of access modifiers in Java:
1. public: The public access modifier makes the class, method, or variable
accessible from anywhere in the program. It has the widest scope of
accessibility.
Access modifiers

2.private: The private access modifier makes the class, method, or

variable accessible only within the same class. It has the narrowest scope of
accessibility and is used to hide the implementation details of a class.

3.protected: The protected access modifier makes the class, method, or

variable accessible within the same package and also by subclasses in other
packages. It has a wider scope than private but narrower than public and is
used to support inheritance.
Access modifiers

4. default: The default access modifier (also known as package-private)

makes the class, method, or variable accessible only within the same
package. It has a wider scope than private but narrower than protected and
public. It is applied when no explicit access modifier is specified.
Access modifiers

Outside Package
Modifier Within Class Within Package Outside Package
by Subclass

public Yes Yes Yes Yes

private Yes No No No

protected Yes Yes Yes No

default Yes Yes No No

Methods

 A method in Java is a block of code that performs a specific task.

 You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.
 Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as
functions.
 A method must be declared within a class.
 It is defined with the name of the method, followed by parentheses ().
 Java provides some pre-defined methods, such as System.out.println (),
but you can also create your own methods to perform certain actions.
Methods

 A method can have parameters that are values passed to it, and a return
type that is the value it produces.
 A method must be declared within a class, and it is called by its name
followed by parentheses ().
 A method can be public, private, static, or other modifiers that affect its
access and behavior.
Methods

To create a method, we use the following syntax:

To call a method, we use the following syntax:

Methods

 returnType specifies what type of value a method returns.

 For example, if a method has an int return type then it returns an integer
value.
 If the method does not return a value, its return type is void.
 methodName is an identifier that is used to refer to the particular
method in a program.
 The method body includes the programming statements that are used to
perform some tasks.
 The method body is enclosed inside the curly braces { }
Methods

Example
output
Methods

Example
output
Method overloading

 Method overloading in Java is a feature that allows us to define

multiple methods with the same name but different parameters.
 This way, we can use the same method name for different scenarios and
avoid creating multiple methods with different names that do the same
thing.
 For example, suppose we want to write a method that calculates the
area
of different shapes.
 We can use method overloading to define one method named area that
takes different parameters depending on the shape.
Method overloading

In this example, we have declared

three static methods with the same
name area but different parameters.
The first method takes one parameter
radius and returns the area of a
circle. The second method takes two
parameters length and width and
returns the area of a rectangle. The
third method takes three parameters
base, height and angle and returns the
area of a triangle.
Method overloading

The compiler determines which method to invoke based on the number and type
of
arguments passed.

output
this keyword

The this keyword in Java has various uses, such as:

 Refer to current class instance variables
 Invoke current class constructor
 Invoke current class method
 Return the current class object
 Pass an argument in the method call
 Access the outer class instance from within the inner class
this keyword

Refer to current class instance variables: Invoke current class method:

Invoke current class constructor:

this keyword

Return the current class object:

Pass an argument in the method call:

this keyword

Access the outer class instance from within the inner

class:
this keyword

Access the outer class instance from within the inner

class:
Constructor

 A constructor in Java is a special method that is used to initialize

objects of a class.
 The constructor is invoked when an object of a class is created
using the
new keyword.
 The constructor can be used to set initial values for the object attributes,
such as fields or properties.
 Constructors can also perform some validation or logic before assigning
values to the object attributes.
 Constructors can also invoke other constructors or methods to reuse
code and avoid duplication.
Constructor

There are two types of constructors in Java: default constructor and

parameterized constructor.
1. default constructor
 Is a constructor that has no parameters and no explicit code.
 It is provided by the Java compiler if the class does not have any
other constructor.
 The default constructor assigns default values to the object
attributes, such as 0 for numeric types, null for reference types, and
false for boolean types.
Constructor

There are two types of constructors in Java: default constructor and

parameterized constructor.
2. parameterized constructor
 is a constructor that has one or more parameters and some
explicit
code.
 It is defined by the programmer to initialize the object
attributes with
specific values.
 The parameterized constructor can also call another constructor of
the same class using the this keyword, or call a constructor of the
superclass using the super keyword.
Constructor

The syntax of a constructor in Java is

similar to a method, except that it
has the same name as the class and
no return type.
Constructor

To create an object of a class using a constructor, we use the new keyword followed by the class
name and parentheses. If the constructor has parameters, we pass the arguments inside the
parentheses. For example:
Constructor vs method

Constructors are different from methods in Java in several ways:

 Constructors are called only once when an object is created, while
methods can be called multiple times on the same or different objects.
 Constructors do not have a return type, while methods must have a
return type or void.
 Constructors must have the same name as the class, while methods
can
have any valid identifier as their name.
Constructor vs method

Constructors are different from methods in Java in several ways:

 Constructors cannot be inherited, overridden, or abstract, while methods
can be.
 Constructors can only be accessed by using the new keyword, while
methods can be accessed by using the object reference or the class name
(for static methods).
Constructor vs method

Example :
Classes and objects

class Car mode - Model 3

color - Red
brand - Tesla

model
data color mode - Camry
member color - White
brand brand - Toyota

start() mode - Mustang

method accelerate() color - Black
stop() brand - Ford
Static members

 Static members in Java are those members of a class that belong to the
class itself and not to any instance of the class.
 Static members are declared with the static keyword before their names.
Static members can be fields, methods, blocks, or nested classes.
Static members

1. Static fields are variables that have only one copy shared among all
instances of the class.
 They are also known as class variables.
 Static fields are initialized when the class is loaded and can be accessed
directly using the class name without creating an object.
Static members

In this example, the PI

field is a static field that
belongs to the Math class
and has a constant value of
3.14159.
The field can be accessed
from any other class using
the Math.PI.
Static members

2. Static methods are methods that can be invoked without creating an

object of the class.
 They are also known as class methods.
 Static methods can only access static fields and other static methods.
 They cannot use the this or super keywords.
 To call a static method, we can use the class name followed by a dot (.)
and the method name.
Static members

In this example, the square

method is a static method
that belongs to the Math
class and takes one
parameter x and returns its
square.
The method can be called
from any other class using
the Math.square syntax
Static members

3. Static blocks are blocks of code that are executed only once when the
class is loaded.
 They are used to initialize static fields or perform any other one-time
operations.
 Static blocks are declared with the static keyword before the curly
braces { }.
Static members

In this example, the PI

field is initialized in a
static block that is
executed only once when
the Math class is loaded.
The block also prints a
message on the screen
Static members

4. Static nested classes are classes that are defined inside another class
with the static keyword.
 They are also known as static inner classes.
 Static nested classes can access only static members of the outer class
and do not have a reference to an instance of the outer class.
 To create an object of a static nested class, we can use the outer class
name followed by a dot (.) and the nested class name.
Static members

In this example, the Inner

class is a static nested
class that belongs to the
Outer class and has a
method display.
The object of the nested
class is created using the
Outer.Inner syntax and the
method is called using the
obj.display
Adama Science and Technology University
School of Electrical Engineering And Computing