COMPUTER NETWORKS

Module –4 part 2


By

Dr. Jagadamba G
Dept. of ISE, Siddaganga Institute of Technology,
Tumakuru
Data Communication and Networking: Forouzan 5E, Mc Graw
Hill
Contents

20. 3 UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• Internet Structure
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) –based on Distance vector
algorithm
• Open Shortest Path First(OSPF)-based on Link state algorithm
• Border Gateway Protocol Version 4 (BGP4)- based on Path vector
algorithm
UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS

 Datagram destined for only one destination (one-to-one delivery)--Unicasting

 A protocol is more than an algorithm
 A protocol needs to define its domain of operation.
 The messages exchanged
 Communication between routers
 Interaction with protocols in other domains
 Common protocols used in the Internet:
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP), based on the distance-vector algorithm.
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), based on the link-state algorithm
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), based on the path-vector algorithm.
Internet Structure
Backbones—Run by private companies that provides global connectivity
Peering points—backbones are connected that allow connectivity between
backbones
Provider network—use backbone for global connectivity and provide service
to internet customers
Customer network—use the services provided by the provider network
Backbone, provider network and customer network(three entities) can be
called an ISP at different level.
Internet Structure
● There are several backbones run by private communication
companies that provide global connectivity.
● These backbones are connected by some peering points that allow
connectivity between backbones.
● At a lower level, there are some provider networks that use the
backbones for global connectivity but provide services to Internet
customers.
● There are some customer networks that use the services
provided by the provider networks.
● All the above can be calledan Internet Service Provider
or ISP. They provide services, but at different levels.
Hierarchical Routing
• It is obvious that routing in the Internet cannot be done using a single
protocol for two reasons: a scalability problem and an administrative
issue.
1. Scalability problem
 means that the size of the forwarding tables becomes huge,
 searching for a destination in a forwarding table becomes time-
consuming, and updating creates a huge amount of traffic.

2. Administrative issue
 is each ISP is run by an administrative authority.
 the administrator needs to have control in its system.

• The organization must be able to use as many subnets and routers as it

needs, may desire that the routers be from a particular manufacturer,
may wish to run a specific routing algorithm to meet the needs of the
organization, and may want to impose some policy on the traffic
passing through its ISP.
Hierarchical Routing

• Hierarchical routing means considering each ISP as an

autonomous system (AS).
• Each AS can run a routing protocol that meets its needs.
• But the global Internet runs a global protocol to glue all ASs
together.
• The routing protocol run in each AS is referred as
 Intra-AS routing protocol ,
 Intradomain routing protocol or
 Interior gateway protocol (IGP)
• Global routing protocol is referred to as
 Inter-AS routing protocol,
 Interdomain routing protocol, or exterior gateway protocol (EGP).
Intra-domain routing

1. Routing within an AS(Autonomous System).

2. Ignores the internet outside the autonomous system.

3. Protocols for intra domain routing are also called interior

gateway protocols.

4. popular protocols are RIP and OSPF.

Inter-domain routing

1. Routing between AS's.

2. Assumes that the internet consists of a collection of

interconnected AS's.

3. Protocol for inter domain routing are also called exterior

gateway protocols

4. Routing protocols are BGP.

Autonomous Systems
• Autonomous System is a very large network or group of networks
with a single routing policy
• An autonomous system manages networks and routers under
its control.

• Each AS is given an
autonomous number (ASN) by
the ICANN.
• Each ASN is a 16-bit unsigned
integer that uniquely defines
an AS.
Autonomous Systems
• The autonomous systems, however are not categorized
according to their size; they are categorized according to the
way they are connected to other ASs.
• The autonomous systems are classified as:
 Stub AS
 Multihomed AS
 Transient AS
Autonomous Systems
• A stub AS : only one connection to other AS.
• A data traffic can be initiated or terminated in a stub AS
• Ex: customer network which is either the source or sink
• A multihomed AS: More than one connection to other AS.
• allow AS to remain connected to the Internet in the event of a
complete failure of one of their connections.
• not allow traffic from one AS to pass through on its way to another
AS.
• Large corporation
• A transit AS : connected to more than one other AS and also allow the
traffic to pass through
• Network A can use network B, the transit AS, to connect to network C.
ISPs are always transit ASs, because they provide connections from
one network to another.
• The provider networks and the backbone are good examples of
transient ASs.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the most widely used
Intradomain routing protocols based on the distance-vector routing
algorithm
• RIP was started as part of the Xerox Network System (XNS).
• But it was the Berkelyey Software Distribution (BSD) version of UNIX
that helped make the use of RIP widespread.
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a distance-vector
routing protocol. Routers running the distance-vector
protocol send all or a portion of their routing tables in
routing-update messages to their neighbors.
• We can use RIP to configure the hosts as part of a RIP
network.
• Here we need to understand- hop count, forwarding table and
RIP message before we proceed algorithm.
• RIP uses hop count as metric
Hop Count

• A router in this protocol basically implements the distance-vector

routing algorithm.
• In distance vector- Each node construct a one dimensional array (a
vector) containing the distance (cost) to all the nodes and distributes
that vector to its immediate neighbors.
Working steps
• First, since a router in an AS needs to know how to forward a packet to
different networks (subnets) in an AS.
• RIP routers advertise the cost of reaching different networks instead of
reaching other nodes in a theoretical graph.
Hop Count

• In other words, the cost is defined between a router and the network
in which the destination host is located.
• Second, to make the implementation simpler - the cost is defined as the
number of hops
• Source host connected is not counted in this calculation because the
source host does not use a forwarding table; the packet is delivered to
the default router.
• Preferably the hop count in autonomous system is limited to 15
Forwarding Tables

• In DVR we exchange Distance vectors but in RIP we exchange forwarding tables

• A forwarding table in RIP is a three-column table in which
1.the first column is the address of the destination network,
2.the second column is the address of the next router to which the packet should
be forwarded
3.the third column is the cost (the number of hops) to reach the destination
network.
RIP Implementation

• RIP is implemented as a process that uses the service of UDP on

the well-known port number 520.
• In Berkelyey Software Distribution BSD, RIP is a daemon
process (a process running in the background),
named routed
• RIP is a routing protocol to help IP route its datagrams through the
AS, the RIP messages are encapsulated inside UDP user datagrams,
which in turn are encapsulated inside IP datagrams.
• In other words, RIP runs at the application layer, but creates
forwarding tables for IP at the network later.
• RIP has gone through two versions: RIP-1 and RIP-2. The second
version is backward compatible with the first section.
RIP Messages

• Here we discuss only RIP 2

• RIP has two types of messages: request and response.

• Two RIP processes, a client and a server, like any other processes, need
to exchange messages.
• Part of the message, which we call entry, can be repeated as needed in
a message.
• Each entry carries the information related to one line in the forwarding
table of the router that sends the message.
RIP Messages
• A request message is sent by a router that has just come up
or by a router that has some time-out entries.
• A request message can ask about specific entries or all
entries.
• A response (or update)message can be either solicited or
unsolicited.
 A solicited response message is sent only in answer
to a request message.
 It contains information about the destination specified in
the corresponding request message.
 An unsolicited response message, on the other hand, is
sent periodically, every 30 seconds or when there is a
change in the forwarding table.
RIP Algorithm
RIP implements the same algorithm as the distance-vector
routing algorithm with modifications to enable a router to
update its forwarding table:
● Instead of sending only distance vectors, a router needs
to send the whole contents of its forwarding table in a
response message.
● The receiver adds one hop to each cost and changes
the next router field to the address of the sending
router.
– We call each route in the modified
forwarding table the received route and each route in
the old forwarding table the old route.
RIP Algorithm
● The received router selects the old routes as the new
ones except in the following three cases:
1) If the received route does not exist in the old
forwarding table, it should be added to the route.
2) If the cost of the received route is lower than the cost of the
old one,the received route should be selected as the
new one.
3) If the cost of the received route is higher than the cost of
the old one, but the value of the next router is the same in
both routes, the received route should be selected as the
new one. (This is the case where the route was actually
advertised by the same router in the past, but now the situation has
been changed.)

The new forwarding table needs to be sorted according to the

destination route (mostly using the longest prefix first).
Example of an autonomous system using RIP

R1 after receiving update from

R2
Updating Forwarding Tables

R3 after receiving update from

R2

R4 after receiving update from

R2
Stabilized Forwarding tables
Timers in RIP
• RIP uses three timers to support its operation.
• The periodic timer controls theadvertising
of regular update messages.
• Each router has one periodic timer that is randomly set to a
number between 25 and 35 seconds. The timer counts down; when
zero is reached, the update message is sent, and the timer is
randomly set once again.
• The expiration timer governs the validity of a route. When
a router receives update information for a route, the expiration
timer is set to 180 seconds for that particular route. Everytime
a new update for the route is received, the timer is reset.
• If there is a problem on an internet and no update is received
within the allotted 180 seconds, the route is considered expired
and the hop count of the route is set to 16, which means the
destination is unreachable.
Timers in RIP

• The garbage collection timer is used to purge (to remove unwanted

route) a route from the forwarding table. When the information
about a route becomes invalid, the router does not immediately
purge that route from its table.
• Instead, it continues to advertise the route with a metric value of
16.
• At the same time, a garbage collection timer is set to 120 seconds
for that route.
• When the count reaches zero, the route is purged from the table.
• This timer allows neighbors to become aware of the invalidity of a
route prior to purging.
Performance
● UpdateM essages: The update messages in RIP
have a very simple format and are sent only to
neighbors; they are local.
● They do not normally create traffic because the routers try to
avoid sending them at the same time.
● Convergence of Forwarding Tables: RIP uses
the distance- vector algorithm, which can converge slowly
if the domain is large, but, since RIP allows only 15 hops in a
domain (16 is considered as infinity), hence no problem in
convergence.

● Robustness: Can tolerate failures in the network

Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF)

• OSPF is also an intradomain routing protocol like RIP, but it is based on

the link-state routing protocol
• RIP uses hop count as metric but OSPF uses link cost as metric
• OSPF is an open protocol, which means that the specification is a public
document.
• OSPF has 2 version: version 1 for Ipv4 and version 2 for IPv6
• OSPF is reliable over large and complex networks, however RIP is
limited for maximum hop count of 16.
Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF)
• cost of reaching a destination from the host is calculated from the
source router to the destination network.

• each link (network) can be assigned a weight based on the

throughput, round-trip time, reliability, and so on.

• Or even the hop count

Forwarding Tables in OSPF

• Each OSPF router send a hello message to neighbour routers.

• Then OSPF create a forwarding table after finding the shortest-
path tree between itself and the destination using Dijkstra’s
algorithm
• Forwarding tables are same as RIP except for the cost values
Because both RIP and OSPF uses shortest path trees in routing
• From the gathered data, routers create LSDB
Areas

• Unlike RIP, OSPF was designed to be able to handle routing in a small

or large autonomous system.
• For creating the global LSDB, OSPF requires flooding of LSPs.
 This may create a huge traffic in a large AS.
 So an AS is divided into areas - small independent domain for
flooding LSPs.
 Two level Hierarchy
1. AS
2. Areas
Areas

• Areas are represented by 32 bit numbers expressed simply in decimal

or dot notation similar to Ipv4.
• One of the areas in the AS is designated as the backbone area.
• The routers in the backbone area are responsible for passing the
information collected by each area to all other areas.
• Each area has an area identification. Back bone area identification is
done as 0 or represented with 0.0.0.0
• Area identification is usually chosen by administrator and often
select the IP address of the main router in the area.
• Each additional area is connected to OSPF backbone area through
inter connecting router termed as area border router (ABR).
• Each router in an area needs to know the information about the link
states not only in its area but also in other areas.
Areas
Link-State Advertisement

• In OSPF a router advertise the state of each link to all

neighbors for the formation of the LSDB.
• An ABR maintains separate link state data bases for each area it
serves and maintains summarized routes for all areas in the
network.
• OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures and
converges on a new loop free routing structures within a few
seconds
• We need different types of advertisements, each capable of
advertising different situations.
• We can have five types of link-state advertisements:
1. Router link
2. Network link
3. Summary link to network
4. Summary link to AS border router
5. External link.
Router link
● Router link advertises the
existence of a router as a node.
● In addition to giving the address of
the announcing router, this type of
advertisement can define one
or more types of links that connect
the advertising router to other
entities.
● A transient link announces a link
to a transient network
● A stub link advertises a link to
a stub network
● A point-to-point link should
define the address of the router at
the end of the point-to-point line
Point-to-point link

Transient link

Stub link
Network link
● A network link advertises the network as
a node.
● However, since a network cannot do
announcements itself (it is a passive
entity), one of the routers is assigned as
the designated router and does the
advertising.
● It also announces the IP address of all
routers but not the cost.
Summary link to network

• This is done by an area border

router; it advertises the summary
of links collected by the backbone to
an area or the summary of links
collected by the area to the backbone.
Summary link to AS
• This is done by an AS router that advertises the summary
links from other ASs to the backbone area of the current AS,
information which later can be disseminated to the areas so that
they will know about the networks in other ASs.
External link

• This is also done by an AS router to announce the existence of a

single network outside the AS to the backbone area to be
disseminated into the areas.
OSPF Implementation

• OSPF is implemented as a program in the network layer, using the

service of the IP for propagation.
• An IP datagram that carries a message from OSPF sets the value
of the protocol field to 89.
• This means that, although OSPF is a routing protocol to help IP
to route its datagrams inside an AS, the OSPF messages
are encapsulated inside datagrams.
• OSPF has gone through two versions: version 1 and version 2.
Most implementations use version 2.
OSPF Headers

• OSPF is a very complex protocol.

• The OSPF common header is used in all messages
• Link-state general header (which is used in some messages).
OSPF uses five different types of messages
• The Hello message (type 1)
• Database description message (type 2)
• Link-state request message (type 3)
• Link-state update message (type 4)
• Link-state acknowledgment message (type 5)
The Hello message (type
1)

It is used by a router to introduce itself to the neighbors

and announce all neighbors that it already knows.
Database description message (type
2)
The database description message (type 2) is normally sent in
response to the hello message to allow a newly joined router to
acquire the full LSDB.
Link-state request message (type 3)
The link-state request message (type 3) is sent by a router
that needs information about a specific LS.
Link-state update message (type 4)

The link-state update message (type 4) is the main OSPF

message used for building the LSDB.
This message, in fact, has five different versions (router link,
network link, summary link to network, summary link to AS
border router, and external link),
Link-state acknowledgment message (type 5)

The link-state acknowledgment message (type 5) is used to

create reliability in OSPF; each router that receives a link-state
update message needs to acknowledge it.
Authentication

• Provision for authentication

• Prevents a malicious entity from sending OSPF messages
to a router and causing the router to become part of
the routing system to which it actually does not belong.
OSPF Algorithm
OSPF implements the link-state routing algorithm with
following modifications:
– After each router has created the
shortest-path tree, the algorithm needs
to use it to create the
–
corresponding
The algorithmrouting
needs algorithm.
to be augmented to handle
sending and receiving all five types of messages.
Performance
Update Messages: The link-state messages in OSPF have a
somewhat complex format. They also are flooded to the whole area. If
the area is large, these messages may create heavy traffic and use a lot
of bandwidth.

Convergence of Forwarding Tables: When the flooding of

LSPs is completed, each router can create its own shortest-
path tree and forwarding table; convergence is fairly quick. However,
each router needs to run Dijkstra’s algorithm, which may take
some time.
Robustness: The OSPF protocol is more robust than RIP
because, after receiving the completed LSDB, each router is
independent and does not depend on other routers in the area.
Corruption or failure in one router does not affect other routers
as seriously as in RIP.
Border Gateway Protocol Version 4
(BGP4)
• The Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP4) is the
only interdomain routing protocol used in the Internet today.
• BGP4 is based on the path-vector algorithm
• BGP4 is a complex protocol
• We introduce the basics of BGP and its relationship
with intradomain routing protocols (RIP or OSPF).
A sample internet with four -AS

• Consider an example of an internet with four autonomous systems.

• AS2, AS3, and AS4 are stub autonomous systems; AS1 is a
transient one.
• In our example, data exchange between AS2, AS3, and AS4 should
pass through AS1.
BGP
● Each autonomous system uses one of the two
common intradomain protocols, RIP or OSPF.
● Each router in each AS knows how to reach a network that is
in its own AS, but it does not know how to reach a network
in another AS.
● To enable this we first install a variation of BGP4, called
external BGP (eBGP), on each border router (the one at
the edge of each AS which is connected to a router at another
AS).
● We then install the second variation of BGP, called internal
BGP (iBGP), on all routers (used within an AS).
● This means that the border routers will be running three
routing protocols (intradomain, eBGP, and iBGP), but other
routers are running two protocols (intradomain and iBGP).
BGP

BGP is the routing protocol of

choice on the Internet. i.e.,
when Internet is a collection of
interconnected Autonomous
Systems.

BGP’s true benefit is in

controlling how traffic enters
the local AS, rather than how
traffic exits it.
• The eBGPs are configured manually as these are connecting two
ISPs
• BGP is a kind of point-to-point protocol. When the software is
installed on two routers, they try to create a TCP connection
using the well-known port 179.
• By default, BGP assumes that eBGP peers are a maximum of one hop
away.
Operation of External BGP
(eBGP)
• The BGP speaker sends 19-byte keep alive messages every 60 seconds to
maintain the connection.
• In other words, a pair of client and server processes continuously
communicate with each other to exchange messages.
• The eBGP variation of BGP allows two physically connected
border routers in two different ASs to form pairs of eBGP
speakers and exchange messages.
• Two routers that run the BGP processes are called BGP peers and
BGP speakers
BGP Peers (Neighbors)
• For BGP to function, BGP routers (called speakers) must form neighbour
relationships (called peers).
• There are two types of BGP neighbour relationships:
iBGP Peers – BGP neighbours within the same autonomous system.
eBGP Peers – BGP neighbours connecting separate autonomous systems.
• Among routing protocols, BGP is unique in using TCP as transport
protocol and slowest routing protocol in the world
eBGP

• The three pairs of eligible e speaker routers are

 R1-R5,
 R2-R6,
 R4-R9
eBGP
● The connection between these pairs is established over three
physical WANs (N5,N6, and N7).
● There is a need for a logical TCP connection to be created over the
physical connection to make the exchange of information
possible.
● Each logical connection in BGP parlance is referred to as a
session. This means that we need 3 sessions in our example.
● The figure also shows the simplified update messages sent
by routers involved in the eBGP sessions.
● Message number 1 is sent by router R1 and tells router R5 that
N1, N2, N3 and N4 can be reached through router R1.
● Router R5 can now add these pieces of information at the end of its
forwarding table. When R5 receives any packet destined for these
four networks, it can use its forwarding table and find that the
next router is R1.
eBGP
● After the three BGP sessions, the reachability information
is not complete. We need the following problems to be
addressed
 Some border routers do not know how to route a
packet destined for non-neighbor As. For eg: R5
does not know how to route packets destined for
networks in AS3 and AS4
 None of the nonborder routers know how to route a packet
destined for any networks in other ASs.
● To address the above two problems, we need to allow all pairs
of routers (border or nonborder) to run the second variation
of the BGP protocol, iBGP.
Operation of Internal BGP
(iBGP)
● The iBGP protocol is similar to the eBGP
protocol in that it uses the service of TCP
on the well-known port 179, but it creates a session
between any possible pair of routers inside an autonomous
system.
● However if an AS has only one router, there cannot be an
iBGP session.
● If there are n routers in an autonomous system, there should be
[n×(n-1) /2] iBGP sessions in that autonomous
system (a fully connected mesh) to prevent loops in the system
Operation of Internal BGP
(iBGP)
Operation of Internal BGP
(iBGP)
● The first message (numbered 1) is sent by R1 announcing
that networks N8 and N9 are reachable through
the path AS1-AS2, but the next router is R1.
● This message is sent, through separate sessions, to R2, R3, and
R4. Routers R2, R4, and R6 do the same thing but send different
messages to different destinations.
● The interesting point is that, at this stage, R3, R7, and R8
create sessions with their peers, but they actually have no
message to send.
● The updating process does not stop here. For example, after R1
receives the update message from R2, it combines the
reachability information about AS3 with the reachability
information it already knows about AS1 and sends a new
update message to R5.
● Now R5 knows how to reach networks in AS1 and AS3.
Operation of Internal BGP
(iBGP)
● The process continues with routers exchanging messages
For eg : when R1 receives the update message from R4 and
so on.
● Finally we obtain the BGP path tables as
shown
Injection of Information into Intradomain
Routing
● The role of an interdomain routing protocol such as BGP is to
help the routers inside the AS to augment their
routing information.
● In other words, the path tables collected and organized
by BGP are not used, for routing packets; they are
injected into intradomain forwarding tables (RIP or OSPF) for
routing packets.
● This can be done in several ways depending on the type of AS.
● In the case of a stub AS, the only area border router adds
a default entry at the end of its forwarding table
anddefines the next router to be the speaker
router at the end of the eBGP connection.
Injection of Information into Intradomain Routing
Injection of Information into Intradomain
Routing
● R5 in AS2 defines R1 as the default router for all
networks other than N8 and N9. (default entry)
● R9 in AS4 with the default router to be R4.
● In AS3, R6 set its default router to be R2, but R7 and R8 set
their default router to be R6
● In the case of a transient AS, The router in an AS should
inject the whole contents of the path table ( eg: R1 in AS1
which is shown next)
● Address Aggregation can also be performed to reduce size
of forwarding tables
● For example, prefixes 14.18.20.0/26, 14.18.20.64/26,
14.18.20.128/26, and 14.18.20.192/26, can be combined into
14.18.20.0/24
Forwarding tables afer injection from BGP
Path Attributes
● In both intradomain routing protocols (RIP or OSPF), a
destination is normally associated with two pieces of
information: next hop and cost.
● The first one shows the address of the next router to deliver
the packet; the second defines the cost to the
final destination.
● Inter-domain routing is more involved and naturally
needs more information about how to reach the final
destination.
● In BGP these pieces are called path attributes.
● BGP allows a destination to be associated with up to seven
path attributes.
Path attributes

● Path attributes are divided into two broad categories:

– well-known
– optional
● A well-known attribute must be recognized by all routers;
an optional attribute need not be.
● A well-known attribute can be mandatory, which means that
it must be present in any BGP update message, or
discretionary, which means it does not have to be.
● An optional attribute can be either transitive, which means it
can pass to the next AS, or intransitive, which means
it cannot.
Format of path attribute

O: Optional bit (set if attribute is optional)

P: Partial bit (set if an optional attribute is lost in
transit) T: Transitive bit (set if attribute is transitive)
E: Extended bit (set if attribute length is two bytes)
The attribute value length defines the length of the attribute
value field
Attribute types

ORIGIN (type 1).

This is a well-known mandatory attribute, which defines the
source of the routing information.
This attribute can be defined by one of the three values: 1, 2, 3.
Value 1 means that the information about the path has been
taken from an intradomain protocol (RIP or OSPF).
Value 2 means that the information comes from BGP.
Value 3 means that it comes from an unknown source.
Attribute types
AS-PATH (type 2).
This is a well-known mandatory attribute, which defines the list
of autonomous systems through which the destination can
be reached.
We have used this attribute in our examples
NEXT-HOP (type 3).
This is a well-known mandatory attribute, which defines the
next router to which the data packet should be forwarded.
This attribute helps to inject path information collected through
the operations of eBGP and iBGP into the intradomain routing
protocols such as RIP or OSPF.
Attribute types
MULT-EXIT-DISC (type 4).
The multiple-exit discriminator is an optional intransitive
attribute, which discriminates among multiple exit paths to a
destination.
The value of this attribute is normally defined by the metric
in the corresponding intradomain protocol
LOCAL-PREF (type 5).
The local preference attribute is a well-known discretionary
attribute.
It is normally set by the administrator, based on the
organization policy. The routes the administrator prefers are
given a higher local preference value
Attribute types
ATOMIC-AGGREGATE (type 6).
This is a well-known discretionary attribute, which defines the
destination prefix as not aggregate; it only defines a single
destination network.
This attribute has no value field, which means the value of the
length field is zero.
AGGREGATOR (type 7).
This is an optional transitive attribute, which emphasizes that
the destination prefix is an aggregate.
Flow diagram for route selection
BGP Messages
Open Message.
To create a neighborhood relationship, a router running BGP opens
a TCP connection with a neighbor and sends an open message.
Update Message.
The update message is the heart of the BGP protocol. It is used by
a router to withdraw destinations that have been advertised previously,
to announce a route to a new destination, or both.
Keepalive Message.
The BGP peers that are running exchange keepalive
messages regularly (before their hold time expires) to tell each other
that they are alive.
Notification.
A notification message is sent by a router whenever an error
condition is detected or a router wants to close the session.
BGP Messages
BGP Performance

• BGP performance can be compared with RIP.

• BGP speakers exchange a lot of messages to create
forwarding tables, but BGP is free from loops and count-to-infinity.
• The same weakness we mention for RIP about propagation of
failure and corruption also exists in BGP.