UNIT 1

MODULE 2
THE EARTH’S INTERIOR
INTRODUCTION:
 Scientists have studied heavenly bodies which are
millions of miles away from Earth. Equipped with
powerful telescopes and space probes, they were
able to reach and examine the solar system and
beyond. It seems ironic then, that we haven’t, and
we couldn’t reach the center of our own planet.
 In module 1, you have learned about
the different processes and landforms
along plate boundaries that slowly
shaped the Earth’s surface. In Module
2, you will learn the connection
between these processes with the
internal structure and mechanisms of
our planet.
This module will help you visualize and
understand the composition and structure
of the Earth’s interior. It proves you
scientific knowledge that will help you
describe the different layers of the earth as
well as understand their characteristics.
You will also learn concepts that explain
the physical changes that it underwent in
the past.
KEY QUESTIONS:
1. How do the structure and composition of the
Earth cause geologic activities and
physical changes?
2. What are the possible causes of the lithospheric
plate movements?
3. What proves the movement of the tectonic
plates?
PRE- ASSESSMENT
EARTH’S
INTERIOR
Scientists tried to explore and study the
interior of the Earth. Yet, until today,
there are no mechanical probes or
actual explorations done to totally
discover the deepest region of the
Earth.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
Crust

Mantle

Core

Inner Outer
The study of these layers is mostly
done in the Earth’s crust since
mechanical probes are impossible
due to the TREMENDOUS HEAT and
HIGH PRESSURE underneath the
earth’s surface.
WHAT ARE SEISMIC WAVES?
SEISMIC WAVES

A wave of energy that is

generated by an earthquake
or other earth vibration and
that travels within the earth
or along its surface.
SEISMIC WAVES
BODY WAVES SURFACE WAVES
• Can travel through the Earth’s inner • Can only travel through the
layers surface of the earth
• Used by the scientists to study the • Arrive after the main P and S
Earth’s interior.
waves
• With higher frequency than the
• Confined to the outer layers of
surface waves
the earth
SURFACE WAVES

LOVE WAVES RAYLEIGH WAVES

• Named after A.E.H Love, British • Named after John William Strutt and Lord
mathematician who worked out the Rayleigh, who predicted the existence of this
mathematical model for this kind of wave in kind of wave year 1885
1911 • It rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls
• Faster than Rayleigh and moves the ground across a lake or ocean.
side to side horizontal motion, like that of the • It moves the ground either up and down or
snake’s causing the ground to twist.
side to side similar to the direction of the
• Cause the most damage to structures during waves movement
an earthquake • Most shaking felt by earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave
BODY WAVES
PRIMARY (P-WAVES) SECONDARY (S-WAVES)
• Pulse energy that travels quickly through the earth and • Known as shear wave or transverse wave and force the ground to sway
from side to side, in rolling motion that shakes the ground back and
through liquids.
forth perpendicular to the direction of the waves.
• Travels faster than the S- wave . • Pulse energy travels slower than a P-wave through the earth and solids.
• It reaches the detector first (the reason why it is called • The idea that S-waves cannot travel through any liquid medium lead
primary. seismologists to conclude that the outer core is liquid.

• Also called compressional waves, travel by particles

vibrating parallel to the direction the wave travel.
• Force the ground to move backward and forward as they
are compressed and expanded.
• Also called compressional waves, travel by particles vibrating parallel to the
• Travel through solids, liquids, and gases. direction the wave travel.
• Scientists gained information about the earth’s internal structure by
studying how seismic waves travel through the earth.
• It involves measuring the time it takes for both types of waves to
reach seismic wave detecting stations from the epicenter of an
earthquake.
• An epicenter is a point in the earth’s surface directly above the focus.
• Since P-waves travel faster than S-waves, they’re always detected
first.
• The farther away from the epicenter means the longer time interval
between the arrival of P and S waves.
• In 1909, Yugoslavian seismologist ANDRIJA
MOHOROVICIC found out that the velocity of seismic
waves changes and increases at a distance of about
50 kilometers below the earth’s surface. This led to
the idea that there is a difference in density between
the earth’s outermost layer (crust) and the layer that
lies below it (mantle). The boundary between these
two layers is called MOHOROVICIC discontinuity in
honor of ANDRIJA and is short term for MOHO.
• P-waves are detected on the other side of the earth opposite to
FOCUS. Since P-waves are detected , disappear , the reappear of a
shadow zone, according to German seismologists BENO GUTENBERG,
could only be explained if the earth contained a core composed of a
material different from that of the mantle causing the bending of the
P-waves.
• To honor him, mantle-core boundary is called GUTENBERG
DISCONTINUITY.
• In 1936, the innermost layer of the earth was predicted by INGE
LEHMANN, a Danish seismologist. He discovered a new region of
seismic reflection within a core. So, the earth has a CORE WITHIN A
CORE.
• We can say that the OUTER part of the core is LIQUID based from the
production of an S- wave shadow and the INNER part must be SOLID
• The size of the inner core was accurately calculated
through nuclear underground tests conducted in
Nevada.

• Echoes from seismic waves provided accurate data

in determining its size.
THICKNESS OF THE DIFFERENT LAYERS OF THE EARTH

LAYER THICKNESS IN
(KILOMETER)
Crust 40

Mantle 2900

Outer Core 2200

Inner Core 1278

THE COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH’S
INTERIOR
• The earth’s composition tells a story
about itself.
• It gives us clues to its past and
proofs about the gradual and slow
changes it has undergone for over
4.6 billion years.
THE
CRUST
The thinnest and the outermost
layer of the earth that extends
from the surface to about 32
kilometers below. Underneath
some mountains the crust’s
thickness extends to 72
kilometers.
TYPES OF CRUST

CONTINENTAL OCEANIC
• Mainly made up of silicon, oxygen, • Around 7 to 10 kilometers thick which
aluminum, calcium, sodium, and its average thickness is 8 kilometers.
potassium.
• Found under the ocean floor and is
• The thickness of the continental made up of dense rocks such as
crust is mostly 35 to 40 kilometers basalt.
• Found under the land masses, is • The oceanic crust is heavier than the
made of less dense rocks such a continental crust.
granite
ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
• OXYGEN • 46.60
• SILICON • 27.72
• ALUMINUM • 8.13
• IRON • 5.00
• CALCIUM • 3.63
ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
• SODIUM • 2.83
• POTASSIUM • 2.59
• MAGNESIUM • 2.09
• TITANIUM • 0.40
• HYDROGEN • 0.14
THE
MANTLE
• Beneath the crust is the
mantle
• Extends to about 2900 km
from the Earth’s surface.
• Makes up about 80% of the
earth’s total volume and
about 68% of its total mass.
• Made up of silicate rocks, and
contrary to common belief, is
solid, since both P and S –
• The attempt to study the Earth’s mantle extended
as far as studying the rocks from volcanoes,
simply because they were formed in the mantle.
• Scientists also studied rocks from the ocean floor.
• The mantle is mostly made up of elements
SILICON, OXYGEN, IRON AND MAGNESIUM.
• The lower part of the mantle consists of more iron than
the upper portion. The temperature and pressure
increases with depth.
• The high temperature and pressure of the mantle allows
the solid rock to flow slowly.
• The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle form a
relatively cool, outermost rigid shell called LITHOSPHERE.
These plates move relative to each other.
• Beneath the lithosphere lies a soft, weak layer known
as the asthenosphere, made of hot molten material.
• Its temperature is about 300-800ºC . The upper 150
km of the asthenosphere has a temperature enough to
facilitate a small amount of melting, and make it
capable to flow.
• This property of the asthenosphere facilitates the
movement of the lithospheric plates.
• The lithosphere, with the continents on top of it, is
being carried by the flowing asthenosphere.
THE
CORE
• Subdivided into
two layers:
a.inner
b. outer
OUTER CORE
• Is 2900 km below the earth’s surface.
• 2250 km thick and is made up of iron and nickel
• The temperature reaches up to 2000ºC at this very
high temperature, iron and nickel melt.
• Mainly made up of iron and nickel moving around the
solid inner core, creating earth’s magnetism.
INNER CORE
• Is made up of solid iron and nickel and has a radius of
1300 km.
• Its temperature reaches to about 5000ºC. The
extreme temperature could have molten the iron and
nickel but it is believed to have solidified as a result of
pressure freezing, which is common to liquids
subjected under tremendous heat and high pressure.
SOME CLUES THAT INNER AND OUTER CORE
ARE MADE UP OF IRON
• Iron and nickel are both dense and magnetic
• The overall density of the earth is much higher
than the density of the rocks in the crust. This
suggests that the inside must be made up of
something denser than rocks.
QUIZ
1. What do you call the
point located directly above
the focus?
2-3. What are the two
main categories of
seismic waves?
4. In what year does John
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh
mathematically predicted the
existence of Rayleigh?
5. What is the most
abundant element in
the Earth’s crust?
6. Who discovered the
discontinuity between
the crust and mantle?
7. What is the layer
beneath the lithosphere
that is weak and soft?
8. What is the name of
the discontinuity
between the mantle
and outer core?
9-10. The Earth’s core is
mainly made up of what
two elements?