UNIT II

• Network Models: Client/ server network and

Peer-to-peer network,
• OSI, TCP/IP, layers and functionalities.

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Client/Server Networks
• Server-based network
• Clients and servers
• Data flows efficiently
• Servers respond to
requests from clients
• Servers perform specific
tasks
• Scalable network
• Centralized

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Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• LAN
• Local area network
• Computers linked
together over a small
geographic region

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Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• WAN
• Wide area network
• Computers linked
over large
geographic locations
• MAN
• Metropolitan area
network
• Computers linked
together within a
city or county

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Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• PAN
• Personal area network
• Wireless devices connected in close proximity to each other
• Intranet
• Private corporate network
• Protected by a firewall

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Constructing
Client/Server Networks
• Servers
• Network topologies
• Transmission media
• Network operating
system (NOS)
• Network adapters
• Network navigation
devices

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Servers
• Number and type of servers
depend on network size and
workload
• Dedicated server
• Performs one specific function
• Authentication server
• Keeps track of network logins
and services available
• File server
• Stores and manages files

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Dedicated Servers
• Print server
• Manages client-requested printing jobs
• Creates print queue (prioritizes print jobs)
• Applications server
• Acts as a storage area for application software
• Database server
• Provides clients with access to database information
• E-mail server
• Processes and delivers in-coming and outgoing
e-mail

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Dedicated Servers
• Communications server
• Handles communications between networks including the Internet
• Often the only device on the network directly connected to the Internet
• Web server
• Hosts a Web site available through
the Internet

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P2P Networking/Computing
• P2P computing is the sharing of computer
resources and services by direct exchange
between systems.
• These resources and services include the
exchange of information, processing cycles,
cache storage, and disk storage for files.
• P2P computing takes advantage of existing
computing power, computer storage and
networking connectivity, allowing users to
leverage their collective power to the
“benefit” of all.
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P2P Architecture
• All nodes are both
clients and servers
• Provide and consume
data
• Any node can initiate a
connection
• No centralized data
source
• “The ultimate form of
democracy on the
Internet”
• “The ultimate threat to
copy-right protection on
the Internet

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What is P2P?
• A distributed system
architecture
• No centralized control
• Typically many nodes, but
unreliable and
heterogeneous Internet
Internet
• Nodes are symmetric in
function
• Take advantage of
distributed, shared
resources (bandwidth, CPU,
storage) on peer-nodes
• Fault-tolerant, self-
organizing
• Operate in dynamic
environment, frequent join and
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P2P Network Characteristics
• Clients are also servers and routers
• Nodes contribute content, storage, memory, CPU
• Nodes are autonomous (no administrative
• authority)
• Network is dynamic: nodes enter and leave the network
“frequently”
• Nodes collaborate directly with each other (not through
well-known servers)
• Nodes have widely varying capabilities

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P2P vs. Client/Server
• Pure P2P:
• No central server
• For certain requests any peer can function as a
client, as a router, or as a server
• The information is not located in a central
location but is distributed among all peers
• A peer may need to communicate with multiple
peers to locate a piece of information

As more peers are added, both

demand
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and capacity of the network 14
P2P Benefits
• Efficient use of resources
• Unused bandwidth, storage, processing power at the edge of the network
• Scalability
• Consumers of resources also donate resources
• Aggregate resources grow naturally with utilization
• Reliability
• Replicas
• Geographic distribution
• No single point of failure
• Ease of administration
• Nodes self organize
• No need to deploy servers to satisfy demand (c.f. scalability)
• Built-in fault tolerance, replication, and load balancing
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Difference between Client-
Server and Peer-to-Peer
Network:
S.NO CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
In Client-Server Network, Clients and server
In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not
1. are differentiated, Specific server and clients
differentiated.
are present.
Client-Server Network focuses on
2. While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on connectivity.
information sharing.
In Client-Server Network, Centralized server While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its own
3.
is used to store the data. data.
In Client-Server Network, Server respond the While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node
4.
services which is request by Client. can do both request and respond for the services.
Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
5.
to-Peer Network. Client-Server Network.
Client-Server Network are more stable than While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if number
6.
Peer-to-Peer Network. of peer is increase.
Client-Server Network is used for both small While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for
7.
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and large networks. small networks with fewer than 10 computers
2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

04/24/2025 2.17
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

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2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
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Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

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Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

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Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

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2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

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Figure 2.5 Physical layer

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Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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Figure 2.6 Data link layer

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Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

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Figure 2.8 Network layer

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Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

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Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

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Figure 2.10 Transport layer

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Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Figure 2.12 Session layer

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Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

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Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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Figure 2.14 Application layer

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Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
04/24/2025 2.43
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

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2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

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Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

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Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

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Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

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Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

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Figure 2.20 IP addresses

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Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

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Figure 2.21 Port addresses

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Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

04/24/2025 2.55
Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

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2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
04/24/2025 2.57
7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport INTRODUCTION
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application NETWORK GOALS

6 Presentation The two main benefits of networking computers are…

Communications
5 Session Information can be distributed very quickly, such as
email and video conferencing.
4 Transport
Saving Money
Resources such as information, software, and
3 Network hardware can be shared.

2 Data Link CPUs and hard disks can be pooled together to

create a more powerful machine.

1 Physical

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7 Application APPLICATIONS

6 Presentation A lot of things we take for granted are the result of

computer networks.

5 Session • Email
• Chat
• Web sites
4 Transport
• Sharing of documents and pictures
• Accessing a centralized database of information
3 Network • Mobile workers

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application NETWORK STRUCTURE

6 Presentation The subnet interconnects hosts.

Subnet
5 Session Carries messages from host to host. It is made up
of telecommunication lines (i.e. circuits, channels,
4 Transport trunks) and switching elements (i.e. IMPs, routers).

Hosts
3 Network End user machines or computers.

2 Data Link Q: Is the host part of the subnet?

1 Physical

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7 Application NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6 Presentation A set of layers and protocols is called the network

architecture.

5 Session 1. Protocol Hierarchies

Networks are organized as layers to reduce design
4 Transport complexity. Each layer offers services to the higher
layers. Between adjacent layers is an interface.
3 Network Services – connection oriented and
connectionless.
2 Data Link Interface – defines which primitives and services
the lower layer will offer to the upper layer.

1 Physical Primitives – operations such as request, indicate,

response, confirm.

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7 Application NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6 Presentation 2. Design Issues for the Layers

• Mechanism for connection establishment
• Rules for data transfer
5 Session • Error control
• Fast sender swamping a slow receiver
4 Transport • Inability of processes to accept long messages
• Routing in the case of multiple paths
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation The Open Systems Interconnection is the model

developed by the International Standards
Organization.
5 Session
Benefits
4 Transport • Interconnection of different systems (open)
• Not limited to a single vendor solution
3 Network
Negative Aspect
• Systems might be less secure
2 Data Link • Systems might be less stable

1 Physical

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 1. Physical Layer

a) Convert the logical 1’s and 0’s coming from
layer 2 into electrical signals.
5 Session
b) Transmission of the electrical signals over a
communication channel.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Transmission mediums
• Encoding
2 Data Link • Modulation
• RS232 and RS422 standards
• Repeaters
1 Physical • Hubs (multi-port repeater)

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 2. Data Link Layer

a) Error control to compensate for the
imperfections of the physical layer.
5 Session
b) Flow control to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Framing methods
• Error detection and correction methods
2 Data Link • Flow control
• Frame format
• IEEE LAN standards
1 Physical • Bridges
• Switches (multi-port bridges)

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 3. Network Layer

a) Controls the operation of the subnet.
5 Session b) Routing packets from source to destination.
c) Logical addressing.
4 Transport
Main topics:
• Internetworking
3 Network
• Routing algorithms
• Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
2 Data Link • Routers

1 Physical

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 4. Transport Layer

a) Provides additional Quality of Service.
5 Session b) Heart of the OSI model.

Main topics:
4 Transport
• Connection-oriented and connectionless services
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
3 Network • User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 5. Session Layer

a) Allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
5 Session
b) One of the services is managing dialogue
control.
4 Transport
c) Token management.

3 Network d) Synchronization.

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 6. Presentation Layer

a) Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information.
5 Session
b) Preserves the meaning of the information.
4 Transport c) Data compression.
d) Data encryption.
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 7. Application Layer

a) Provides protocols that are commonly needed.
5 Session
Main topics:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
4 Transport • HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
3 Network • Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Network File System (NFS)
• Telnet
2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation Each layer provides services to the layer above it.

1. Terminologies
5 Session
Entities – active elements in each layer (e.g.
process, intelligent I/O chip).
4 Transport Peer Entities – entities in the same layer on
different machines.
3 Network Service Provider – Layer N.
Service User – Layer N + 1.
2 Data Link
Service Access Points – places where layer N + 1
can access services offered by layer N.
1 Physical

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7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation 2. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

Connection-Oriented – before data is sent, the
service from the sending computer must establish
5 Session
a connection with the receiving computer.

4 Transport Connectionless – data can be sent at any time by

the service from the sending computer.
3 Network
Q: Is downloading a music file from the Internet
connection-oriented or connectionless?
2 Data Link
Q: Is email connection-oriented or connectionless?
1 Physical

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7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation 3. Service Primitives

Request – entity wants the service to do some
work
5 Session
Indicate – entity is to be informed about an event
4 Transport Response – entity responds to an event
Confirm – entity is to be informed about its request
3 Network
Sending Computer Receiving Computer

2 Data Link 4 Transport 4 Transport

1. request 4. confirm 2. indicate 3. response

1 Physical
3 Network 3 Network
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7 Application BANDWIDTH

6 Presentation The capacity of the medium to transmit data.

Analog Bandwidth
5 Session • Measurement is in Hertz (Hz) or cycles/sec.

4 Transport Digital Bandwidth

• Measurement is in bits per second (bps).
3 Network
Q: Is 100MHz = 100Mbps?
2 Data Link Q: Is 100Mbps = 100MBps?

1 Physical

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7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
5 Session Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce
the effect of crosstalk noise. (e.g. Cat5, UTP, STP)
4 Transport
Baseband Coaxial Cable
3 Network A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission. Used
in 10Base2 and 10Base5.
2 Data Link Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such
1 Physical as Cable TV.

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7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation Fiber Optic Cables

Two general types are multimode and single mode.
5 Session In multimode, light is reflected internally. Light
source is an LED.
4 Transport

3 Network In single mode, the light propagates in a straight

line. Light source come from expensive laser
diodes. Faster and longer distances as compared
2 Data Link to multimode.

1 Physical
* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
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7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
5 Session
Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must “see” each other,
4 Transport such as a terrestrial microwave system.

Communication Satellites
3 Network
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is
broadcasted, and can be “pirated.”
2 Data Link
Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as
1 Physical
FM, UHF, and VHF television.

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7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Modulation
Modulating a sine wave carrier to convey data.
5 Session
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude is increased/decreased while frequency
4 Transport remains constant.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

3 Network
Frequency is increased/decreased while amplitude
remains constant.
2 Data Link
Phase Modulation
Wave is shifted, while amplitude and frequency
1 Physical
remains constant.

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7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 2. Modems
A device that accepts digital signals and outputs a
modulated carrier wave, and vice versa.
5 Session
It is used to interconnect the digital computer to the
4 Transport analog telephone network.

* Modems for PC’s can be external or internal.

3 Network * Nokia makes modems for leased line connections.

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 3. RS-232 and RS-449

Two well known physical layer standards.
5 Session
RS-232
• 20 kbps
4 Transport • Cables up to 15 meters
• Unbalanced transmission (common ground)
3 Network
RS-422
2 Data Link • 2 Mbps at 60 meters
• 1 Mbps at 100 meters
• Balanced transmission (a pair of wires for Tx, Rx)
1 Physical

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7 Application DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Encoding Schemes

Converting logical data into electrical signals
suitable for transmission.
5 Session
Manchester
4 Transport • Mid bit transition for clock synchronization and
data
• Logic 0 = high to low transition
3 Network • Logic 1 = low to high transition

2 Data Link Differential Manchester

• Mid bit transition for clock synchronization only
1 Physical • Logic 0 = transition at the beginning of each bit
period
• Logic 1 = no transition at the beginning of each bit
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period 82
7 Application DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 2. Repeaters and Hubs

These are physical layer devices.
5 Session Repeaters
• Restores the strength of an attenuated signal.
4 Transport • Used to increase the transmission distance.
• Does not filter data traffic.

3 Network Hubs
• Multi-port repeater.
2 Data Link • Interconnects several computers.
• Does not filter data traffic.
1 Physical

* Picture from 3com.com

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7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport NETWORK LAYER

3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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7 Application OVERVIEW

6 Presentation 1. Routing Algorithms

• Shortest Path
• Flooding
5 Session • Flow-based
• Distance Vector
• Link State
4 Transport
• Hierarchical
• Broadcast
3 Network • Multicast
• Routing for Mobile Hosts
2 Data Link 2. Congestion control
3. IP Addressing
4. Routers
1 Physical

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7 Application ROUTING ALGORITHMS

6 Presentation 1. Shortest Path

B(A,2) C(B,3)
5 Session B 1 C
2
4 Transport A(-,-) 3 2 3
D(E,3)
2
A D F(E,4)
3 Network 1
1 F
E(A,2) 2
2 Data Link 2
E
1 Physical
A–E–D–F
A – E – F is the answer.
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7 Application ROUTING ALGORITHMS

6 Presentation 2. Flooding

IMP Packet to IMP C

5 Session Packet B
Packet to IMP D
4 Transport Packet to IMP E

To prevent packets from circulating indefinitely, a

3 Network packet has a hop counter. Every time a packet arrives
at an IMP, the hop counter is decrease by 1. Once the
2 Data Link hop counter of a packet reaches 0, the packet is
discarded.

1 Physical

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7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Format
xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
where x is either 0 or 1
5 Session
Example 1:
4 Transport 11111111. 11111111.00000000.00000000

255.255.0.0
3 Network
Example 2:
2 Data Link 11111111. 11111111.10000000.00000000

1 Physical 255.255.192.0

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7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Network Address

Example 1:
5 Session IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.0.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
4 Transport
Example 2:
3 Network IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.255.0
2 Data Link Network address 180.100.7.0

Example 3:
1 Physical
IP address of computer 180.100.7.2
Mask 255.255.192.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
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7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Mask

Valid mask are contiguous 1’s from left to right.

5 Session
Examples:
4 Transport Valid
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
3 Network
255.255.255.0

2 Data Link Invalid

255.1.0.0
255.0.255.0
1 Physical
255.255.64.0
200.255.0.0
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7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Subnets
The Internet is running out of IP address. One solution
is to subnet a network address.
5 Session
This is done by borrowing host bits to be used as
4 Transport network bits.

Example:
3 Network
Class B mask 255.255.0.0
Borrowing 1 bit gives a subnet mask of 255.255.128.0
2 Data Link Borrowing 2 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.192.0
Borrowing 3 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0
Borrowing 4 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0
1 Physical

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7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Example:
Given an IP address of 180.200.0.0, subnet by
borrowing 4 bits.
5 Session
Subnet mask = 255.255.240.0
4 Transport The 4 bits borrowed are value 128, 64, 32, 16. This will
create 16 sub networks, where the first and last will be
unusable.
3 Network
Sub network address:
2 Data Link 180.200.0.0
180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
1 Physical
180.200.48.0
180.200.64.0
etc…
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7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation The first 3 usable sub networks are:

180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
5 Session 180.200.48.0

4 Transport For sub network 180.200.16.0, the valid IP address

are:

3 Network 180.200.16.1 to 180.200.31.254

2 Data Link Directed broadcast address is:

180.200.31.255
1 Physical

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7 Application ROUTERS

6 Presentation A layer 3 device that is used to interconnect 2 or more

logical networks.

5 Session Can filter broadcast traffic, preventing broadcast traffic

from one network from reaching another network.
4 Transport

3 Network 180.200.0.0 202.5.3.0

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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Reference
• Forouzan, B.A. Data Communicaiton and Networking, McGraw- Hill
Education. Global edition 5e(© 2013).

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