CHAPTER FOUR

Mechanical
behavior of
rocks
CHAPTER CONTENT
Rheology
Elastic, Plastic and Viscous behavior
of materials
Triaxial Tests & Rock Strength
Controlling factors on rock mechanics
Mechanical behavior of rocks : means
the behavior of rocks to an applied external
stress .
 This also expressed by a term called
rheology.

Rheology : is nothing but a part of

mechanics that deals with the flow of
rocks, or matter in general.
 Generally Rheology deals the relationship of the
following things :
stress, s
strain, e
.
strain rate e (hence time, t)
count…….
 when a stress is applied on the rock it
behaves differently due to different
conditions.
 The responses of the rocks are
generalized into three models:

Elastic
behavior
Plastic
behavior
Elastic
•
behavior
Is the behavior of materials ,when an
applied stress is removed from an
elastically deforming rock, the rock will
return to its original length/shape.
• Stress is totally reversible or recoverable
• Elastic behavior is that the material is
instantaneous. As soon as the stress is
applied the material strains by an appropriate
amount.
• There three most common material
parameter of elasticity
 Graphically it become straight line. The slope of
the graph is constant. Such material is called
elastic material.
 There three most common material
parameter of elasticity:

1. elastic modulus (E)for

longitudinal strain
2. Shear modulus (G) for shear
strain
3. Bulk modulus (K) for volumetric
strain
1. Young’s modulus ( Elastic
modulus)

σ= Ee (Law of Elasticity-Hook’s Law)

where:
 E= is Young’s Modulus of Elasticity
 E=σ/e is the slope of the line and it is constant

 E- measure the natural resistance of rock
to elastic deformation. The higher the
values of E, the stiffer the rock &vise
verse .
2. Shear Modulus
 The resistance that elastic solids
offer to the shearing of planes past
each other.

For shear stress and strains

σs= G g
g =shear strain and σs is shear stress
 The proportionality constant G
between stress and shear strain is
the shear modulus (rigidity)
The higher G meaning the higher
3. Bulk Modulus
 The resistance that elastic solids offer to change
in their volume/shape.
P = Kev
Where : k is the bulk modulus
ev is dilation volume change and ,
p(σ) is pressure /stress/

 The inverse of the bulk modulus is the

compressibility :k = 1/K
 Compressibility : is a measure of the relative
volume change (volumetric strain) of a fluid or solid
as a response to a pressure or mean stress change.

The higher the value of bulk modulus, the

more pressure is needed for the material to
Count…

 The proportionality constants ‘E’,

‘G’, and ‘K’ are the slope of the line
in the σ-e diagram (slope = σ/e)
 Since ‘E’, ’G’, and K’ are the
ratio of stress over strain (σ/e),
their units are similar to the
unit of stress (e.g., Pa,Mpa,
bar) because ‘e’ is
dimensionless
Plastic
behavior
 plastic behavior mean: If the
materials deformed by an applied
external stress and remains deformed
after the stress is removed.
 Plastic strain is continuous - the material
does not rupture immediately , and the
strain is irreversible (permanent).
 Un like elastic deformation Plastic
deformation produces a permanent change
in shape of a solid without failure.
Count……
 The onset of plastic deformation occurs
when stress-strain curve departs from its
straight line elastic mode and begins to
bend to form a convex upward curve.
 The point of departure from elastic
behavior to plastic behavior is called
the elastic limit and its value is called
yield strength (measured in stress)
 The rock becomes so weak that the curve
begins to descend to the right, steeply b/c
less stress is required to produce new
strain.
 finally, the rock rupture.
 The stress level at which faulting occurs is
 The general Graphically elaboration about
elastic and plastic behavior of material
Viscous
Before behavior
goning to talk about viscose behavior
of material we need to mind about strain
rate.

Strain rate is nothing but the ratio of strain

over time. e’ =e/t
This tells us the effect of time on the response of
material.

Note that :

Elastic –is time independent

Plastic -is time dependent and
Viscous- is also time dependent
Keep in mined the idea of strain rate know
we can define a new type of material
response called viscosity.
Viscosity is the resistance of a material to
flow
It is a behavior of fluids .

σ= e’:
Where:
 σ is stress and e’ is strain rate
 Where as  is proportional
viscosity constant
Count....
 materials with high viscosity flow very
slowly
 And Materials with low viscosity flow
rapidly.
General concept
 Rocks in the upper crust: where rock
temperatures are not very high, the rocks behave
as elastic body and when they deform they will
deform in a brittle manner
 Rocks at deeper level: where temperatures are
very high, the rock will be weak and more ductile
and the rocks behave as plastic or viscous way

 Brittle Rocks- exhibit elastic behavior before

rupture and this is the behavior of rocks in the
upper crust.
 Ductile Rocks- exhibit elastic-plastic behavior
before
Rupture and it is the characteristics of rocks at
deeper level
Triaxial Tests & Rock Strength

• Triaxial Test- used to simulate behavior of rocks at depth.

• A cylindrical sample is enclosed in a jacket through
which a radial confining pressure can be applied using
gases or liquids. An axial load is then applied.
• Triaxial tests have been used to study the nature of the
“damage zone” that propagates ahead of the growing
fracture.
• Repeated tests are conducted to determine failure at
different axial (normal) and confining (shear) values.
• Thus a failure envelope may be constructed on a
Mohr's diagram by constructing tangential lines to
Mohr's circle representing the failure values for each
test result.
• The unconfined compression test is applicable to
rock engineering where rock masses are exposed
at the Earth’s surface.
– However, in the design of tunnels, mines, or
other underground excavations (waste
repositories), confining pressures are important.
• At depth, the minimum principal stress σ3 is no
longer zero as in unconfined compression tests.
Pc= ρgh
• where ρ= density, Pc= lithostatic pressure , g=
gravity , h= depth
Donath Triaxial Deformation Apparatus
• Confining pressure- due to the weight of the
surrounding rock.
– Unlike hydrostatic pressure, lithostatic pressure is
not always equal in all directions.
– The principal compressive stress σ1 may be
oriented vertically or laterally.
• As confining pressure increases:
– Rock strain proceeds from brittle to
ductile behavior.
– Higher confining pressure resists
opening of fractures
– Rock strength increases (greater
amounts of strain accumulate before
failure occurs).
Rock strength
 Once the elastic limit or strength of a rock is
exceeded , it either flows or fractures .
 Generally Rocks deform permanently in to two
ways:

 brittle deformation and

 ductile deformation

 brittle deformation : Rocks near the surface,

where temperatures and confining pressure are low,
usually behave like brittle solids and fracture.
 Ductile deformation: is a type of solid-state flow
that produces a change in the size and shape of a
geologic body with out fracturing .
Count…

• It is possible to arrange the common rocks in order of

increasing strength for specific conditions of
confining pressure and rate of loading (strain rate).
• Stress-strain diagrams provide the basis for this
ranking.
• The ranking is approximate being influenced by
composition, texture and general conditions of the
specimen.
• Nature and orientations of mechanical heterogeneity
(anisotropy) resulting from fractures, layers,
foliations and the like ,influence s on rock strength.
General ranking:
Strongest Competent, likely to deform in brittle manner
Quartzite
Granite
Quartz-cemented sandstone
Basalt
Limestone
Calcite-cemented sandstone
Schist
Marble
Shale/mudstone
Anhydrite
Salt
Weakest Incompetent, likely to deform in ductile
manner
۞ Confining pressure: increase in confining pressure on a rock in
a compression test increases the strength and ductility of rocks.
– The effect of confining pressure can be partially or completely
offset by the presence of elevated fluid pressure in the rock.
Temperature: enhances ductility, depresses yield strength, lowers
ultimate strength.
– Some rocks are more responsive than others.
E.g. igneous rocks are more at home with high temperature
than sedimentary rocks.
• Strain rate: High strain rate favors brittle behavior,
– high fluid and confining pressures may permit rapid plastic flow
along the fault.
– The role of fluid pressure is to reduce the normal stress needed to
deform rocks.
• Time
It is impossible to carry out rock deformation experiments at geologic rates .
Any way time Decreases elastic component; suppresses Promotes crystal plastic
processes fracturing; increases ductility; reduces strength; decreases work hardening
Controlling factors on rock mechanic
 There are several factors w/c changes how a material
will respond to stress.
Some of factors which coming from experimental work is
listed as follows:
Effect of confining pressure,
Pc
Effect of Temperature, T
Effect of pore fluids, Pf
Note : The two major points below .helps us to generalize our
Strain rate,
discussion on thus factors:
e
 yield stress (σy): The point of departure from elastic behavior
to plastic behavior. The stress amount when the elasticity
of the material end.
 yield stress (σy) : stress amount at point of failure.
Effect of confining pressure, Pc :
increase in confining pressure on a rock in a compression test
increases the strength and ductility of rocks.

 Increase Pc results :

 Increase yield stress σy and

 Increase rupture σr
Stress σ

Pc
Effect of Temperature, T: enhances ductility,
depresses yield strength, increase ultimate strength.
 Increase T results

 Decrease yield stress σy and

 Increase rupture stress σr
 The overall effect is enlarge plastic field !
Stress, σ

 This field may

never rupture
Effect of pore fluids, Pf : pore-fluid
pressure reduce rock strength.
 Generally Addition of fluids :

 Decrease yield stress σy and

 Increase rupture stress σr
Stress,
σ
.
Strain rate, e : High strain rate favors brittle
behavior.
 Decrease strain rate results :

 Decrease yield stress σy

 Decrease rupture stress σr
Stress, σ