Computer

studies
Form three
work
1
Table of contents
 Data representation in a computer

 Data processing

 Elementary programming principles

 System development
Chapter 1
Data representation in a
computer

3
Introduction
 In digital computers,
the user inputs is
converted and
transmitted as
electrical pulses that
can be represented
by two digits ‘1’ and
‘0’ before processing.
These two digits are
referred to as Binary
digits.
The sequence of ON’s and OF’s states forms
an electrical signals that a computer can
understand.
These two digits (“1” and “0”) are referred to
as Binary digits.
Parameters of periodic wave
representing a signal
 1. Amplitude (A): is the maximum
displacement that
Sending data via a telephone line
 When a digital signal is to be
sent over analog telephone
lines e.g. e-mail, it has to be
converted to analog signal.
This is done by connecting a
device called a modem to
the digital computer. This
process of converting a
digital signal to an analog
signal is known as
modulation. On the
receiving end, the incoming
analog signal is converted
back to digital form in a
process known as
demodulation.
Concepts of data representation in digital computers

 Data and instructions cannot be entered

and processed directly into computers
using human language. Any type of data
entered must first be converted into
machine-readable form. (Binary form).
Computer together with it’s peripheral
devices handle data in it’s electronic
circuits, magnetic media and in optical
devices.
Data representation in electronic circuits
 Electronic components
such as
microprocessor are
made up of millions of
electronic circuits.
Availability of a

high voltage (ON)

in these circuits is
interpreted as ‘1’ while
a low voltage (OFF) is
Data representation on magnetic media
 The presence of a
magnetic field in one
direction on magnetic
media is interpreted
as ‘1’ while the
absence of magnetic
field is interpreted as
‘0’.
Data representation on optical media
In optical devices, the presence of light is interpreted as ‘1’
while its absence is interpreted as ‘0’.
 BITS – this is a binary digit, which can either be 0 or
1. it’s the basic unit of data or information in digital
computers.
 BYTE – a group of 8 bits. It is the basic unit of
measuring memory size in computers.
 NIBBLE – it is a half a byte or a group of 4 bits.
 WORD – its consists of one or more bytes and is the
largest amount of memory that the computer can
handle.
 WORD LENGTH – is the number of bits in each
word of computer.
Reasons for use of binary
1. It is difficult to develop devices that can
understand or process natural language
directly.
2. Digital devices are more reliable, small in
size and use less energy as compared to
analog device
3. It is easier to design digital system since
they have only two logic levels.ie. 0 or 1
4. The output of this system is more
precise and accurate
5. They are smaller hence they can
store a large amount of information
in a small space
6. They are less affected by noise
such as electrical and
electromagnetic interference.
Reading data on a CD-ROM
Types of data representation
 Number System

 Base conversion

 Negative Numbers

 Binary Addition
Types of number systems
 Decimal Number System

 Binary Number System

 Octal number system

 Hexadecimal Number System

1. Decimal Number System
 This number system has ten digits ranging from
0-9. A decimal number should be written with a
subscript 10. e.g. 13210. Each digit of a given
number in the base has a place value, which is
influenced by base ten. E.g. number 1234 10
2. Binary Number System
 This number system uses two digits 1 and 0 to
represent numbers. The place value of the digits
of a base two number is influenced by two (the
base/radix). e.g. the place values of the 1010 2
are illustrated below
3. Octal number system
 The octal number system consists of eight digits
running from 0-7. each digit of a number in base
eight has its place value determined by eight.
E.g. 21638 can be expressed as.
4. Hexadecimal Number System
 This number system consists of sixteen digits ranging
from 0-9 and letters A-F where A is equivalent to 10, B
to 11 up to F which is equivalent to 15, in base ten
systems. Each digit of a number in base sixteen has
its place value expressed in terms of sixteen. For
example, the value 12A3 can be expressed as;
Reasons for use of hexadecimal
notation in a computer
1.Helps to manage long binary digits
properly
2.Helps to improve the processing
speed and optimize memory usage.
Base conversion
 Decimal to Binary
 Binary to Decimal Number
 Decimal to Octal
 From Octal to Decimal
 Converting Octal to Binary
 From Decimal to Hexadecimal
 Hexadecimal to Decimal
 Hexadecimal to Binary
Decimal to Binary 1
 To convert a number from base 10 to base 2, the
number in base 10 is repeatedly divided by 2 unit the
divided is zero on each division the remainder is
noted. The remainders are copied bottom up wise to
give the binary equivalent of the decimal number.
Decimal to Binary 2
 For fractional numbers
the number is divided into
two parts. The whole
number part and the
fraction part. The whole
number is repeatedly
divided by 2 while the
fraction is repetitively
multiplied by 2 until the
fraction becomes zero or
starts recurring.
(Repeating it self)
Binary to Decimal Number 1
 Steps
1. First write the place
values starting from
the right hand side.
2. Write each digit
under its place value.
3. Multiply each digit by
its corresponding
place value.
4. Sum up the products.
Binary to Decimal Number 2
 For fraction number,
the whole number is
converted to decimal
as above. The
fraction part digits are
divided by multiples of
two starting from the
decimal point.
Decimal to octal 1
 To convert a number
from base 10 to base
8, the number in base
10 is repeatedly
divided by 8, until the
dividend is zero each
division the remainder
is noted.
Decimal to octal 2
 To convert fractional
decimal to octal the
procedure is same as
for fractional decimal
to binary, but the
multiplication is by 8
instead of 2.
Form Octal to Decimal
 The procedure is same
as from binary to decimal,
but the weights as
assigned in terms of 8’s.

 The fractional number are

converted to decimal
using the same
procedure as that of
converting fractional
binary to decimal, but
divisions is by multiplies
of eight.
Converting Octal to Binary
 Each digit is
represented by 3
binary digits. E.g. 7 is
represented as 1112
From Decimal to Hexadecimal 1
 The procedure is
same as from decimal
to binary though
divisions are by 16
From Decimal to Hexadecimal 2
 For the fractional numbers, the fraction part is
multiplied by 16.
Hexadecimal to Decimal
 The same procedure
as from Binary to
Decimal is used with
the weights assigned in
terms of 16’s.

 For fractional
hexadecimal values.
The division is by 16
and the procedure is
the same as the binary
fraction to decimal.
Hexadecimal to Binary
Examples of hexadecimal to binary
Negative numbers
 Both positive and negative numbers can
be represented in the computer memory
during processing. various methods are
used to represent negative numbers in
the computer. These methods are:
i. One’s compliment
ii. Two’s compliment
The negative numbers are used to carry
out subtraction in the computer
arithmetic operations.
One’s complement (1c method)
 In this method the binary bits representing the
negative number are negated that is the 1’s in
the number are changed to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s.
Two’s complement (2c method)
 In this method, the negative number is
represented into binary, then complimented as in
1c method but a ‘1’ is added to the least
significant digit of the complement value.
Signed magnitude
 In decimal numbers, signed number has a prefix
“+” for a positive number e.g. +3210 and “-” for a
negative number e.g. -3210. in binary, a negative
number may be represented by prefixing a digit
1 to the number while a positive number may be
represented by prefixing a digit 0.
i.e. 1710 ⇒ 100012 (unsigned)
-1710 ⇒ To indicate it’s a negative number we
add an extra bit (1) 100012
+1710 ⇒ To indicate it’s positive we add an extra
Advantages of two’s compliment
 There are no two ways of representing a
zero as in one’s compliment and signed
magnitude.

 Effective addition and subtraction can be

done even with numbers that are
represented with a sign bit.
Binary arithmetics
 Binary addition

 Binary subtraction

 Binary multiplication
Binary addition
 Binary addition rules

A+B sum +
carry
0+0 0 0
0+1 1 0
1+0 1 0
1+1 0 1
1+1+1 1 1
Binary subtraction
 Binary subtraction
rule

A-B difference
borrow
0-0 0 0
0-1 1 1
1-0 1 1
1-1 0 0
Subtraction using ones complements
Subtraction using two’s compliment
Binary multiplication
Multiplication rule
Product
A*B 0
0*0 0
0*1 0
1*1 1
Examples of binary multiplication
Symbolic representation using coding system
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII)
 Extended BCD code / standard BCD code
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 BCD is a 4 bit code used to represent
numeric data only. For example, a number
like 3 can be represented using binary
coded decimal as 00112. BCD is mostly
used in simple electronics devices like
calculators etc.
Extended BCD code / standard BCD code

 This standard binary coded decimal is an

enhanced format of binary coded decimal
(BDC) it’s a 7-bit representation scheme
which can represent non numeric
characters. This allows 64 characters to
be represented. For example letter A is
represented as 1100012 using standard
BCD code.
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)

 EBCDIC is an 8-bit character coding

scheme used primarily in IBM computers.
A total of 256 (28) characters can be coded
using this scheme. For example letter A is
represented as 110000012 in EBCDIC
code.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

 ASCII is a 7-bit code, which means that

only 128 characters can be represented.
There is an 8th bit to this coding scheme
which can provide for 256 characters. The
8th bit coding scheme is referred to as an
9-bit ASCII for example letter A is
represented as
10000012 in ASCII code
Review questions 1
1. Differentiate between analog and digital data.
2. Define the following terms:
a. Amplitude
b. Frequency
c. Periodic time
3. Explain the role of a modem in communication.
4. State the reasons for use of binary in digital technology.
5. Using illustration, explain how data is represented:
a. In electronic circuits
b. On magnetic media
c. On CD-ROM
6. Distinguish between:
a. A byte and a nibble
b. Word and word length
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. Analog data is a type of data that is continuous in nature
while digital data is in discrete form.
2. a). Amplitude is the maximum.
b). Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
c). Periodic time is the time taken by a signal to complete
a cycle.
3. A modem converts (modulates) data to be transmitted
over the telephone line from digital signal to analog form.
At the receiving end, the modem attached to the
receiving computer converts (demodulates) the analog
signal to original digital form.
4. Devices designed using binary logic are simple, more
reliable and consume less energy.
Answer of review questions 1-2
5. a). In electronic circuits – availability of high voltage ‘on’ is
interpreted as a ‘1’ while low voltage ‘off’ is interpreted as a
‘0’.
b). On magnetic media, arrangement of magnetic dipoles of
iron oxide in one direction is interpreted as ‘1s” while those
that face in the opposite direction are interpreted as ‘0s’.
c). On the shiny surface of the CD are pits and lands. When a
laser beam falls on the shinny surface, it is reflected and
interpreted as a ‘1’. On the other hand, when the laser beam
takes on the pit or bump, there is no reflection and this is
interpreted as a ‘0’ bit.
6. a). A byte is made up of seven or eight bits while a nibble is
made up of four bits i.e. it is half of a byte.
b). A word consists of two or more bytes while a word length
is used as a measure of the number of bits in each word.
Review questions 2
 Convert the following base two numbers
into denary (base 10) numbers.
a. 01012
b. 11112
c. 101011011102
d. 101111112
e. 10110112
f. 1110001112
Answer of review questions 2
a. 510 d. 19110

b. 1510 e. 8910

c. 139010 f. 45510
Review questions 3
 Using the place value and log division
methods convert each of the following
base 10 numbers to their binary
equivalents.
a. 1010
b. 4310
c. 36510
d. 51210
e. 143
f. 95410
Answer of review questions 3
a. 10102 d. 10000000002

b. 1010112 e. 100011112

c. 1011011012 f. 11101110102
Review questions 4
1. Convert the 2. Convert the
following binary following decimal
numbers to their numbers into their
decimal equivalents. binary equivalents.
a. 0.100112 a. 0.63510
b. 0.00102 b. 0.45010
c. 0.101012 c. 2.50010
d. 11.01102 d. 5.162510
e. 101.111102 e. 7.187510
f. 100.1102 f. 0.35010
Answer of review questions 4
1. Convert the binary 2. Convert the decimal
numbers to their numbers into their
decimal equivalents. binary equivalents.

a. 0.5937510 a. 0.1012
b. 0.12510 b. 0.011102
c. 0.6562510 c. 10.10002
d. 3.37510 d. 101.001010011
e. 5.937510 e. 111.00112
f. 4.7510 f. 110101.01011102
Review questions 5
 Convert the following octal numbers to decimal
numbers.
a. 778
b. 648
c. 1028
d. 12008
e. 10008
f. 1738
g. 1238
h. 7778
i. 3458
j.
k.
1668
3458
Answer of review questions 5
a. 6310 f. 12310

b. 5210 g. 8310

c. 6610 h. 51110

d. 64010 i. 22910

e. 51210 j. 11810
Review questions 6
 Convert the following octal numbers to their
binary equivalents.
a. 2448
b. 2478
c. 1628
d. 5658
e. 2228
f. 33708
g. 14138
h. 13318
i. 63478
j. 466538
Answer of review questions 6
a. 101001002 f. 110111110002

b. 101001112 g. 110000110112

c. 11100102 h. 10110110012

d. 1011101012 i. 1100111001112

e. 100100102 j. 1001101101010112
Review questions 7
 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers
into decimal numbers.
a. 3216
b. CCD16
c. EFE16
d. 11916
e. 32816
f. ABD16
g. 10AFFD16
h. DDFF3416
i. 11ABDF16
j. CDFF3116
Answer of review questions 7
a. 5010 f. 95410

b. 327710 g. 109362910

c. 383810 h. 1454878810

d. 28110 i. 115811110

e. 80810 j. 1350020910
Review questions 8
 Convert the following hexadecimal numbers into binary
form
a. 29416
b. 24716
c. EFD16
d. 90716
e. BAD16
f. CBDF16
g. 585C16
h. ABCD16
i. 55C3A16
j. 33111CF16
k. Convert 1111000110111 to its hexadecimal equivalent.
Answer of review questions 8
a. 10100101002 g. 1011000010111002
b. 10010001112 h. 10101011110011012
c. 11101111111012 i. 10101011100001110
d. 1001000001112 102

e. 1011101011012 j. 11001100010001000
1110011112
f. 11001011110111112
k. IE3716
Review questions 9
Answer of review questions 9
1. 100012 7. 10001112
2. 101102 8. 1111112
3. 110012 9. 10000002
4. 1100112 10. 110010112
5. 10110012 11. 10010112
6. 101012 12. 11110012
Review questions 10
Answer of review questions 10
1. 11112 1. 111112
2. 0012 2. 102
3. 101002 3. 10100102
4. 10012 4. 110001102
5. 1101012 5. 100012
Review questions 11
1. Convert the decimal number -7 to 8-bit binary using
ones and twos complement.
2. Using 8-bits length, find the twos complement of the
following decimal numbers.
A) -3110
B) -2810
C) -510
3. Using ones and twos complement perform the following
arithmetic operations.
A) 1410 – 710
B) 2810 – 1210
C) 3410 – 3310
D) 10010 – 5010
E) 10210 – 6410
Answer the review questions 11
1. 111110012 3. A). 1112

2. A). 111000012 B). 100002

B). 111001002 C). 12

C). 111110112 D). 1100102

E). 01001122
Revision questions 1
1. Explain the two types of 4. Convert the following
data signals. decimal numbers to their
2. Differentiate between decimal binary
equivalents.
A) Octal and decimal A) 78910
number systems. B) 57010
B) Binary and hexadecimal C) 4210
number systems. D) 3010
3. Convert the following binary 5. Find the sum of the
numbers to their decimal following binary numbers.
equivalents. A) 11102 + 11112 =
1. 1011102 B) 0012 + 1002 =
2. 1010112 C) 11012 + 10112 + 1002 =
D) 10102 + 1012 =
3. 01102
E) 1112 + 112 =
4. 10101
Answer of revision questions 1
1. Analog and digital
2. A). Octal number system is a base 8 system while the
decimal number system is a base 10 system.
B). Binary number system is a base 2 system while
hexadecimal number system is a base 16 system.
3. A). 4610
B). 4310
C). 610
D). 2210
4. A). 11000101012
B). 10001110102
C). 1010102
D). 111102
Revision questions 2
1. Work out the following binary 3. Determine the value of X in the
subtraction using direct, ones equations:
and twos complement A) 1001102 – X2 = 0010102
methods.
B) X2 + 11012 = 7010
A) 11001 – 1101
4. Work out the decimal equivalents
B) 1000 – 101 of the following binary numbers.
C) 100011 – 111
A) 0.100102
D) 10101110 – 1000110
B) 101.112
E) 10001000110 – 101
C) 11.1012
2. Find the ones and twos
complement of the following D) 0.0012
decimal number in binary 5. Work out the decimal equivalents
form. of the following binary numbers.
A) -7510 A) 0.3510
B) -8010 B) 2.5010
C) -10010 C) 0.2010
Answer of revision questions 2
1. A). 101012 1. A). 0.562510
B). 1012 B). 5.7510
C). 111002 C). 3.62510
D). 11112 D). 0.12510
E). 10102 2. A). 0.0101102
2. A). 11002 B). 10.12
B). 0112 C). 0.00112
C). 111002 D). 111.0012
D). 11010002
E). 100010000012
3. A). 111002
Revision questions 3
1. Write down the character represented by the following
codes:
A) ASCII
i. 0110000
ii. 0110111
iii. 1000011
iv. 1011001
B) EBCDIC
1. 11110000
2. 11110111
3. 11000001
4. 01011101
Answer of revision questions 3
Char Char
ASCII EBCDIC acter
Num 1’s 2s
acter
ber complement complement

A) 0110000 0 11110000 0
. A) -75 0110100 0110101

B) 0110111 7 11110111 7
.
B) -80 0101111 0110000
C) 1000011 C 11000001 A
.
C) -100 0011011 0011100
D) 1011001 Y 01011101 )
.
Chapter 2
data processing

82
Definition of Terms
 Data – this is a collection of raw facts (figures, letters,
characters etc) that convey little meaning by
themselves.
 Information – this refers to data that has undergone
processing and is meaningful to the user when he/she
need it, in the form he needs and at the time he/she
need it.
 Data processing – refers to the process of
transforming raw facts into meaningful output
(information)
 Data processing cycle – refers to input process output
stages that data goes through to be transformed into
information.
Data processing cycle

Data collection

Output Data input

Processing
Stages of data processing cycle
1. Data collection – this involves looking for or getting
the data from its point of origin for processing
purpose.
2. Data input – this is the process where the collected
data is converted from human readable form to
machine – readable form.
3. Processing – this is transformation of input data by
the central processing unit to a more meaningful
output.
4. Output – this is the final activity of data processing
cycle which produces the desired output
(information). The information is then distributed to
the target groups.
Methods of data collection
 Interview

 Questionnaire

 Observation

 Record inspection
Stages of data collection
 Depending on the method of data
collection used, the process of data
collection may involve the following stages.
 Data creation
 Data transmission
 Data preparation
 Media conversion
 Input validation
 Sorting
Data creation
 This is the process of putting together
facts in an organised format. This may be
in form of manually prepared documents
or captured from the source using data
capture devices. E.g. scanners, digital
camera etc.
Data transmission
 This refers to the transfer of data from the
point of collection (source) to the point
where processing is to be done.
Transmission can be electronically through
computer – to – computer, physically by
the post office etc.
Data preparation
 This refers to conversion of data from
source document to machine – readable
form. Data collected using devices that
capture data in digital form do not require
transcription conversion.
Media conversion
 Data may need to be converted from one
medium to another. E.g. from a compact
disk to hard disk for faster input.
Input validation
 Data entered into the computer is
subjected to validity and verification
checks before processing.

 Verification – this involves checking that what

is on input document is exactly the same as
what is entered into the computer.
 Validation – this is identification and removal
of errors by the computer through the control
of the program.
Sorting
 The source documents are arranged in a
particular order for easy and faster entry.
Description of errors in data processing
 The accuracy of the data entered in the
computer determines the accuracy of the
information given out.
Types of data processing errors
 Transcription errors – these errors occurs during
data entry. These errors includes misreading
errors and transposition errors.
 Computational errors – they occur when an
arithmetic operation does not produce the
expected results. They include overflow errors,
truncation errors and rounding errors.
 Algorithm or logical errors – these errors occurs
as a result of wrong algorithm design.
Misreading errors
 They are brought about by incorrect
reading of source document by the user
and hence entering wrong values. This
may be caused by bad hand writing or
confusion on source document. E.g. the
number ‘5’ can be typed as s or letter 0
typed as Zero.
Transposition errors
 These errors occurs as a result of
incorrect arrangement of characters. i.e.
putting characters in the wrong order. E.g.
the user may enter 542 instead of 524.
transcription errors can be eliminated by
use of data capture devices.
Overflow errors
 This errors occurs if the result from a
calculation is too large to be stored in the
allocated memory space. E.g. if the
memory space can accommodate an 8-bit
number and the results from arithmetic is
9-bit number.
Truncation errors
 This result from having real numbers that
have a long fractional part which cannot fit
in the allocated memory space. The
computer cut off the extra characters from
the fraction part. E.g. a number like
0.854692 can be truncated to four digits as
0.854.
Rounding errors
 This results from a raising or lowering a
digit in a real number to the required
rounded number. E.g. a number 3.59 can
be rounded to 3.6.
Data integrity
 Data integrity refers to the accuracy and
completeness of data entered in a
computer or received from the information
system.
Factors that determine data integrity
 Accuracy

 Timeliness

 Relevance

 Audibility
Accuracy
 This refers to whether information/data is
accurate – true or untrue. As long as the
correct instructions and data are entered,
computers produce accurate results
efficiently.
Timeliness
 This refers to whether the information is
available when it is needed, and if its
outdated when it is received or when it is
used. If information is not available when
needed or its outdated by the time its used
then has little or no value in decision
making.
Relevance
 The data entered must be pertinent to the
processing needs at hand and must meet
the requirements of the processing cycle.
Audibility
 Audit ability also refers to as verifiability.
This is the ability of users to check the
accuracy and completeness of
information.
Threats to data integrity
 Threats to data integrity can be minimised
through the following;
 Using error detection and correction software when
transmitting data.
 Design user interfaces that minimizes chances of
invalid data entry.
 Using devices that capture data directly from source
e.g. scanners etc.
 Control access to data by enforcing security
measures.
 Back up data preferably on external storage media.
Data processing methods
 Data can be processed using one of the
following methods.

 Mechanically
 Manually
 Electronically

 12/01/2021
Manual data processing
 In this method staff in an
organisation uses the laid
down procedures and rules
to collect data, process and
distribute information to
relevant departments for
use. The tasks are done
manually with a pen and a
paper. No machines are
used to process data
instead they use simple
tools like tables and rulers.
Mechanical data processing
 Mechanical systems
are those where staff
use various
mechanical machines
like calculators,
typewriters, cash
registers duplicating
machines etc to
perform operations.
Electronic data processing
 In this system, data is
manipulated using electronic
machines to produce
information. This method is
faster and more accurate than
the manual and mechanical
where large volumes of data
are to be processed. This
method involves the use of
computers and other
electronic machine like mobile
phones, washing machines,
modern digital TVs etc.
Factors determining the methods of data processing

 Size and type of business

 Timing aspects

 Link between application

Computer files
 A file is a collection of related records that
give a complete set of information about a
certain item or entity. A file can be stored
manually in a file cabinet or electronically
in a computer storage device.
Advantages of computerized filling system

 Information takes up less space than the

manual system.
 Enhance data integrity and reduces
duplication.
 Offers faster access and retrieval of data.
 It’s much easier to update or modify
information.
Elements of a computer file
 A computer file is made up 3 elements.
 Characters – this is the smallest element in a
computer file and refer to a letter, number, symbol
that can be entered, stored and output by a computer.
 Field – a field is a single character or a collection of
characters that represents a single piece of data. For
example in employees record, the name of employee
is a field.
 Records – is a collection of related fields that
represents a single entity. For example in employees
record, details of each employee in a row. E.g. Name,
IDNO, sex, Department etc make up a record.
Computer files can be viewed in two ways.
Logical file
 This is the way the user views the file in
terms of its contents and the processing to
be carried upon them.
Physical file
 This is the actual arrangement of the file
contents into the storage media surface
and how the processing operations are
made possible.
Types of computer processing files
 Master file
 Transaction file (movement file)
 Reference file
 Sort file
 Back – up file
 Report file
Master file
 This is the main file that contains
permanent records about a particular item
or entries. The master file contains both
static and dynamic fields. For example a
payroll system might keep a master file
containing employees personal details
(name, address, date of birth, sex etc)
which rarely change (static fields) and data
describing the earnings and deductions
which frequently change (dynamic fields).
Transaction file (movement file)
 This file includes input and output files for
holding temporary incoming or outgoing
data. It contains data about an
organisation activities taking place for
some period of time. This file is used to
update dynamic data on master files.
Reference file
 They are permanent or semi permanent
and are used for reference or look up
purposes. They contain records that are
fairly static. E.g. price, lists, Pay As You
Earn etc.
Sort file
 These files are created from existing
transaction or master files. They are used
where data is to be processed
sequentially. Data or records are first
sorted in a particular format for example
they are arranged in ascending or
descending order of the key field and
stored in the sort file.
Back – up file
 These files are duplicate copies of existing
files. They are used to supplement the
operational files in case of loss by any
reason. They are created any time and
update is carried out on the master file.
Report file
 They contain sets of records extracted
from data in the master files. They are
used to prepare reports that can be printed
at a later date, for example, list of
absentees, overtime etc.
File processing activities
 Updating – refers to changing data in
master file to reflect the current status.
 Referencing – happens when it is made to
particular records to ascertain what is
contained therein. The activity does not
alter the contents of master file from a file.
 Sorting – this entails arranging of file
contents into some pre – determined
sequence of the key field, which occupy
the same position on the records.
File processing activities
 Merging – the process that combines the
contents of two or more input files into one
output files.
 Matching – the input files records are
matched/compared to ensure that records exist
in both the files.
 Summarizing – the records of interest from the
file are accumulated to form a record in the
output file.
 Searching – it entails looking for the record of
interests from the file.
File updating
 Hit rate – hit rate is used to describe the
rate of processing of a master file in terms
of its active records. For example, if 600
transactions are processed each day
against a master file of 12,000 records,
then the hit rate is said to be 5% i.e.
600/12000*100
File updating
 Volatility – this is the frequency with which
records are added to the file or deleted
from it. If the frequency is high, then the
file is said to be ‘volatile’ otherwise ‘static’.
 Size – refers to the amount of data stored
in the file. Its expressed in terms of the
total number of records in the file.
 Growth – files will always grow as new
records are added to it.
File organisation methods
 File organisation is the arrangements of
records within a particular file. There are
four methods of storing files and retrieving
them from secondary storage devices.
Sequential file organisation
 In this organisation records are stored and
accessed in a particular order sorted using
key field. The key field is used to search
for a particular record. Searching
commences at the beginning of the file
and proceeds to the ‘tail’ of the file until the
record is reached. Mainly used with
magnetic tapes.
Advantages of sequential file
 Simple to understand the approach.
 Easy to organise, maintain and
understand.
 Reading a record requires only the key
field.
 Inexpensive input/output media and
devices are used.
Disadvantages of sequential file
 Entire file must be accessed even when
the activity rate is very low.

 Random enquires are impossible to

handle.

 Data redundancy is typically high.

Random or direct file organisation
 In this organisation records are stored
randomly but accessed directly. To access
a file stored randomly, a record key is
used to determine where a record is
stored on the storage media. Used in
magnetic and optical disks.
Advantages of random or direct file
 Records are quickly accessed.

 File update is easily achieved.

 They do not require the use of indexes.

Disadvantages of random or direct file
 Data may be accidentally erased or over
written. Unless special precaution taken.
 Expensive hardware and software
resources are required.
 Relative complexity of programming.
 System design around it is complex and
costly.
Serial file organisation
 The records are laid out
contiguously one after the
other in no particular
sequence. The records
are stored one after the
other in the same order
they come into the file
and there exists no
relationship between
contiguous records. Used
with magnetic tapes.
Indexed sequential file organisation
 This method is similar to sequential
method, only that an index is used to
enable the computer to locate individual
records on the storage media. Used with
magnetic disk.
Advantages of indexed sequential file
 Records can be accessed sequentially or
randomly.

 Records are not duplicated.

 Accessing of records can be fast if done

randomly.
Disadvantages indexed sequential file
 Storage medium is rather expensive.

 Accessing records sequentially is time

consuming.

 Processing records sequentially may

introduce redundancy.
Electronic data processing modes
 On-line processing
 Time sharing processing
 Real time processing
 Multi-programming / multi-tasking
 Distributed processing
 Batch processing
 Multi-processing
 Interactive processing
On-line processing
 In this processing the result of data
processing is available immediately. All the
computer peripherals and equipments are
under the direct control of the central
processor. As soon as the input
transactions are available, they are
processed to produce the required
information. The user can interact with the
system at any time of processing using
input/output facilities.
Application of on-line processing
 Banking

 Stock exchange

 Stock control

 Water/electricity billing
Advantages of on-line processing
 Files are maintained up to date.

 Information is readily available for current

decisions.

 File enquiries possible through the

terminals (work station)
Disadvantages of on-line processing
 System are complex to develop.

 Are costly in terms of hardware, software,

storage media etc.
Time sharing processing
 In this mode the central processor serves two or more users
with different processing requirements (tasks). The central
computer is available to a variety of uses, connected to the
central computer via communication links who may wish to
process their data and receive information. The processor time
is divided out appropriately among the user task is into time
slices. Control is switched from one job to another, under the
influence of the operating system. The time slice is equal for all
jobs and it’s assigned to jobs waiting in a queue. In one turn,
only one slice is allocated to the job. The jobs in the queue are
assigned the time slice from the head of the queue towards the
tail. Jobs that require more time slices are chained to the tail
queue. New jobs into the queue are added at the tail of the
queue. The wholly processed jobs output results. The
incomplete jobs go back to the tail of the queue to await their
next turn.
Application of time sharing processing
 Bureau

 Learning institutions.

 Companies.
Advantages of time sharing processing
 Better services to the users, for the
information/output is fast.
 Files enquiries is possible since files are
held on-line.
 User interaction is possible through
terminals.
Disadvantages of time sharing
processing
 User has no control over the central
computer.

 Not reliable with regard to data security.

 Response time is slow where there are

many tasks.
Real time processing
 In this mode, computer processes the
incoming data as soon as it occurs,
updates the transactions file and gives an
immediate response that would affect the
events as they happen. The main purpose
of a real time processing is to provide
accurate, up to date information hence
better services based on a real situation.
Application of real time processing
 Air reservation

 Hotel reservation

 Chemical plant processing

Advantages of real time processing
 Information is readily available for instant
decision.

 Provides immediate control / information.

 Its fast and reliable.

Disadvantages of real time processing
 Requires complex and expensive
operating system.

 They are not easy to develop.

 Require Front End Processors (FEPS) to

relieve the central processor.
Multi-programming / multi-tasking
 In this processing more than one program
are executed apparently at the same time
by a single central processing unit. The
operating system allocated each program
a time slice and decides what order they
will be executed.
Advantages of multi-programming / multi-tasking

 Increases the productivity of the computer

by reducing CPU idle time.

 Reduces the incidence of peripheral

bound operations.
Disadvantages of multi-programming / multi-tasking

 Requires more expensive CPUs.

 Operating system is complex and more

difficult to operate.
Distributed processing
 This processing refers to dividing
(distributing) processing tasks to two or
more computers that are located on
physically separate sites but connected by
data transmission media. For example, a
distributed database will have different
tables of the same database residing on
separate computers and processed there
as need arises.
Application of distributed processing
 Banks where customers can be served
from different branches but information is
updated at the head branch.
Advantages of distributed processing
 Less risk to system breakdown.

 In case of data loss, only a small portion of

the data is lost.

 Reduction of the load on the host.

computer hence faster processing.
Disadvantages of distributed processing

 Expensive due to extra communication

costs.

 More sophisticated software required to

maintain data integrity.
Batch processing
 This is processing mode where the
transactions are accumulated over a
period of time and then processed at a
pre-specified time to produce a batch of
output. The data to be processed e.g.
daily, weekly, monthly etc then processed
at once.
Application of batch processing
 Payroll processing.
Advantages of batch processing
 Simple to develop.

 Timing reports is not a necessity.

 The unit cost of processing is low.

Disadvantages of batch processing
 Time lag between origination of the
transactions and the information
availability.
 Late information is not suitable in
situations where instant decisions are
requires.
 Its difficult to provide the desired priority
scheduling.
Multi-processing
 This refers to the processing of more one
task at the same time on different
processors of the same computer. In such
systems, a computer may contain more
than one independent central processing
unit which works together in a coordinated
way. At a given time the processor may
execute instructions from two or more
different programs or from different parts
of one program simultaneously.
Interactive processing
 In this processing, there is continuous
dialogue between the user and the
computers. As the program executes, it
keeps on prompting the user to provide
input or respond to prompts displayed on
the screen.
Factor to consider in selecting the data processing mode

 The need for direct information retrieval

and/or file interrogation.
 The control over the resources e.g. files,
input/output devices.
 The cost of acquiring the relevant
hardware, software, media etc.
 The optimization of the processing time.
 The time factor of the information for
decision making by mangers.
Review questions 1
1. Define the following terms:
A) Data processing.
B) Data processing style.
2. Using an illustration, describe the four primary stages of the
data processing cycle.
3. Outline the stages of data collection.
4. You may have come across the term Garbage In Garbage Out
(GIGO). What is its relevance to errors in data processing.
5. Explain the two types of transcription errors.
6. State three types of computational errors.
7. Define the term data integrity.
8. Give three factors that determine the integrity of data.
9. State at least five ways of minimising threats to data integrity.
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. A). Data processing refers to the transformation of raw
data into meaningful output (information).
B). Data processing cycle are the stages that data goes
through during its transformation into information. The
output may be used later as input to another processing
task.
2. Data collection → data input → data processing →
output.
3. A). Data creation.
B). Data transmission.
C). Data preparation.
D). Media conversion.
E). Input validation.
F). Sorting.
Answer of review questions 1-2
4. The accuracy of data entry determines the accuracy of
the output.
5. A). Wrong entry due to misreading the source data e.g.
entering C instead of G (transcription error).
B). Transposition – interchanging values e.g. 396
instead of 369.
6. Overflow and underflow.
Truncation.
Rounding.
7. A). Data integrity refers to accuracy and completeness
of data.
B). Accuracy, timeliness and relevance.
C). Banking up, enforcing security, using input devices
that capture data directly from the source etc.
Revision questions
1. Distinguish between data and information.
2. Describe types of data processing methods.
3. State at least four advantages of storing data in
computer files over the manual filing system.
4. State elements that make up a computer file.
5. Differentiate between a logical file and physical file.
6. Explain at least six types of computer files.
7. Distinguish between
A) Sequential and serial file organisation methods.
B) Random and indexed-sequential file organisation methods.
8. Describe at least five types of electronic data
processing modes.
Answer of revision questions 1
1. Data refers to raw facts that do 5. A logical file is viewed in terms
not have much meaning while of what data items and
information refers to the processing operation may be
meaningful output after performed on the data while a
processing. physical file is viewed in terms
2. Data processing methods: how data is stored and how it
manual, mechanical and is to be processed.
electronic. 6. A). Master file.
3. A). Takes up less space. B). Transaction file.
B). Easier to update or modify. C). Reference file.
C). Faster access and D). Backup file.
retrieval. E). Report file.
D). Enhances integrity. F). Sort file.
4. A). Characters.
B). Field.
C). Record.
Answer of revision questions 2
1. In sequential file organisation, records are stored in a sorted order using a
key field while in serial file organisation, records are not sorted in any way.
2. In random file organisation, records are stored randomly but accessed
directly. On the other hand, in indexed-sequential, records are stored
sequentially but accessed directly using an index.
3. On-line distributed – the data being processed is accessed, processed
and updated in real time.
4. Time-sharing-competing computers are allocated time slots to use
computer resources.
5. Batch processing – all the available jobs are processed in bulk all at once.
6. Interactive processing – the computer presents the user with input
screens / the user inputs data as processing continues.
7. Real time – data being processed is updated online and the results
thereof affect current processing logic.
8. Multi-tasking – several computer programs / tasks run concurrently at the
same time sharing resources in shifts.
9. Multiprocessing – several programs / tasks run concurrently on different
processors.
Chapter 3
Elementary programming
principles

173
Introduction
 Human beings have evolved
from the stone age to a highly
sophisticated and advanced
society by inventing things like
the wheel, fire, transistors and
today’s ultra modern devices
like computers. The idea of
computers started way back in
the nineteenth century. The first
generation computers called
Electronic Numeric Integrator
And Calculator (ENIAC 1) were
operated by plugging wires into
a control panel that resembles
the old telephone switchboards.
Computer programming
 A program – is an organised list of statements
(instructions) that when executed, causes the
computer to behave in a predetermined manner
or carry out a defined task.
 Programming – refers to the process of
developing computer (instructions) programs
used to solve a particular task.
 A computer program – is designed using a
particular programming language. Each
language has a special sequence or order of
writing characters usually referred to as syntax.
Terms used in programming
 Source program
 Object code
 Translator
 Assembler
 Interpreter
 Compiler
Source program
 This refers to the program code that the
programmer enters in the program editor
window that is not yet translated into
machine-readable form.
Object code
 This refers to the program code that is in
machine-readable. i.e. a source code that
has been translated into machine
language.
Translator
 These are programs that
translates/convert the source
program into object code. E.g.
a.assemblers,
b.compilers,
c.interpreters etc.
Assembler
 An assembler translates a program written
in assembly language into machine
language,
Interpreter
 This translates the source program line-
by-line, allowing the CPU to execute one
line before translating the next. The
translated line is not stored in the
computer memory, hence every time the
program is executed, it has to be
translated.
compiler
 This translates the entire source program into
object code. The compiler translates each
high-level instruction into several machine
code instructions in a process called
COMPILATION and produces a complete
independent program that can be run by the
computer as often as required without the
original source program being present.
Difference between the interpreters and compilers
Interpreters Compilers
Translates the source program Translates the entire source
one statement at a time. code at once before execution.
Translates the program each Compiled program (object
time it is run hence slower than code) can be saved on a
compiling. storage media and run as
required, hence executes faster
than interpreted programs.

Interpreted object code takes Compiled programs require

less memory compared to more memory as the object file
compiled program. are larger.
Level of programming languages
 There are 2 major levels namely;

 Low-level languages.

 High-level languages.
Low-level languages
 These languages are classified as low
because they can be easily understood by
the computer directly or they require little
effort to translate into computer
understandable form. These languages
are hardware oriented and therefore they
are not portable. i.e. a program written for
one computer cannot be installed and
used on another.
High-level languages
 These languages are very close to the
human language (English-like) and they
can be read and understood even by
people who are not experts in
programming. These languages are
machine independent. This means that a
programmer concentrates on problem
solving during a programming session
rather than how a machine operates.
Types of low level languages
 Machine language (First generation
languages).

 Assembly languages (Second generation

languages)
Machine language
(First generation languages)
 In this language, instructions are written using binary
logic. Given that data and instructions are in binary
form, many lines of codes are needed to accomplish
even a simple task like adding two numbers i.e. a
program written in this language look like this.
11100110 00000011 00001111 10001101
10001111 11111111 10000011
The program code is hard for human to understand
but it’s easily understood by computers.
Assembly languages
(Second generation languages)
This language is close to the machines vocabulary
rather than human beings vocabulary. It was
developed in order to overcome the difficulties of
understanding and using machine language. This
language helps the programmers to write programs as
a set of symbolic operation codes called Mnemonics.
Mnemonics are basically shortened two or three letter
words. A sample program written in Assembly
language.
MOV AX, 15 (move 15 to register Ax)
SUB AX, 10 (Subtract 10 from the value Ax)
Programs written in this language require an
assembler to convert them into machine language.
Classes of high level languages
 Third generation languages (3GLS)
 Forth generation languages (5GLs)
 Fifth generation languages (5GL’s)
 Object Oriented Programming Language
(OOP)
 Web scripting languages
Third generation languages (3GLS)
 This generation languages is also called
structured or procedural languages. A
procedural language makes it possible to
break a program into components called
modules. Each performing a particular
task. Structured programming has
advantages because its flexible, easier to
read and modify.
Examples of third generation programming language

 Pascal – was developed to help in the teaching and learning of

structured programming.
 Fotran – was developed for mathematics, scientists of
programs with mathematical expressions.
 Cobol – was designed for developing programs that solve
business problems.
 Basic – developed to enable students to easily learn
programming.
 C – used for developing system software e.g. the operation
systems. Its very powerful high level language because of its
ability to provide programmer with powerful aspects/features of
low level.
 Ada – this language is suitable for developing military, industrial
and real – time systems.
Forth generation languages (4GLs)
 This generation make programming an even
easier task than the third generation language
because they present the programmer with more
programming tools. Examples of such tools are
command buttons, forms etc. the 4 GLs are easy
to learn and understand because they are user
based. The languages syntax (grammar) is
natural, near English language and use menus
to prompts to guide a non-specialist or retrieve
data with ease.
Examples of 4GLs
 Visual Basic

 Delphi Pascal

 Visual Cobol

 C++
Fifth generation languages (5GL’s)
 These languages are designed around the
concept of solving problems by enabling
the computer to depict human like
intelligence. These programs are designed
to make the computer solve the problem
for the programmer rather than
programmer spending a lot of time to
come up with the solution.
Examples of 5GL’s
 PROLOG

 MERCURY

 LISP

 OCCAM
Object Oriented Programming Language (OOP)

 The concept behind OOP languages is to look at

a program as having various objects interacting
to make up a whole. Each object has a specific
data values that are unique to it (called state)
and a set of the things it can accomplish called
(functions or behaviour). This process of having
data and functions that operate on the data
within an object is called Encapsulation.
Several objects can then be linked together to
form a complete program. OOP has greatly
contributed to development of Graphical user
interface operation system and application
programs.
Examples of OOP
 Java

 Simula

 Small talk
Web scripting languages
 These languages are used to develop or add functionalities on
web pages. Web pages are hypertext documents created in a
language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML). The
languages consist of markup tags that tell the Internet browser
that the file contains HTML-code information and is
distinguished by a file extension of HTML. The markup tags
define the various components of a World Wide Web document
such as heading, tables, paragraphs, lists etc. HTML does not
have the declaration part and control structures, hence it’s not
considered as a true programming language. Due to its
simplicity, it has many limitations and cannot be used alone
when developing functional websites. Some special blocks of
codes called Scripts may be inserted in HTML pages using
scripting languages like JavaScript, VBScript etc in order to add
functionality to HTML pages.
Examples of HTML tags and their meanings

Tag Meaning
<HTML> Marks the beginning and end of a HTML document. All other tags and text fall
</HTML> between these two tags.
<HEAD></HEAD> Marks the header part of the document.

<TITLE> Gives title of te web page. Text between this tags appears in the title bar when the
</TITLE> page is browsed.
<BODY></BODY> Marks the body part of the document.

<CENTER></ Centres text and objects on the web page.

CENTER>
<B></B> Bolds the text on the web page.

<I></I> Italicise the text.

<H1> Sets size of text on the web page with H6 displaying the smallest and H1 the
</H1> largest size.
Creating a script using Javascript 1
 Javascript is a popular scripting language.
Before writing your HTML program with a
script inserted, make sure that you have
the latest browser software installed on
your computer. Older browsers may not
have support for Javascript. If you are
using Internet Explorer, it should be
version 5.0 and above.
Creating a script using Javascript 2
 Open Notepad and key in the following program. Do not
write the numbers to the left of each line of code.
1. <HTML>
2. <HEAD>
3. <TITLE>Scripting Example</TITLE>
4. </HEAD>
5. <BODY>
6. <HI><CENTER><B>we are the world</B></CENTER><HI>
7. <SCRIPT>LANGUAGE=‘JavaScript’>
8. document.write(‘My name is strongman’);
9. alert(‘congratulations for succeeding to run this script’);
10. </SCRIPT>
11. </BODY></HTML>
Creating a script using Javascript 3
 After typing the entire
program, save your file
on the desktop as
Example.html and then
close the notepad. Notice
that the icon to your file
on the desktop look like
that of the default web
browser in your computer.

 To view the web page,

double click the icon of
the file Example.html on
the desktop. Figure right
shows as open webpage.
Explanations of JavaScript
Advantages of low-level languages
 The CPU understands machine language
directly without translation.
 They are stable and hardly crash or
breakdown once written.
 Running a program is fast, no compilation
is needed.
 They are economical in terms of the
amount of memory they use.
Disadvantages of low-level languages
 They are difficult and cumbersome to use
and learn.
 Require highly trained experts to both
develop and maintain programs.
 Debugging programs is difficult.
 They are machine dependent.
 The programs are long.
Advantages of high-level languages
 The programs are portable (not machine
dependent).
 They are user friendly and easy to use and
learn.
 They are more flexible.
 They are easy to debug.
 They provide better documentation.
 Require less time to code.
Disadvantages of high-level languages
 Program executed more slowly.

 Require larger CPU storage capacity for

compilation.

 They have to be translated to machine

readable form before
Program development
 Thereare seven stages of program
development. They include:

Problem recognition Documentation

Problem definition

Program design

Program coding

Program testing

Program implemetation
Problem recognition
 This refers to the understanding and
interpretation of a particular problem. To
understand a problem one has to look for
key words such as compute, evaluate,
compare etc. a programmer identifies
problems in the environment and seeks to
solve them by writing a computer program
that would provide the solution.
Circumstances that can cause the
programmer to identify a problem
1. Opportunity to improve the current program.

2. A new directive given by the management

requiring a change in the status quo.

3. Problems or undesirable situations that

prevent an individual or organisation from
achieving their purpose.
Problem definition
 At this stage the programmer tries to determine
or define the likely input, processing and
expected output using the keywords outlined at
the problem recognition stage. The boundaries
of the expected program are established and if
several methods to solve the same problem are
identified the best alternatives should be
chosen. At the end of the stage requirement
documentation for the new program is written.
Program design
 This is the actual development of the program’s processing or
problem solving logic called algorithm. (A limited number of
logical steps that a program follows in order to solve a
problem). The programmer comes up with an algorithm after
analysing the requirements specifications. Some of the
programs are made up of one large block code. i.e. they are
Monolithic while others are made of several units called
modules which work together to form the whole program. In
modular programming, each module performs a specific task.
This approach makes a program flexible, easier to read and
debug. This phase enable the programmer to come up with
models of the expected program. The model show the flow of
events and data throughout the entire program from input of a
program.
Monolithic and modular program
Program coding
 This is the actual process of converting a
design model into its equivalent program.
This is done by creating the program using
a particular programming language. The
end result of this stage is a source
program that can be translated into
machine readable form for the computer to
execute and solve the target problem.
Program in Pascal and C++
Program in Pascal Program in C++
Program AreaCircle (input, output); #include<iostream.h>
Const Pi = 22/7; double radius, area;
Var double pi = 22/7;
Radius, Area: real; main ()
Begin {
WriteIn (‘Enter the radius’); cout<<‘Enter the radius’;
ReadIn (radius); cin>>radius;
Area: = Pi *Radius *Radius; area = pi *radius *radius
WriteIn (‘The area is’, Area) cout<<‘The area is’, area;
End. return 0;
}
Explain the program codes 1
Pascal code C++ code Explanation
Program Areacircle #include<iostream.h> The header of the
(input, output); programs. The statements
in () and <> shows that
the user inputs data via
the keyboard and the
program display
information on the screen.
Const Pi = 3.142; double pi = 3.142; A constant has been
declared with a name pi
and value 3.142.
Var double area, radius; Real variables with
Radius, area:real fractional part have been
declared.
Explain the program codes 2
Pascal code C++ code Explanation
Begin { Marks the beginning of
the program body or
executable statements.

WtiteIn cout<<’Enter Display on the screen

radius’: the string between
inverted commas.

ReadIn cin>>radius; Displays a blinking

(Radius) cursor that tells the
user that an input is
needed before the
program can continue.
Explain the program codes 3
Pascal code C++ code Explanation
Area: = Pi * Radius area = pi * radius Calculates the area. Notice
* Radius * radius; the assignment statement in
Pascal is : = while in C++ it is
=
WriteIn (‘The area cout<<”The area Display the value stored in
is’, Area); is’, Area<<”∖n”; the variable Area.

End. return 0; Marks the end of the program

}
Program Testing and Debugging
 After coding the program has to be tested
and the errors detected and corrected.
Debugging refers to detection and
correction of errors that may exist in the
program. Program testing involves
creating test data designed to produce
predictable output. They are two types of
errors (bugs) that can be encountered
when testing.
Types of errors (bugs)
1. Syntax errors – they occur as a result of
improper use of language rules. E.g. grammar
mistakes, punctuation, improper naming of
variables etc. these errors are detectable by
translator and must be corrected before the
program runs.
2.Logical errors – they are not detectable by the
translator. The program rules but gives wrong out
put or halts during execution.
Syntax in computer programming means the
rules that control the structure of the symbols,
punctuation, and words of a programming
language.
Methods of errors detection
1. Desk checking / dry – run.
2. Using Debugging utilities.
3. Using Test Data.
1. Desk checking / dry – run
 It involves going through the program
while still on paper before entering it in the
program editor.
2. Using Debugging utilities
 In the program editor, you can run the
debugging utilities during translation to
detect syntax errors.
3. Using Test Data
 The programmer carries out trial runs of
the new program. At each run he enters
various data variations and extremes
including data with errors to test whether
the system will grid to a halt. A good
program should not crash due to incorrect
data entry but should inform the user
about the anomaly.
Implementation and maintenance
 This is the actual delivery and
installation of the new program ready for
use, creating data files and train people
to use the system. The new system will
change the way things are done hence
it should be reviewed and maintained.
Review and maintenance
 This stage is important because of the
errors that may be encountered after
implementation. A program may fail due to
poor use, hence proper training and post
implementation support of users will
reduce chances of having them entering
invalid data that crash the program.
Program documentation
 This is writing of support materials
explaining how the program can be used
by users, installed by operators or
modified by other programmers. All stages
of program development should be
documented in order to help during future
modification of the program.
Types of documentation
 User oriented documentation – these type enables
the user to learn how to use the program as quickly
as possible and with little help from programmer.
 Operator oriented documentation – meant for
computer operators. E.g. Technician. It helps them
to install and maintain the program.
 Programmer oriented documentation – written for
skilled programmers. It provides necessary
technician information to help in future modification
of program.
Development of algorithms
 Algorithms – refers to a limited number of
logical steps that a program follows in
order to solve a problem.

 Pseudocode – refers to a set of

statements written in a readable language
(English – like) but expressing the
processing logic of a program.
Guidelines for designing a good pseudocode

 The statements must be short, clear and

readable.
 Pseudocode lines should be clearly
outlined and indented clearly.
 It should show clearly the start and stop of
executable statements and control
structures.
 Statements must not have more than one
meaning.
Examples of Pseudo code
Solution  Write of Pseudo code
START that can be used to
Enter “Enter two
prompt the user to
numbers” enter two numbers,
Input x,y calculate the sum and
Sum = x + y average of the two
Average = sum / 2
PRINT sum, Average
numbers and then
display the output on
STOP the screen
Program flowcharts
 A flowchart is a diagrammatic
representation of a program in algorithms.
It uses statements and symbols that have
specific meaning. The symbols are of
different standard shapes linked to show
the order of processing. Each shape
contains note stating what the operation is.
Most common program flowcharts
offpage

 Ellipse: denotes the beginning and end of the

program algorithm.
 Parallelogram: used to denote an input or output
operation. For example, READ A,B, PRINT SUM
=A+B
 Rectangle: indicates that a processing or data
transformation is taking place. For example SUM
=A+B.
 Rhombus: used to specify a condition. A condition
must evaluate to a boolean value (True or false) for
the program to execute the next instructions.
 Connector: used as a connecting point or interface
for arrows coming from different directions.
 Arrow: used to indicate the direction of flow of the
program logic.
Guidelines for drawing a flowchart
 There should be only one entry and one
exit point of a program algorithm.
 Use correct symbol at each stage in the
flowchart.
 Avoid crossed flow lines.
 Be as neat and tidy in drawing as possible.
 General direction of flow in any flowchart
is from top to bottom, left to right.
Examples of flowchart
Solution  Draw a flowchart for a
program used to
prompt the user to
enter two numbers.
The program should
Sum = X + Y
Average = Z + y/2
find the sum, and
average then display
the output.
Types of flowchart
 System flowchart – it’s a chart that depicts
the systems as a whole with only
subsystems or major elements shown,

 Program flowchart – this chart shows the

sequence of operations as carried out by a
computer program.
Advantages of flowchart
 Gives programmer good visual reference of
what the program will do.
 Serves as a program or system
documentation.
 It’s easy to trace through from the start to
find the action resulting from a set of
condition.
 Allows programmers to test alternative
solutions to a problem without over coding
the program.
Disadvantages of flowchart
 There are so many different ways to draw
them.
 it’s difficult to remain neat and uncluttered
if the logic is complex.
 Constructing a flowchart is time
consuming.
 They take up considerable space.
 They are difficult to amend without
redrawing.
Comparison between a pseudocode and a flowchart
Program control structures
 They are blocks of statements that
determine how statements are to be
executed. There are three control
structures namely.

 Sequence
 Selection decision
 Iteration (looping) repetition
Sequence
 In this control structure, the computer
reads instructions from a program file
starting from the first top line and
proceeding downwards one by one to the
end. Hence sequential program execution
enables the computer to perform tasks
that are arranged consecutively one after
another in the code.
Example of how a sequential
programs code execute
The
program file
reader
reads
Begin {Procedure name} sequentially
Action 1 statement
Action 2 by
Action n statements
End {Procedure name} to the end

of the file
Selection/decision
 This structure is used to branch, depending on whether
the condition returns a value of True of False (Yes or No).

For example
IF < Condition >
Then Action 1
Else Action 2
Endif.

 There are 4 types of selection controls used in high-level

programming.
 IF……….THEN
 IF……THEN……ELSE
 Nested IF
 CASE SELECTION
IF……….THEN
General format  This is used if only one
IF < condition > Then option is available. All
other options are ignored.
Statement:
For example if a school
EndIf wants to reward only the
students who have mean
If Mark > = 80 then mark of 80 and above, it
Print “Reward” will be reward only those
students who have
EndIf
attained 80% and above
and ignore the rest.
IF……….THEN……….ELSE
General Format  Used when there are two
IF < Condition > THEN available options. For
Statements 1 example in a football
ELSE match a player is given a
Statements 2 RED CARD if he does a
EndIf very serious mistake
The algorithem will be:- otherwise he is given a
IF fault = Serious THEN Yellow Card.
Print “RED CARD”
ELSE
Print “yellow Card”
EndIf
Nested IF
 This is used where two or more options
have to be considered to make a
selection. For example, to award grades
according to the marks as follows

a. 80 marks Grade A
b. 60 marks Grade B
c. 50 marks Grade C
d. 40 marks Grade D
General format of Nested IF
General Format The pseudo code segment will be:-
IF <Conditions> Then If Marks = 80 THEN
Grade = “A”
Statement
ELSE
ELSE If Marks = 60 THEN
IF <Condition> Grade = “B”
Then ELSE
Statement If marks = 50 THEN
ELSE Grade = “C”
IF Else
<Condition>Then Grade=“D”
Endif
Statement Endif
Endif Endif
Endif Endif
End End
CASE SELECTION
General format  It’s an alternative to
CASE x of
Label 1 : Statement1 the nested IF. This
Label 2 : Statement2 selection is preferred
Label n : Statement n-1
ELSE to the Nested if in
Statement n order to reduce the
End case
many line s of codes.
Example:- Case selection can
CASE average OF only be expressed
80…100: Grade=“A”
70…79: Grade=“B” using integers and
60…69: Grade=“C” alphabetic characters
40…49:
ELSE
Grade=“E” only. The Boolean
Grade=“F” expression should be
End Case CASE integer OF or
CASW char OF
Iteration (looping) repetition
 This is designed to execute the same
block of code again and again until a
certain condition is fulfilled. Iteration is
important in situations where the same
operation has to be carried out on a set of
data many times. There are three main
looping controls.
 THE-WHILE-DO LOOP
 REPEAT……….UNTIL LOOP
 The FOR LOOP
THE-WHILE-DO LOOP
 This repetitive structure tests the condition
first before executing the successful code
if and only if the Boolean expression
returns a true value.

Example
To withdraw money using an ATM a
customer must have a balance in his/her
account.
General format of THE-WHILE DO LOOP

Flowchart General format

While <condition> Do
Statement
End while
Withdraw cash
update account
Pseudo code segment
While balance >0 do
Withdraw cash
Update account
End while
REPEAT……….UNTIL LOOP
 In this structure the code is executed before
testing the condition. The repeat loop stops
when the Boolean statement returns a value. For
example in the case of ATM discussed above
the client can withdraw money until balance is
zero.
Example
Pseudo code segment.
REPEAT
Withdraw cash
Update account
Until balance <0;
General format of REPEAT…………UNTIL LOOP

Flow chart General format

REPEAT
Statement
Withdraw cash UNTIL <condition>
update account.
The FOR LOOP
 This structure is used where execution of
the chosen statements has to be repeated
a predetermined number of times. For
example if a program is to calculate the
sum of ten numbers provided by the user.
The FOR LOOP can be used to prompt
the user to enter the 10 numbers at most
ten times. Once the numbers are entered
the program calculates and displays the
sum.
Pseudo code of the FOR LOOP
Pseudo code
FOR count = 1 to 10 DO
writeln “Enter a number (N)”
Readln N
Sum = sum + N
End FOR
Display Sum

The counter has to be set to a start value and

sometimes to an end value.
General format of the FOR LOOP
General format
1. format for the FOR LOOP that counts from lower limit.
For loop variables = lower limit To upper limit Do
Statements
EndFor

2. Format for the ‘For’ loop that counts from upper limit
down to lower limit
For loop variable = Upper limit Down To Lower
Limit Do
Statements
EndFor
Flowchart for a For Loop that counts upward

Loop Variable = lower limit Lower limit = Loop

variable + 1

Statement
Flowchart for a For Loop that counts downwards

Loop Variable = Upper limit Upper limit = Loop

variable - 1

Statement
Examples of complex pseudo codes 1
 Ushirika Society pays 5% interest on shares
exceeding Kshs 10,000 and 3% on shares that
do not meet this target. However no interest is
paid on deposits in the member’s bank
account. Design a pseudo code for a program
that would:
a. Prompt the user for shares and deposit of a
particular member.
b. Calculate the interest and total savings.
c. Display the interest and total savings on the screen
for a particular member.
Pseudo code of examples 1
Pseudo code
Start
Input Name, share, Deposit
If share > 10000 THEN
Interest = 0.05*shares
ELSE
Interest=0.03*shares
Endif
Total savings = deposits + Interest + shares
Print Name, Totalsaving, Interest
Stop
Flowchart of example 1

Interest = 0.03 * shares

Interest = 0.05 * shares

Totalsavings = deposit + shares + interest

Examples of complex pseudo codes 2
 Botswana has a population of 3,000,000
but this is falling by 4% each year. The
island of Reunion has a population of
95,000 but this is increasing by 9% each
year.
a. Draw a flowchart that predicts the year in
which the population of reunion will be
greater than that of Botswana if the trend
continues.
Solution of example 2
Pseudo code of example 2
Pseudo code
Start
Bts: = 3,000,000
1R: = 95,000
Year: = 0
REPEAT
Bts = Bts - (Bts * (4 / 100))
1R = 1R + (1R * (9 / 100))
Year = year + 1
UNTIL 1R > Bts
Print year
Stop
Examples of complex pseudo codes 3
 Write a program that will allow the input of name of
student marks obtained in 5 subjects (maths, English,
Kiswahili, computer, biology). The program should
calculate the total and average marks for each student
and assign the grades depending on the average marks
obtained as follows.
80 – 100 A
70 – 79 B
60 – 69 C
50 – 59 D
Below 50 E
The program should then display each student’s name,
total marks and average grade.
Pseudo code of example 3
Pseudo code If (AVG>60) AND (AVG<69) THEN
START Grade = ‘C’
REPEAT If (AVG>50) AND (AVG<59) THEN
Read “name and subject marks” Grade = ‘D’
Input Name, maths, English, ELSE
Kiswahili, Computer, Biology Grade = ‘E”
Sum = Endif
Maths + English + Kiswahili + Endif
Computer + Biology Endif
AVG = sum / 5 Endif
If (AVG>80) AND (AVG<100) THEN Print Name, Sum, AVG, Grade
Grade = ‘A’ Until count = Number of students
If (AVG>70) AND (AVG<79) THEN
Grade = ‘B” Stop
Flowchart of example 3
Practical activity 1-1
1. Open a text editor program on your computer like NotePad or
WordPad.
2. Type the following program exactly the way it is in the editor.
<HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>This is my first a webpage</TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY bgcolor = “red”>
<H1><CENTER><B>Hello World</B></CENTER></H1>
</BODY>
</HTML>
3. Save your work as webpage.html on the desktop. Make sure
that the Save As Type box reads “All Files” before clicking the
save button in order to avoid saving a text file with two
extensions i.e. webpage.html.txt.
Practical activity 1-2
4. Close your text editor. Notice
that your file on the desktop
has the icon of the default web
browser installed on your
computer. Double click it to
view the web page! Figure right
shows a sample of the display
expected when the file is
loaded to the browser. If you
have a colour monitor, it should
look as below only that it will
have black bold text on a red
background!
5. Check your program and
change your background to
blue, save then click the
refresh button. What happens?
Review questions 1
1. Define the term computer program.
2. What is programming?
3. State three advantages of high level languages over low level languages.
4. List four examples of languages and for each, state its most appropriate
application area.
5. Why is an executable file unique when compared to any other file?
6. Differentiate between a compiler and an interpreter. Why did early
computers work well with interpreters?
7. List the various examples of programming languages per generation.
8. State one advantage of machine language over the other languages.
9. Write the following in full
A) HTML
B) OOP
10. Distinguish between source program and object code in programming.
11. Define the term encapsulation as used in object oriented programming.
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. A computer program is a set of instructions that directs a computer on how
to process a particular task.
2. Programming is the writing of computer programs.
3. A). Easier to learn and use.
B). Portable.
C). Flexible.
D). Easier to correct errors.
4. A). FORTRAN – used for developing business oriented programs.
B). COBOL – designed for developing business oriented programs.
C). Pascal – mostly used as a teaching tool in structured programming.
D). C – mostly used to create system software such as operating systems.
E). Ada – suitable for developing real-time and industrial systems.
5. It is the main file that is used to start the program.
6. A complier translates the entire source program into machine readable form
while an interpreter translates the source program to machine language
line-by-line. Interpreters were used on early computers due to memory
limitations.
Answer of review questions 1-2
7. A). First generation – machine languages.
B). Second generation – assembly languages.
C). Third generation – Pascal, C, COBOL, BASIC, FOTRAN, Ada
etc.
D). Fourth generation – Visual Basic, Delphi Pascal, Visual COBOL
etc.
E). Fifth generation languages – PROLOG, Mercury, LISP, OCCAM
etc.
8. A). The processor executes them faster.
B). They are more stable.
9. A). HTML – Hypertext Markup Language.
B). OOP – Object Oriented Programming language
10. Source program refers to a program that is not yet translated while
object code refers to the program code that is in machine readable
form.
11. Encapsulation refers to the process of joining data and instruction
together to form an object.
Review questions 2
1. Give one advantage of compiling a program rather
than interpreting it.
2. Outline at least six stages of program development
in their respective order.
3. Highlight two advantages of monolithic programs.
4. State two advantages of modular programming.
5. In what stage of the development does program
documentation fall? Justify your answer.
6. Differentiate between a flowchart and pseudocode.
7. What is a program bug?
8. Explain why it is important to test a program before
implementing it.
Answer of review questions 2-1
1. A). Interpreters translate the source program one statement at a
time while compilers translate the entire source code at once before
execution.
B). Interpreters translate the program each time it runs hence
slower than compiling. Compiled programs can be saved on a
storage media. This means that it does not require any further
transaction every time the program is run hence executes faster
than interpreted programs.
C). Interpreters translation takes less memory while compiled
programs require more memory as the object code files are larger.
2. A). Problem recognition.
B). Problem definition.
C). Program design.
D). Program coding.
E). Program testing and debugging.
F). Implementation.
Answer of review questions 2-1
3. A). They are difficult to test and debug.
B). They are difficult to modify or upgrade.
4. A). They are easy to test and debug.
B). They are easy to modify and upgrade.
5. Documentation is done at all stages of program
development.
6. A flowchart is a graphical representation of step-by-step
processing logic of a program while a pseudocode is a
set of structured-English like statements that describe
the step-by-step processing logic of a program.
7. Bugs refers to program errors.
8. To correct any syntax or logical errors.
Review questions 3
1. State the factors you would consider when
A) Writing a pseudocode
B) Drawing a flowchart
2. Using illustrations, explain at least six symbols used in
flowchart design.
3. Give one advantage of pseudocodes over flowcharts.
4. Write a pseudocode for a program that would be used
to solve the equation
E = MC2
5. Draw a flowchart that would be used to classify animals
according to sex. If a letter M is input the program
should display ‘Male’ otherwise it should display
‘Female’.
Answer of review questions 3-1
1. A). Pseudocode 2. Decision – used to represent
1). Statements must be short a decision construct.
and clear.
2). Statements should be Connector – connects logic
unambiguous. flows.
3). Should shoe start and stop.
4). Words used should be Process – indicates a
suggestive such as READ, transformation of data.
PRINT, OUTPUT etc.
B). Flowchart Input/output – shows
1). A flowchart should have program input/output.
one entry and one exit point.
2). Use correct symbols. Ellipse – indicates start/stop
3). The flow should be clearly of algorithm.
indicated using arrows.
Answer of review questions 3-2
3. Pseudocodes are
easier to write and
understand.
4. Start
Enter values form
M and C
E=M*C*C
Display E
Stop
Review questions 4
1. Define the term selection in relation to program
control structures.
2. State three types of control structures used in
programming.
3. Differentiate between looping and selection.
4. In what circumstance does looping depend on
decision?
5. List four selection controls used in writing a
program.
Answer of review questions 4
1. Selection refers to a situation where further program execution
depend one making a decision from two more alternatives.
2. Sequence, decision and iteration.
3. Looping refers to a situation where the same block of code is
executed repeatedly until a certain condition is fulfilled, while
selection refers to a situation where further program execution
depends on making a decision from two or more alternatives.
4. Looping may depend on decision if a condition has to be met
before the looping terminates or continues.
5. A). IF…THEN
B). IF….THEN…ELSE
C). Nested IF
D). Case
Revision questions 1
1. State three reasons why high level languages are better than low level
languages.
2. Explain why HTML is not true programming language.
3. List three examples of forth generation programming languages.
4. Describe the term structured programming.
5. Define the term structured programming.
6. A). State two reasons for documenting all the stages of program
development.
B). Give three types of program documentation in reference to
programming.
7. Write HTML code that would display a green background, with the words
‘Hello’ on the screen.
8. Draw a flowchart showing the general flow of the following:
A) The nested IF selection.
B) The FOR loop.
C) REPEAT….UNTIL loop.
Answer of revision questions 1-1
1. A). They are portable
B). They are user friendly
C). They are more flexible
D). They are easier to debug
2. HTML is not a true programming language because it does not
have a true format of a programming language. For example, it
does not have a declaration part and control structures.
3. A). Visual Basic
B). Delphi Pascal
C). Visual COBOL
4. Fifth generation programming languages are designed in a way that
enables programmers design programs that emulate human
intelligence.
5. In structured programming, a program is broken down into
components called modules each performing a particular task.
Answer of revision questions 1-2
6. A). Reasons for documenting
i. There may rise a need to revise or modify it.
ii. Other people may think of ways of improving your program by
studying at the documentation.
B). Types of documentation
i. User-oriented.
ii. Operator-oriented.
iii. Programmer-oriented.
7. <HTML>
<HEAD><TITLE>Hello program </TITLE></HEAD>
<BODY bgcolour = “blue”>
<H3><CENTRE><B>Hello</B></CENTER></H3>
</BODY>
</HTML>
Answer of revision questions 1-3
Answer of revision questions 1-4
Revision questions 2
1. Write a program algorithm that would enable the user
to enter student marks. The program should then
determine whether the mark entered is a pass or fail
given that the pass mark is 50.
2. Draw a flowchart for a program that is to prompt for N
numbers, accumulate the sum and then find the
average. The output is the accumulated totals and the
average.
3. Write a pseudocode that reads temperature for each
day in a week, in degree Celsius, converts the Celsius
into Fahrenheit's and then calculate the average
weekly temperatures. The program should output the
calculated average in degrees Fahrenheit's.
Answer of revision questions 2-1
Answer of revision questions 2-2
3. START
Input temperature in ℃
et initial day to 0
WHILE initial day 6 DO
Input temperature in ℃
F=32+(9C/5)
Initial day=initial day + 1
Cummulative = cummulative + F
END WHILE
Average weekly temperature
= cummulative/7
Print Average
STOP
Revision questions 3
1. A lady deposits 2,000 shillings in a Microfinance
company at an interest rate of 20% per annum. At the
end of each year, the interest earned is added to the
deposit and the new amount becomes the deposit for
that year. Write an algorithm for a program that would
track the growth of the deposits over a period of seven
years.
2. Mukumu took a loan of Ksh 400,000 from a local bank
at an interest rate of 10% payable in four years.
Assuming you wish to develop a computer program
that will keep track of monthly repayments:
A) Identify the input, processing and output
requirements for such a program.
B) Design the algorithm for the program using a simple
flowchart and pseudocode.
Answer of revision questions 3-1
1. START
Input initial deposit
Input interest rate
Set deposit to initial deposit
Set year to 0
WHILE year < 7 DO
Interest = Deposit * interest rate
Total = Deposit + interest
Deposit = Total
Year = Year + 1
END WHILE
PRINT Deposit, Year
STOP
Answer of revision questions 3-2

2. A).
Inputs – initial amount borrowed
- Interest rate
- Number of years
Processing – the equation to calculate
monthly repayments.
Output – monthly repayments calculated
by the process
Answer of revision questions 3-3
2. B).
START
Input initial loan borrowed
Input interest rate
Input number of years
Calculate yearly
repayments
Monthly repayments
= yearly repayments/12
Display monthly
repayments
STOP
Chapter 4
System development

294
A system
 Is a set of items linked together to carry
out a given task in order to achieve one or
more objectives. A system is described as
being either soft or hard.
Soft systems and hard systems
 Soft systems – human activity are said to be
soft systems. They are said to be soft
because:
 Their boundaries may be fluid or keep on changing.
 Their goals and objectives conflict.
 It’s difficult to precisely define exact measures of
performance for them.
 Hard systems – these are systems whose
goals and objectives are clearly defined and
the outcomes from the systems processes are
predictable and can be modeled accurately.
System classification
 Deterministic system – these are systems whose
output are known precisely by their inputs e.g. a
computer system.
 Probabilistic system – these are systems whose
output can only be predicted but not knows
precisely e.g. business and economic system
organisation.
 Cybernetic systems – these are self controlling
systems which adapt to the environment and
regulate their own behaviour by accessing the
feedback. They access their output and adjust
the input e.g. human beings, plants systems
Characteristic of systems
1. Holistic thinking 7. Interdependence
2. Sub systems 8. Feedback
3. Processor 9. Control
4. Objectives/purpose 10. Inputs and Outputs
5. Environment 11. System Entropy
6. Boundaries
Holistic thinking and sub systems
 Holistic thinking – in this, a system is considered
as a whole. A combination of various
components that makes up a system creates a
complex whole whose overall goals are more
sophisticated than those of the individual
components.

 Sub systems – a system is made up of different

components (subsystem). Therefore a system
does not exist in solitude but it may be a
component of a large system.
Processor and objectives/purpose
 Processor – this is an element of a system
that does the actual transformation of input
into output.

 Objectives/purpose – objectives of a
system may be real or stated. An
organization should state one objective
and operate to achieve another user must
know the major objective of a system.
Environment and boundaries
 Environment – the environment is the
system within an organisation operates.
Environment provides a reason for the
existence of the system.

 Boundaries – system boundaries are the

external element whose changes in
attitudes, behaviour and property affect
their state and are affected respectively
i.e. it’s the limit of system.
Interdependence and feedback
 Interdependence – for a system to be
effective and efficient, its components or
subsystems must be coordinated and
linked together.

 Feedback – a feedback is a check within a

system to see whether predetermined
goals are being met. The checks are
conducted on a system to determine
deviation.
Control and inputs and outputs
 Control – this is the
process by which the
system adapts to
changes in the
environment in order to
give the expected level.
 Inputs and outputs – a
system communicates
with its environment by
receiving inputs and
giving outputs.
System Entropy
 Entropy means decay. System ‘decay’
naturally over time, hence it slowly
becomes useless to the user either due to
improvement in technology, new
management or change in user
requirements. Therefore it must be
reviewed in order to improve it or develop
a new one.
Open and closed system
 An open system receives input from and
gives output to the environment while a
closed system does not interact with the
environment.
Information system
 This is a set of persons, procedures and
technologies and other resources that
collects, transforms and disseminates
information in the system e.g.
organisation.
Purpose of information system
 To provide the people within an
organisation with information to assist in
decision making process.
 To provide responsive service to meet
user needs.
 To enable sharing of information.
 To facilitate interaction and dissemination
of data throughout the various level of
organisation.
Why develop new information system?
 New changes in organisation – management can
introduce new changes, and they have to be
implement to meet the needs of the organisation.
 Problems in the current system – the undesirable
circumstances in the current system that prevent
the organisation from meeting its goal.
 New opportunities – if an opportunity presents
itself that can enable the organisations improve its
services.
Theories of system development
 The most common theories include:

 Traditional Approach.

 Rapid Application Development (RAD).

 The Structured Approach.

Traditional Approach
 This approach relies mostly on the skills
and experience of individual staff
members carrying out of the project. In this
approach, the manual system is replaced
with a computerized one without change in
overall structure of the former system.
Hence the weakness of the former system
are not addressed, they are forwarded to
the new system.
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
 RAD model evolved from the theory that
business today heavily rely on information
technology, hence, development and
implementation of information system
needs to be quick enough for the
organisation to maintain a competitive
advantage in the market place.
Structured Approach
 In this approach a system development
defines a set of stages that should be
followed when developing a system.
Stage of system development
 Problem recognition
and definition
 Information gathering
 Requirements
specification
 System design
 System construction
 System
implementation
Problem recognition and definition
 Problem recognition is the initial stage where the analyst
decides if the project is really necessary to look into, and if its
necessary to start a new project. In problem definition, the
problem must be thoroughly defined. A through survey of the
problem is undertaken by identifying the problem,
understanding it, and finding out of there is a possibility of
getting a solution. Before a new system is designed, a special
study will be carried out to establish the costs and benefits of a
new system. The study is called feasibility study. Feasibility
study of a system is accessed in four ways.
 Operational feasibility
 Technical feasibility
 Economic feasibility
 Schedule feasibility
Operational feasibility and technical feasibility

 Operational feasibility – this establishes

the extend to which the users are
comfortable or happy with the proposed or
new system.

 Technical feasibility – this establishes

whether the technology available is
sufficient or can be upgraded for the new
system.
Economic feasibility and schedule feasibility

 Economic feasibility – it establishes

whether the technology available is
sufficient or can be upgraded for the new
system.

 Schedule feasibility – it establishes

whether the development of the proposed
system will be accomplished within the
available time.
Information gathering
 The system analyst gathers data about the
current system and the users needs from
both internal and external sources. Some
of the methods used to collect or gather
data include:

 Record inspection
 Interview
 Questionnaires
Record inspection and interview
 The documents maintained in
connection to the system are
referenced. This forms a good
starting point for the analyst
to gain an overall insight of
the existing system.
 Interview – this is a face to
face communication between
the analysts as the
interviewer and the affected
personnel as interviewee.
The questions are geared to
getting the information
needed by the analysts.
Advantages of interview
 The analysts is accessible to first class
information.

 Make interviewee feel as part of the

system.

 Give adequate opportunity for interviewee,

an opportunity to put forward opinions.
Disadvantages of interview
 Make the interviewee feel they are being
summoned by the analysts.
 Some interviewees give answers which
are not actually proven facts but opinions.
 The interviewee may not fully open on
some issues that may be personal.
 The interviewee may be suspicious of the
intentions of the proposed system for fear
of being displaced by new system.
Questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a
document containing a
number of standard
questions set to be asked
to a larger number of
people in order to gather
information from them. The
analyst is able to collect
information from several
key people in the
organisation who may be
affected by the current
proposed system.
When the use questionnaire
 When limited amount of information is
required from a large number of people.

 There is a large number of people involved

in the system project.

 The people you need to gather information

from are vastly despersed.
Advantages of questionnaires
 Answers filled in less tense environment.
 Since they are filled and returned in
privacy, more sincere responses are
possible.
 Questionnaire provides many people with
the opportunity to provide input and
suggestion.
 Questionnaire saves time especially where
respondents are geographically scattered.
Disadvantages of questionnaires
 It’s a slow way of facts gathering.
 Designing questionnaires requires
expertise.
 Some questions can be easily
misunderstood hence ambiguous replies
will be received.
 Analysis of questionnaires requires a lot of
time.
Observation
 This requires the observer to participate or
watch closely as a person performs
activities in order to learn about the
system. This method gives the analysts
first hand experience about the problems
and expenses to the system requirements.
Advantages of observation
 Concepts that are too difficult for non-
technical staff to explain can be observed.
 It helps the analysts become acquainted
with operational personnel.
 It helps the analysts acquire ‘know how’
needed to assist in changes that have
been recommended.
 Can correct ‘hazy’ understanding or
erroneous impressions.
Disadvantages of observation
 It’s costly and time consuming.

 Staff members are not comfortable when

they are being watched.
Automated method
 This is mostly used when actual data is
required but difficult to get through
interviews, observation or questionnaires.
Such data is collected using devices that
automatically capture data from the
source. E.g. video, cameras, tape
recorders etc.
Requirements specification
 The system analyst must come with the
detailed requirements for the new system.
The requirements specifications include:

 Output specification
 Input specification
 File/data stores
 Hardware and software requirements
Output specification
 The output specifications entails activities
like generation of reports used to facilitate
decision making. The output can be in the
form of reports either in hardcopy or
softcopy. The quality of those reports is
important. Formality of reports is important
so that good quality reports are produced
for easy understanding.
Input specification
 The input to the system in necessary
because the contents of the input are used
to maintain the master files. The following
should be considered in input
specification.

 The contents and volume of input.

 The mode and devices of input selected.
 Layout and sequence of input.
File/data stores
 File requirement involves making an
informed decision on file required to store
data and information in the system. The
analyst should identify the number of files
that will be needed by the system and
determine the structure of each file.
Hardware and software requirements
 System analyst should specify all
hardware and software requirements for
the new system. He/she should consider:

 Economic factors e.g. price

 Operational factors e.g. reliability
 User friendliness.
System design
 This involves detailing the physical design
of the system, it’s the how of the process.
Once the logical design is put lined during
system analysis, the analyst determines
the physical design, which describes the
hardware, software and operating
procedures required to make system
operational. Several tools are used for
designing an information system.
Examples are flowchart, data flow
diagram, requirements.
System construction
 This refers to coding, installation and
testing of the modules and their
components such as outputs, inputs and
files. The purpose of the construction is to
develop and test a functional system that
fulfills the business and design
requirements.
Testing the system
 The system is tested by entering some
test data to find out whether its output are
as expected. The system is tested using
the requirements specifications and the
design specification to find out whether it
meets all requirements specified.
System implementation
 This involves installing the system in the
user’s computers, testing the installed
system, converting from old system to the
new one and training the users. System
implementation involves:
 Filecreation and conversion.
 Change over.
 Staff training
File creation and conversion
 This involves setting up of the master files
that are to be used in the support of the
new system. The setting can be either
from scratch or just to convert the files that
were employed in old system.
Training staff
 The training aim at:

 Convincing the staff of the user department on

the effectiveness of the new system.

 Remove fear of change from them.

 Enabling the staff to cope with processing

task of the new system.
Methods of training
 Demonstration
 Film show
 Manual reference
 Group discussion
 Visits
Changeover
 This is the process of changing over from
old system to the new system.

 Type of changeover
 Direct changeover
 Parallel changeover
 Phase changeover
Direct changeover
 In this approach the new system commence live
operation and immediately the old system is
abandoned.

 Advantage of direct changeover

 It’s
a cheap method
 Benefits of the new system are immediately realized.

 Disadvantages of direct changeover

 Extremely risky
 Places an organization in a do or die situation.
Parallel changeover
 In this changeover the operation of the old
system and the new system run alongside each
other.

 Advantages of parallel changeover

 Provides a method of training in the new system.
 Personnel become familiar with the new system prior
to actual changeover.
 Disadvantages of parallel changeover
 Costly to run two systems
 Cross checking is difficult
 Requires more staff hence more training required for
additional staff
Phase changeover
 In this approach implementation is done only
one part of the new system at one time or a step
by step.

 Advantages of phase changeover

 Allow the system to be implemented quickly
 Less costly
 Failures of the system are limited
 Causes minimal disruption
 Disadvantage of phase changeover
 Problems on ensuring that the first phase is
implemented and converted.
System review and maintenance
 System maintenance is the adjustment
and enhancement or correction of errors
after the system has been implemented.
The reviewing involves going through the
specification and testing the system after
implementation to find out whether it still
meets the original specification.
System documentation consists of
 Report of fact finding which outlines methods used to collect data,
weakness of the current system and recommendation of the current
system.
 Requirements specification which entails the output requirements, input,
hardware and software required for the new system.
 System flowchart which shows the overall functionality of the proposed
information system.
 Tables or file structures depending on the approach used in system
construction.
 Sample test data to test whether the new computerized information
system is working as expected.
 User manual which helps the user work with the new system with
minimal guidance. The manual contains information like
 How to install, start the system
 The interface of the system
 How to carry out various tasks
 Error correction and how to get help
Review questions 1
1. Define the term information system.
2. Differentiate between soft systems and hard
systems.
3. List five characteristics of a system.
4. What is system control?
5. Why do we need feedback in a system?
6. Explain the tem system boundary.
7. State and explain three purposes of information
systems in organisations.
8. Define the term online analytical processing?
9. Draw a well labelled diagram that depicts a
system that is controlled through feedback.
Answer of review questions 1-1
1. An information system is the arrangement of people, data,
processes and information that work together to support and
improve the day-to-day business operations.
2. In soft systems, goals are not clearly defined unlike in hard
systems.
3. A). Holistic thinking
B). Subsystems.
C). Boundary and environment.
D). Purpose.
E). Process.
F). System entropy.
G). Inputs and outputs.
H). Open and closed systems.
I). Control
4. A system control is a method by which a system adapts to changes
in the environment in order to give the expected output or perform
at the expected level.
Answer of review questions 1-2
5. Feedback is needed in order 8. Online analytical processing
to adjust controls for better is whereby a computer
performance of the system. based information system is
6. System boundary is the used to capture operational
scope within which a system data, analyse and generate
component operates. reports to be used for
7. A). Supports information supporting decision making
processing tasks. process in an organisation.
B). Supports decision 9. .
making.
C). Supports sharing of
information.
Review questions 2
1. Explain three system development theories and methods.
2. State the main disadvantage of Rapid Application Development
method.
3. Define the term system development lifecycle.
4. At what stage does the system change hands from the
development stage to the users.
5. Highlight three circumstances that necessitate the development of
new information systems.
6. Define the term feasibility study as used in system development.
7. State four methods that can be used to gather information during
system development.
8. State two advantages of interview over questionnaires.
9. State two disadvantages of interview method when used for
information gathering.
10. Give one example of automated information gathering technique.
Answer of review questions 2-1
1. A). Traditional approach. 5. A). New opportunities.
B). Rapid Application B). Problems
Development (RAD) C). Directives.
C). Structure approach. 6. Feasibility study is a special
2. The main disadvantage of study carried out to establish
RAD is that the system may the costs and benefits of a
be weak due to quick new system.
development. 7. A). Interviews
3. System development life B). Questionnaires
cycle refers to the steps
followed in developing a C). Observation
system for conception to D). Study of available
review and maintenance. documents.
4. At the implementation stage. E). Automated methods.
Answer of review questions 2-2
8. A). Non-verbal communication can be used or
observed.
B). Questions can be rephrased for clarity.
9. A). It is difficult to organise for an interview due
to time constraint.
B). The interviewee may not fully open up
some sensitive issues due to security concern.
10. An example of automated information gathering
technique is the use of a video camera to
compare motion pictures.
Review questions 3
1. Outline the four areas that are considered
during the requirements specification stage.
2. Explain at least three factors that should be put
into consideration during output design.
3. State four factors that may be considered in
order to design a good file.
4. Explain why it is important to consider file
backup and recovery strategies during file
design.
Answer of review questions 3
1. A). Output 3. A). Record key field
B). Input B). Type of data
C). Files C). Length of each field
D). Hardware and D). Backup and recovery
software requirements. strategies.
2. A). Target i.e. the 4. Back up and recovery
audience. strategy helps in making
B). Frequency of report sure that if the current
generation file gets corrupted, it is
C). Quality and format possible to reconstruct
the original file.
Revision questions 1
1. Outline seven steps followed in structured system
development.
2. Explain three tasks that are carried out during system
implementation.
3. Outline three disadvantages of questionnaires.
4. Explain the concept of proxemics in interviews.
5. Give an advantages of straight changeover over parallel
changeover.
6. Define the term file conversion.
7. Differentiate between a system flowchart and a program
flowchart.
8. Draw four system flowchart symbols and explain their
functions.
Answer of revision questions 1-1
1. A). Problem recognition and 3. A). Good questionnaires
definition. are difficult to prepare.
B). Requirement
specification. B). The respondent may
C). System design. not understand some
D). System construction. questions.
E). System implementation.
F). System review and C). The respondent has
maintenance. the final say on when to
fill and return the
2. A). File conversions. questionnaire. Most of
B). Staff training. them end up not being
C). Project management. filled or returned hence it
D). Changeover is disadvantageous to
the researcher.
Answer of revision questions 1-2
4. Proxemics refer to issues
related to physical contact
such as sitting arrangement
during an interview.
5. Straight changeover is
cheaper to implement than
parallel changeover.
6. File conversion refers to
changing files from one format
to another.
7. A system flowchart is for the
entire system while a program
flowchart is for a part or a
module in the system.
Therefore, several program
flowcharts may be derived
from a single system
flowchart.
Revision questions 2
1. Define the term “attribute”.
2. Explain the importance of using automated methods in
fact finding.
3. Why is observation sometimes disadvantageous when
used in fact finding?
4. State one of the disadvantages of the traditional
approach in system development.
5. Outline the factors that should be considered when
sourcing for hardware and software resources required
for a new system.
6. Outline some of the contents of a user manual that
would help the user run the system with minimal
guidance.
Answer of revision questions 2
1. Entity attributes refer to characteristics of a particular entity.
2. Automated methods of data collection can be used in areas which
are not easily accessible.
3. A). The person being observed might alter his or her behaviour.
B). It may be time consuming.
4. The weaknesses of the former system are not addressed.
5. A). Economic factors.
B). Operational.
C). Services from the vendor.
6. A). Installation procedures.
B). User interface.
C). How to carry out various tasks.
D). Test data and expected output
E). Troubleshooting guide
Practical exercise 1
 Extract the book
return module
flowchart from the
system flowchart
depicted in figure
right.
END

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