Introduction to

Analysis of Algorithms
COMP171
Fall 2005
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 2
Introduction
What is Algorithm?
a clearly specified set of simple instructions to be followed to
solve a problem
Takes a set of values, as input and
produces a value, or set of values, as output
May be specified
In English
As a computer program
As a pseudo-code
Data structures
Methods of organizing data
Program = algorithms + data structures
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 3
Introduction
Why need algorithm analysis ?
writing a working program is not good enough
The program may be inefficient!
If the program is run on a large data set, then the
running time becomes an issue

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 4
An Example
A city has n stops. A bus driver wishes to follow the shortest
path from one stop to another. Between very two stops, if a
road exists, it may take a different time from other roads. Also,
roads are one-way, i.e., the road from view point 1 to 2, is
different from that from view point 2 to 1.
How to find the shortest path between any two pairs?
A Nave approach:
List all the paths between a given pair of view points
Compute the travel time for each.
Choose the shortest one.

How many paths are there?

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 5
# of paths
n! ~ (n/e)
n

Will be impossible to run your algorithm for n = 30
Need a way to compare two algorithms
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 6
Example: Selection Problem
Given a list of N numbers, determine the kth
largest, where k s N.
Algorithm 1:
(1) Read N numbers into an array
(2) Sort the array in decreasing order by some
simple algorithm
(3) Return the element in position k
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 7
Example: Selection Problem
Algorithm 2:
(1) Read the first k elements into an array and sort
them in decreasing order
(2) Each remaining element is read one by one
If smaller than the kth element, then it is ignored
Otherwise, it is placed in its correct spot in the array,
bumping one element out of the array.
(3) The element in the kth position is returned as
the answer.
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 8
Example: Selection Problem
Which algorithm is better when
N =100 and k = 100?
N =100 and k = 1?
What happens when N = 1,000,000 and k =
500,000?
There exist better algorithms

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 9
Algorithm Analysis
We only analyze correct algorithms
An algorithm is correct
If, for every input instance, it halts with the correct output
Incorrect algorithms
Might not halt at all on some input instances
Might halt with other than the desired answer
Analyzing an algorithm
Predicting the resources that the algorithm requires
Resources include
Memory
Communication bandwidth
Computational time (usually most important)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 10
Algorithm Analysis
Factors affecting the running time
computer
compiler
algorithm used
input to the algorithm
The content of the input affects the running time
typically, the input size (number of items in the input) is the main
consideration
E.g. sorting problem the number of items to be sorted
E.g. multiply two matrices together the total number of
elements in the two matrices
Machine model assumed
Instructions are executed one after another, with no
concurrent operations Not parallel computers
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 11
Worst- / average- / best-case
Worst-case running time of an algorithm
The longest running time for any input of size n
An upper bound on the running time for any input
guarantee that the algorithm will never take longer
Example: Sort a set of numbers in increasing order; and the
data is in decreasing order
The worst case can occur fairly often
E.g. in searching a database for a particular piece of information
Best-case running time
sort a set of numbers in increasing order; and the data is
already in increasing order
Average-case running time
May be difficult to define what average means

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 12
Running-time of algorithms
Bounds are for the algorithms, rather than
programs
programs are just implementations of an algorithm,
and almost always the details of the program do
not affect the bounds

Bounds are for algorithms, rather than
problems
A problem can be solved with several algorithms,
some are more efficient than others
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 13

But, how to measure the time?
Multiplication and addition: which one takes longer?
How do we measure >=, assignment, &&, ||, etc etc
Machine dependent?
Slides courtesy of Prof. Saswati Sarkar
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 14
What is the efficiency of an
algorithm?
Run time in the computer: Machine Dependent
Example: Need to multiply two positive integers a and b
Subroutine 1: Multiply a and b
Subroutine 2: V = a, W = b
While W > 1
V V + a; W W-1
Output V
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 15
Solution: Machine Independent
Analysis
We assume that every basic operation takes constant time:
Example Basic Operations:
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Memory Access

Non-basic Operations:
Sorting, Searching
Efficiency of an algorithm is the number of basic
operations it performs
We do not distinguish between the basic operations.
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 16
Subroutine 1 uses ? basic operation
Subroutine 2 uses ? basic operations
Subroutine ? is more efficient.
This measure is good for all large input sizes
In fact, we will not worry about the exact values, but will
look at ``broad classes of values, or the growth rates
Let there be n inputs.
If an algorithm needs n basic operations and another
needs 2n basic operations, we will consider them to be in
the same efficiency category.
However, we distinguish between exp(n), n, log(n)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 17
Growth Rate








The idea is to establish a relative order among functions
for large n
- c , n
0
> 0 such that f(N) s c g(N) when N > n
0
f(N) grows no faster than g(N) for large N
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 18
Asymptotic notation: Big-Oh
f(N) = O(g(N))
There are positive constants c and n
0
such
that
f(N) s c g(N) when N > n
0

The growth rate of f(N) is less than or equal to
the growth rate of g(N)
g(N) is an upper bound on f(N)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 19
Big-Oh: example
Let f(N) = 2N
2
. Then
f(N) = O(N
4
)
f(N) = O(N
3
)
f(N) = O(N
2
) (best answer, asymptotically tight)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 20
Big Oh: more examples
N
2
/ 2 3N = O(N
2
)
1 + 4N = O(N)
7N
2
+ 10N + 3 = O(N
2
) = O(N
3
)
log
10
N = log
2
N / log
2
10 = O(log
2
N) = O(log N)
sin N = O(1); 10 = O(1), 10
10
= O(1)




log N + N = O(N)
N = O(2
N
), but 2
N
is not O(N)
2
10N
is not O(2
N
)

) (
3 2
1
2
N O N N i
N
i
= s

=
) (
2
1
N O N N i
N
i
= s

=
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 21
Some rules
When considering the growth rate of a function using
Big-Oh
Ignore the lower order terms and the coefficients of
the highest-order term
No need to specify the base of logarithm
Changing the base from one constant to another changes the
value of the logarithm by only a constant factor

If T
1
(N) = O(f(N) and T
2
(N) = O(g(N)), then
T
1
(N) + T
2
(N) = max(O(f(N)), O(g(N))),
T
1
(N) * T
2
(N) = O(f(N) * g(N))

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 22
Big-Omega







- c , n
0
> 0 such that f(N) > c g(N) when N > n
0
f(N) grows no slower than g(N) for large N

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 23
Big-Omega

f(N) = O(g(N))
There are positive constants c and n
0
such
that
f(N) > c g(N) when N > n
0

The growth rate of f(N) is greater than or
equal to the growth rate of g(N).
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 24
Big-Omega: examples
Let f(N) = 2N
2
. Then
f(N) = O(N)
f(N) = O(N
2
) (best answer)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 25
f(N) = O(g(N))








the growth rate of f(N) is the same as the growth rate
of g(N)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 26
Big-Theta

f(N) = O(g(N)) iff
f(N) = O(g(N)) and f(N) = O(g(N))
The growth rate of f(N) equals the growth rate
of g(N)
Example: Let f(N)=N
2
, g(N)=2N
2

We write f(N) = O(g(N)) and f(N) = O(g(N)), thus
f(N) = O(g(N)).
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 27
Some rules

If T(N) is a polynomial of degree k, then
T(N) = O(N
k
).

For logarithmic functions,
T(log
m
N) = O(log N).
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 28
Little-oh
f(N) = o(g(N))
f(N) = O(g(N)) and f(N) = O(g(N))
The growth rate of f(N) is less than the growth
rate of g(N)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 29
Using L' Hopital's rule
L' Hopital's rule
If and

then =

Determine the relative growth rates by using L' Hopital's rule
compute

if 0: f(N) = o(g(N))
if constant = 0: f(N) = O(g(N))
if : g(N) = o(f(N))
limit oscillates: no relation
) (
) (
lim
N g
N f
n
) (
) (
lim
N g
N f
n
'
'

=

) ( lim N f
n
=

) ( lim N g
n
) (
) (
lim
N g
N f
n
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 30
Example Functions
sqrt(n) , n, 2n, ln n, exp(n), n + sqrt(n) , n + n
2

lim
n
sqrt(n) /n = 0, sqrt(n) is o(n)
lim
n
n/sqrt(n) = infinity,
n is o(sqrt(n))
lim
n
n /2n = 1/2,
n is u(2n), O(2n)
lim
n
2n /n = 2,
2n is u(n), O(n)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 31
Typical Growth Rates







Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 32

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 33

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 34
Growth rates
Doubling the input size
f(N) = c f(2N) = f(N) = c
f(N) = log N f(2N) = f(N) + log 2
f(N) = N f(2N) = 2 f(N)
f(N) = N
2
f(2N) = 4 f(N)
f(N) = N
3
f(2N) = 8 f(N)
f(N) = 2
N
f(2N) = f
2
(N)
Advantages of algorithm analysis
To eliminate bad algorithms early
pinpoints the bottlenecks, which are worth coding
carefully
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 35
Example
Calculate






Lines 1 and 4 count for one unit each
Line 3: executed N times, each time four units
Line 2: (1 for initialization, N+1 for all the tests, N for
all the increments) total 2N + 2
total cost: 6N + 4 O(N)

=
N
i
i
1
3
1
2
3
4
1
4N
2N+2
1
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 36
General Rules
For loops
at most the running time of the statements inside
the for-loop (including tests) times the number of
iterations.
Nested for loops




the running time of the statement multiplied by the
product of the sizes of all the for-loops.
O(N
2
)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 37
General rules (contd)
Consecutive statements






These just add
O(N) + O(N
2
) = O(N
2
)
If/Else
never more than the running time of the test plus the larger of
the running times of S1 and S2.
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 38
Another Example
Maximum Subsequence Sum Problem
Given (possibly negative) integers A
1
, A
2
, ....,
A
n
, find the maximum value of

For convenience, the maximum subsequence sum
is 0 if all the integers are negative

E.g. for input 2, 11, -4, 13, -5, -2
Answer: 20 (A
2
through A
4
)

=
j
i k
k
A
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 39
Algorithm 1: Simple
Exhaustively tries all possibilities (brute force)









O(N
3
)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 40
Algorithm 2: Divide-and-conquer
Divide-and-conquer
split the problem into two roughly equal subproblems, which
are then solved recursively
patch together the two solutions of the subproblems to arrive
at a solution for the whole problem



The maximum subsequence sum can be
Entirely in the left half of the input
Entirely in the right half of the input
It crosses the middle and is in both halves
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 41
Algorithm 2 (contd)

The first two cases can be solved recursively
For the last case:
find the largest sum in the first half that includes the last
element in the first half
the largest sum in the second half that includes the first
element in the second half
add these two sums together

Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 42
4 3 5 2 -1 2 6 -2
Max subsequence sum for first half =6 (4, -3, 5)
second half =8 (2, 6)
Max subsequence sum for first half ending at the last element is
4 (4, -3, 5, -2)
Max subsequence sum for sum second half starting at the first
element is 7 (-1, 2, 6)
Max subsequence sum spanning the middle is 11?
Max subsequence spans the middle 4, -3, 5, -2, -1, 2, 6
Example: 8 numbers in a sequence,
Slides courtesy of Prof. Saswati Sarkar
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 43
Algorithm 2
O(1)
T(m/2)
O(m)
O(1)
T(m/2)
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 44
Algorithm 2 (contd)
Recurrence equation




2 T(N/2): two subproblems, each of size N/2
N: for patching two solutions to find solution to
whole problem

N
N
T N T
T
+ =
=
)
2
( 2 ) (
1 ) 1 (
Introduction to Analysis of Algorithms / Slide 45
Algorithm 2 (contd)
Solving the recurrence:






With k=log N (i.e. 2
k
= N), we have


Thus, the running time is O(N log N)
faster than solution 1 for large data sets
N N N
N N T N N T
+ =
+ =
log
log ) 1 ( ) (
kN
N
T
N
N
T
N
N
T
N
N
T N T
k
k
+ =
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
)
2
( 2
3 )
8
( 8
2 )
4
( 4
)
2
( 2 ) (