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Umma–Lagash war

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Lagash-Umma border conflict

The Stele of the Vultures, which documents key parts of the war.
Datec. 26th century – c. 24th century BCE
Location
Sumer
Result Victory of Umma
Belligerents
Umma Lagash
Commanders and leaders
Ush
Enakalle
Ur-Lumma
Il, king of Umma
Lugalzagesi		 Ur-Nanshe
Akurgal
Eannatum
Enanatum I
Enmetena
Urukagina

The Lagash–Umma border conflict is the earliest well-documented case of a war between states.[1] It took place in Sumer during the Early Dynastic III period (2600–2350 BCE), a period characterized by the division of the region in numerous polities traditionally labeled as city-states.[2] It is documented mainly by inscriptions from the city state of Lagash,[3][4] in which its rival Umma is portrayed as the infringer on an old border treaty regarding a fertile piece of land coveted by both.[5] The intermittent conflict between the two polities lasted for generations. The reigns of Eannatum and Enmetena saw several victories of Lagash, while Umma prevailed over its neighbour during the reign of Lugalzagesi, initially a ruler of Umma and later a ruler of Uruk. His military offensives on the territory of Lagash led to the fall of the city, and the ruler of Lagash Urukagina was left in control of a reduced territory centered on Ĝirsu. Lugalzagesi claimed control over all of Sumer and adopted the title ''king of the land''. His victory happened in the context of the emergence of new traditions of kingship, which exhibited a tendency towards the political unification of the region. Lugalzagesi was himself defeated by Sargon of Akkad, who conquered all of Sumer and integrated it as part of his own kingdom centered on the city of Akkad.[6]

Origins of the antagonism

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The multigenerational border conflict between Lagash and Umma is an example of local rivalry in Early Dynastic III Southern Mesopotamia. During this period, the region was characterized by a dense urbanization and the competition between neighbouring polities for cultivable land and water resources.[7]

It was centered around a contested strip of agricultural land, the Gu’edena (‘’The Edge of the Plains’’).The main sources for the conflict come from the territory of Lagash. This creates a biased picture and makes it difficult to determine its causes reliably.[3]

This feud was already active at the time of the Early Dynastic II/Early Dynastic III king of Kish, Mesilim, who acted as an arbiter and demarcated a border between the two polities. The relations between Umma and Lagash remained tense, however, and the war would erupt multiple times in the next generations.[5]

The sources that document the conflict are royal inscriptions written in Sumerian in clay and stone. They include those intended for public display on monuments, those that were built into the foundations or the walls of the buildings whose construction they commemorate, those inscribed on votive objects intended for deities, and inscriptions whose original context is difficult to determine, perhaps due to the archaeological techniques used at the time of their unearthing.[4] In the absence of more evidence from outside of Lagash, they allow chiefly for a reconstruction of the Lagashite historical tradition surrounding the conflict.[4]

Background

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Fragment of the Stele of Vultures showing Ninĝirsu, the chief god of the state of Lagash, with captive Ummaites.

In Late Early Dynastic Sumer, most city-states were formed by the union of several originally independent cities, often of similar size. The state of Umma included the urban centers at Tell Jokha, Umm al-Aqarib, and Tell Izbekh (Zabalam). Its rival Lagash notably included, aside from Lagash proper (al-Hiba), the cities of Ĝirsu (Tello) and Niĝin (Tell Zurghul) as well as the seaport of Gu’abba. While Lagash was the name of the kingdom and this city was likely its original center, in the Early Dynastic IIIa the capital was Ĝirsu, and its tutelary god, Ninĝirsu, was the chief god of the local pantheon.[3][5]

In the third millennium Sumerian city states, the land was conceptualized as the private property of the gods administered by the ruler.[7] The border between Lagash and Umma was regarded as having a divine origin. The inscription on the Cone of Enmetena relates that it was demarcated by Enlil, the chief god of the Sumerian pantheon, between the chief god of Lagash, Ninĝirsu, and the chief god of Umma, Shara.[8] Gods were envisoned as active participants in the conflict. The Gue'dena was regarded by the rulers of Lagash as the property of Ninĝirsu,[4]and the retrieval of the disputed territory was envisioned as a divine mission.[9]In the inscriptions of the rulers of Lagash, Ninĝirsu could be described as intervening directly on the battlefield in their favour.[10][11]

History

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Votive mace-head of Mesilim, king of Kish, to the god Ninĝirsu.

Arbitrage of Mesilim and early attestations of conflict

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The conflict might have already begun in the Early Dynastic IIIa period.[3] Mesilim, a 26th century BC king of Kish, demarcated the border between Lagash and Umma. In later inscriptions of the rulers of Lagash, his arbitrage is repeatedly mentionned in order to portray Umma as the trespasser in the conflict.[12] The inscription on a macehead dedicated to Ninĝirsu by Mesilim names Lugal-shaengur as the contemporary ruler of Lagash, and although it appears likely that the king of Kish was an important figure, few royal inscriptions are known from this period.[13]

Ur-Nanshe is the first ruler of Lagash for whom a substantial number of royal inscriptions are known.[14] He reigned circa 2500-2450 BC. His inscriptions record his victory in battle over the city-states of Umma and Ur, and the capture of the ruler of Umma, Pabilgagaltuku.[15]

Eannatum, ruler of Lagash, detail of the Stele of Vultures.

Victories of Eannatum and Enmetena

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The army of Lagash, detail of the Stele of Vultures.

Ur-Nanshe was succeeded by his son Akurgal. Few inscriptions are known from his reign, which suggests he likely ruled for a short time.[16] The inscription on the victory stele of his son Eannatum mentions the conflict between Akurgal and a ruler of Umma over the Gu'edena. It is likely that the ruler of Umma successfully occupied the Gu'edena, as the inscription also relates that Eannatum was created by Ninĝirsu to resolve the problem of the occupation of his property by Umma.[17]

The inscriptions of Eannatum document his far reaching military campaigns. A victory against Umma was recorded on a huge monument erected in the sacred city quarter of Ĝirsu, the partly preserved ‘’Stele of the Vultures‘’.[18] The stele gives a very fragmentary account of the history of the border conflict from Lagash's point of view. Some passages mention the fight of Eannatum's father, and perhaps grandfather, against the aggression of an unnamed ruler of Umma.[17] In the inscription Eannatum claims that the ruler of Umma, only referred to as ‘’the man of Umma’’, broke the border treaty established by Mesilim by invading and unlawfully seizing Lagashite territory, which led to the anger of Ninĝirsu. The inscription relates that Ninĝirsu created Eannatum to be his champion, gave him the kingship of Lagash and then sent him a dream promising him victory and the death of the ruler of Umma.[19]Umma suffered severe losses in the war against Eannatum, and the ruler of Umma was killed by the people of his city afterwards.[20] In a treaty with his successor, Enakalle, Eannatum created a new boundary channel, left a strip of territory as a no man’s land, and subjected the defeated state to the payment of a loan in exchange for the exploitation of a portion of the Gu’edena.[12] The adversary of Eannatum that was killed by his people is not named in the preserved portion of the stele of the Vultures. It has been suggested that he is the same person as Ush, a ruler of Umma mentioned in an inscription of Eannatum’s nephew Enmetena.[21] It is unclear whether Ush was the same person as the successor of Pabilgagaltuku, the ‘’man of Umma’’ who fought Eannatum's father and grandfather, and the adversary of Eannatum that was killed by his people. Gebhard J. Selz points out that since it is possible to read the sign UŠ as nita, meaning ''a male'', an interpretation of its use as a reference to the ruler of Umma with a pejorative intent is not excluded.[22]

"[King Il of Umma] diverted water from the boundary channel of Ningirsu and the boundary channel of Nanshe (...). When because of those channels, Enmetena, the governor of Lagash, sent envoys to Il, Il, the governor of Umma, who steals fields (and) speaks evil, declared: 'The boundary channel of Ningirsu (and) the boundary channel of Nanshe is mine! I will shift the boundary levee from Antasura to Edimgalabzu!' But Enlil (and) Ninhursang did not give it to him."

Inscription FAOS 5/1 Ent. 28/29 = RIME 1.9.5.1 iii 38-iv 10, [23]

Eannatum was succeeded by his younger brother, Enannatum I, to the kingship of Lagash. His reign saw the renewal of the conflict with Umma under its new ruler, Ur-Lumma, the son of Enakalle. Ur-Lumma refused to pay the rent Umma owed Lagash for the exploitation of the Gu’edena. He incorporated the boundary channels as part of Umma’s irrigation network, and launched an invasion of Lagash with the help of foreign mercenaries, claiming part of its territory as his own.[24] Ur-Lumma fought against both Enanatum I and his son and successor, Enmetena, and was eventually defeated in battle. He abandoned his charioteers and fled to his capital city of Umma, where he was killed.[25]

Enannatum I was succeeded by his son Enmetena, whose rule was a period of territorial expansion for Lagash.[26] His inscription on the Cone of Enmetena is the most complete account of the history of the border dispute from Lagash’s point of view. He takes credit for the final victory over Ur-Lumma, but does not mention the result of his father’s struggle against the ruler of Umma.[27] Jerrold S. Cooper notes that the circumstances of Ur-Lumma’s death are only mentioned in the inscription of Enmetena, while Enannatum I does not report it, despite going into the details of his original transgression. He argues, therefore, that Enannatum I was likely seriously or mortally wounded during the decisive battle with the Ummaite ruler, and that Enmetena had to finish it by himself.[28] Ur-Lumma was succeeded as ruler of Umma by his nephew Il. Like his uncle, Il diverted the water of the boundary channels for Umma’s benefit, not fully paying what was owed to Lagash for their use. The circumstances of the resolution of his conflict with Enmetena are unclear. In his inscriptions, the ruler of Lagash simply states that the gods thwarted Il's designs, perhaps indicating that he backed away without a military confrontation. [29]

Sargon of Akkad on his victory stele.

Victory of Umma under Lugalzagesi and rise of Sargon of Akkad

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There is very little information on the interstate relations between Lagash and Umma from the successors of Enmetena and Il up until the last pre-Sargonic ruler of Lagash, Urukagina. During his reign, the ruler of Umma, Lugalzagesi, launched military offensives on the state of Lagash, which led to the fall of the city of Lagash itself. Urukagina was left in control of a reduced territory centered on the city of Ĝirsu. This is attested by the changing of his title from the traditional ‘’ruler of Lagash’’ to ‘’ruler of Ĝirsu’’ in his inscriptions.[30] A unique clay tablet from Ĝirsu describes Lugalzagesi's sacking of Lagashite sanctuaries and temples during the invasion. Several of his inscriptions testify to a new decree of the Lagash-Umma boundary that he set up during his reign. [31]

Lugalzagesi claimed control over all of Sumer, as attested by his adoption of the title ‘’King of the land‘’, lugal kalama.[32] His efforts to unify the region were the culmination of a new ideological and political project that had developed in the late Early Dynastic Period. It was characterized by the aspirations of certain rulers to forge and organize larger polities. This contrasts with the earlier prevailing conception of power, which had been tied to independent city-states and focused on local affairs.[33]

Lugalzagesi’s success would be short-lived, however. He was eventually defeated by another rising dynast, Sargon of Akkad, who integrated Lugalzagesi's former kingdom as part of his own polity centered on the city of Akkad. Akkad has often been called the world’s first empire, though the definition of ancient empires is still subject to debate.[34] Sargon's conquest of Sumer would mark a temporary halt in the independence of the kingdoms of Lagash and Umma, as they were integrated as provinces of the Akkadian kingdom.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma border conflict (PDF). Sources from the ancient Near East. Malibu: Undena Publications. ISBN 978-0-89003-059-2.
  2. ^ Michalowski, Piotr (2020). "The Kingdsom of Akkad in Contact with the World". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (eds.). The Oxford history of the ancient Near East. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 704. ISBN 978-0-19-068785-4.
  3. ^ a b c d Brisch, Nicole (2016). "History and chronology". In Crawford, Harriet E. W. (ed.). The Sumerian world (1. publ ed.). London: Routledge. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-138-23863-3.
  4. ^ a b c d Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma border conflict (PDF). Sources from the ancient Near East. Malibu: Undena Publications. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-89003-059-2.
  5. ^ a b c Bartash, Vitali (2020). "The Early Dynastic Near East". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T. (eds.). The Oxford history of the ancient Near East. Vol. I. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. p. 540. ISBN 978-0-19-068785-4.
  6. ^ Schrakamp, Ingo (2020). "The Kingdom of Akkad : a view from whithin". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (eds.). The Oxford history of the ancient Near East. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 614. ISBN 978-0-19-068785-4.
  7. ^ a b Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2018). A history of Babylon, 2200 BC-AD 75. Blackwell history of the ancient world. Chichester, W. Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4051-8899-9.
  8. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  9. ^ Selz, Gebhard J. (1995). Untersuchungen zur Götterwelt des altsumerischen Stadtstaates von Lagaš. Occasional publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund (in German). Philadelphia, PA: The Univ. of Pennsylvania Museum. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-924171-00-0.
  10. ^ Selz, Gebhard J. (1995). Untersuchungen zur Götterwelt des altsumerischen Stadtstaates von Lagaš. Occasional publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund (in German). Philadelphia, PA: The Univ. of Pennsylvania Museum. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-924171-00-0.
  11. ^ Selz, Gebhard J. (1995). Untersuchungen zur Götterwelt des altsumerischen Stadtstaates von Lagaš. Occasional publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund (in German). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-924171-00-0.
  12. ^ a b Bartash, Vitali (2020). "The Early Dynastic Near East". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T (eds.). The Oxford history of the ancient Near East. Vol. I. New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. p. 553. ISBN 978-0-19-068785-4.
  13. ^ Edzard, Dietz Otto (1997). "Mesilim A. Philologisch". Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German). Retrieved 2025-03-16.
  14. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  15. ^ Selz, Gebhard .J. (2016). "Ur-Nanše A". Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Retrieved 2025-03-16.
  16. ^ Frayne, Douglas (2008). Presargonic period, 2700-2350 BC. Royal inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Toronto ; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-8020-3595-0. OCLC 71540346.
  17. ^ a b Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma border conflict (PDF). Sources from the ancient Near East. Malibu: Undena Publ. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-89003-059-2.
  18. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  19. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  20. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  21. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  22. ^ Selz, Gebhard .J (2016). "UŠ". Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Retrieved 2025-03-16.
  23. ^ Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean (PDF).
  24. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  25. ^ Rudik, Nadezda (2016). "Ur-LUM-ma". Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German). Retrieved 2025-03-16.
  26. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  27. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  28. ^ Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma border conflict (PDF). Sources from the ancient Near East. Malibu: Undena Publications. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-89003-059-2.
  29. ^ Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma border conflict (PDF). Sources from the ancient Near East. Malibu: Undena Publ. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-89003-059-2.
  30. ^ Frayne, Douglas Ralph (2008). Presargonic period: 2700-2350 BC. Toronto [Ont.] Buffalo [N.Y.] London (GB): University of Toronto press. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-8020-3586-8.
  31. ^ Westenholz, Aage (1987). "Lugalzagesi". Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Retrieved 2025-03-16.
  32. ^ Beaulieu, Paul-Alain (2018). A history of Babylon, 2200 BC-AD 75. Blackwell history of the ancient world. Chichester, W. Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-4051-8899-9.
  33. ^ Michalowski, Piotr (2020). "The Kingdom of Akkad in Contact with the World". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (eds.). The Oxford history of the ancient Near East. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 706. ISBN 978-0-19-068785-4.
  34. ^ Brisch, Nicole (2016). "History and chronology". In Crawford, Harriet E. W. (ed.). The Sumerian world (1. publ ed.). London: Routledge. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-138-23863-3.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Brisch, Nicole (2013). "History and chronology". In Crawford, Harriet (ed.). The sumerian world. ISBN 9781138238633.
  • Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions: the Lagash-Umma border conflict (PDF). ISBN 9780890030592.
  • Bartash, Vitaly (2020). "The Early Dynastic Near East". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T. (eds.). The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East : From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty of Akkad. ISBN 9780190687854.
  • Michalowski, Piotr (2020). "The Kingdom of Akkad in Contact with the World". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T. (eds.). The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East : From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty of Akkad. ISBN 9780190687854.
  • Schrakamp, Ingo (2020). "The Kingdom of Akkad : a view from whithin". In Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, D.T. (eds.). The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East : From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty of Akkad. ISBN 9780190687854.
  • Frayne, Douglas (2008). Presargonic Period: Early Periods, Volume 1 (2700-2350 BC). ISBN 9780802035868.
  • Beaulieu, Paul Alain (2017). A History of Babylon. ISBN 9781405188982.
  • Selz, Gebhard J. (1995). Untersuchungen zur Götterwelt des altsumerischen Staates von Lagaš (in German). ISBN 9780924171000.
  • Edzard, Dietz Otto, "Mesilim A. Philologisch", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2025-05-05
  • Selz, Gebhard J. (2016), "Ur-Nanše A", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2025-05-05
  • Selz, Gebhard J. (2016), "UŠ", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2025-05-05
  • Rudik, Nadezda (2016), "Ur-LUM-ma", Reallexikon der Assyriologie (in German), retrieved 2025-05-05
  • Westenholz, Aage (1987), "Lugalzagesi", Reallexikon der Assyriologie, retrieved 2025-05-05
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