MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION:
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves wit wavelengts ranging !rom " mm to " m, or !re#$encies
%etween &'' MH( an) &'' GH(*
A++arat$s an) tecni#$es ma, %e )escri%e) #$alitativel, as -microwave- wen te wavelengts o! signals
are ro$gl, te same as te )imensions o! te e#$i+ment, so tat l$m+e).element circ$it teor, is
inacc$rate* As a conse#$ence, +ractical microwave tecni#$e ten)s to move awa, !rom te )iscrete
resistors, ca+acitors, an) in)$ctors $se) wit lower !re#$enc, ra)io waves* Instea), )istri%$te) circ$it
elements an) transmission.line teor, are more $se!$l meto)s !or )esign, anal,sis* O+en.wire an) coa/ial
transmission lines give wa, to waveg$i)es, an) l$m+e).element t$ne) circ$its are re+lace) %, cavit,
resonators or resonant lines* E!!ects o! re!lection, +olari(ation, scattering, )i!!raction, an) atmos+eric
a%sor+tion $s$all, associate) wit visi%le ligt are o! +ractical signi!icance in te st$), o! microwave
+ro+agation* Te same e#$ations o! electromagnetic teor, a++l, at all !re#$encies*
0ile te name ma, s$ggest a micrometer wavelengt, it is %etter $n)erstoo) as in)icating wavelengts
ver, m$c smaller tan tose $se) in ra)io %roa)casting* Te %o$n)aries %etween !ar in!rare) ligt,
teraert( ra)iation, microwaves, an) $ltra.ig.!re#$enc, ra)io waves are !airl, ar%itrar, an) are $se)
vario$sl, %etween )i!!erent !iel)s o! st$),* Te term microwave generall, re!ers to -alternating c$rrent
signals wit !re#$encies %etween &'' MH( 1&2"'
3
H(4 an) &'' GH( 1&2"'
""
H(4*-
5"6
7ot IEC stan)ar)
8''9' an) IEEE stan)ar) "'' )e!ine -microwave- !re#$encies starting at " GH( 1&' cm wavelengt4*
Electromagnetic waves longer 1lower !re#$enc,4 tan microwaves are calle) -ra)io waves-*
Electromagnetic ra)iation wit sorter wavelengts ma, %e calle) -millimeter waves-, teraert(
ra)iation or even T-rays* :e!initions )i!!er !or millimeter wave %an), wic te IEEE )e!ines as ""'
GH( to &'' GH(*
Discovery
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te e/istence o! electromagnetic waves, o! wic microwaves are +art o! te !re#$enc, s+ectr$m, was
+re)icte) %, ;ames Cler< Ma/well in "38= !rom is e#$ations* In "333, Heinric Hert( was te !irst to
)emonstrate te e/istence o! electromagnetic waves %, %$il)ing an a++arat$s tat +ro)$ce) an) )etecte)
microwaves in te >H? region* Te )esign necessaril, $se) orse.an).%$gg, materials, incl$)ing a orse
tro$g, a wro$gt iron +oint s+ar<, Le,)en @ars, an) a lengt o! (inc g$tter wose +ara%olic cross.section
wor<e) as a re!lection antenna* In "3A= ;* C* 7ose +$%licl, )emonstrate) ra)io control o! a %ell $sing
millimetre wavelengts, an) con)$cte) researc into te +ro+agation o! microwaves*
Blot o! te (enit atmos+eric transmission on te s$mmit o! Ma$na Kea tro$go$t te entire gigaert(
range o! te electromagnetic s+ectr$m at a +reci+ita%le water va+or level o! '*''" mm* 1sim$late)4
Frequency range
Te microwave range incl$)es $ltra.ig !re#$enc, 1>H?4 1'*&C& GH(4, s$+er ig !re#$enc, 1SH?4
1&C&' GH(4, an) e/tremel, ig !re#$enc, 1EH?4 1&'C&'' GH(4 signals*
A%ove &'' GH(, te a%sor+tion o! electromagnetic ra)iation %, EartDs atmos+ere is so great tat it is
e!!ectivel, o+a#$e, $ntil te atmos+ere %ecomes trans+arent again in te so.calle) in!rare) an) o+tical
win)ow !re#$enc, ranges*
Microwave Sources
Eac$$m t$%e %ase) )evices o+erate on te %allistic motion o! electrons in a vac$$m $n)er te in!l$ence
o! controlling electric or magnetic !iel)s, an) incl$)e te magnetron, <l,stron, travelling wave t$%e
1T0T4, an) g,rotron* Tese )evices wor< in te )ensit, mo)$late) mo)e, rater tan te c$rrent
mo)$late) mo)e* Tis means tat te, wor< on te %asis o! cl$m+s o! electrons !l,ing %allisticall,
tro$g tem, rater tan $sing a contin$o$s stream*
A maser is a )evice similar to a laser, e/ce+t tat it wor<s at microwave !re#$encies*
Soli).state so$rces incl$)e te !iel).e!!ect transistor, at least at lower !re#$encies, t$nnel )io)es an)
G$nn )io)es
Uses
Communication
7e!ore te a)vent o! !i%er o+tic transmission, most long )istance tele+one calls were carrie)
via microwave +oint.to.+oint lin<s tro$g sites li<e te ATFT Long Lines* Starting in te earl,
"A9'Ds, !re#$enc, )ivision m$lti+le/ was $se) to sen) $+ to 9,='' tele+one cannels on eac
microwave ra)io cannel, wit as man, as ten ra)io cannels com%ine) into one antenna !or te
hop to te ne/t site, $+ to G' <m awa,*
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0ireless LAN +rotocols, s$c as 7l$etoot an) te IEEE 3'H*"" s+eci!ications, also $se
microwaves in te H*= GH( ISM %an), alto$g 3'H*""a $ses ISM %an) an) >.NII !re#$encies
in te 9 GH( range* License) long.range 1$+ to a%o$t H9 <m4 0ireless Internet Access services
can %e !o$n) in man, co$ntries 1%$t not te >SA4 in te &*9C=*' GH( range*
Metro+olitan Area Networ<sI MAN +rotocols, s$c as 0iMAJ 10orl)wi)e Intero+era%ilit, !or
Microwave Access4 %ase) in te IEEE 3'H*"8 s+eci!ication* Te IEEE 3'H*"8 s+eci!ication was
)esigne) to o+erate %etween H to "" GH(* Te commercial im+lementations are in te H*&GH(,
H*9 GH(, &*9 GH( an) 9*3 GH( ranges*
0i)e Area Mo%ile 7roa)%an) 0ireless AccessI M70A +rotocols %ase) on stan)ar)s
s+eci!ications s$c as IEEE 3'H*H' or ATISKANSI HC.S:MA 1e*g* i7$rst4 are )esigne) to
o+erate %etween "*8 an) H*& GH( to give mo%ilit, an) in.%$il)ing +enetration
caracteristics similar to mo%ile +ones %$t wit vastl, greater s+ectral e!!icienc,*
Ca%le TE an) Internet access on coa/ial ca%le as well as %roa)cast television $se some o!
te lower microwave !re#$encies* Some mo%ile +one networ<s, li<e GSM, also $se te
lower microwave !re#$encies*
Microwave ra)io is $se) in %roa)casting an) telecomm$nication transmissions %eca$se, )$e to
teir sort wavelengt, igl, )irective antennas are smaller an) tere!ore more +ractical tan
te, wo$l) %e at longer wavelengts 1lower !re#$encies4* Tere is also more %an)wi)t in te
microwave s+ectr$m tan in te rest o! te ra)io s+ectr$mL te $sa%le %an)wi)t %elow &''
MH( is less tan &'' MH( wile man, GH( can %e $se) a%ove &'' MH(* T,+icall,, microwaves
are $se) in television news to transmit a signal !rom a remote location to a television station
!rom a s+eciall, e#$i++e) van*
Remote Sensing
Ra)ar $ses microwave ra)iation to )etect te range, s+ee), an) oter caracteristics o! remote
o%@ects* :evelo+ment o! ra)ar was accelerate) )$ring 0orl) 0ar II )$e to its great militar,
$tilit,* Now ra)ar is wi)el, $se) !or a++lications s$c as air tra!!ic control, navigation o! si+s,
an) s+ee) limit en!orcement*
A G$nn )io)e oscillator an) waveg$i)e are $se) as a motion )etector !or a$tomatic )oor o+eners
1alto$g tese are %eing re+lace) %, $ltrasonic )evices4*
Most ra)io astronom, $ses microwaves*
Microwave imagingL see Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine
Navigation
Glo%al Navigation Satellite S,stems 1GNSS4 incl$)ing te American Glo%al Bositioning S,stem
1GBS4 an) te R$ssian MNOPQRSTQU VWXYZQ[Y\TTQU ]^_`TYa\XQU ]Yb`cdQ 1GLONASS4
%roa)cast navigational signals in vario$s %an)s %etween a%o$t "*H GH( an) "*8 GH(*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Power
A microwave oven +asses 1non.ioni(ing4 microwave ra)iation 1at a !re#$enc, near H*=9 GH(4
tro$g !oo), ca$sing )ielectric eating %, a%sor+tion o! energ, in te water, !ats an) s$gar
containe) in te !oo)* Microwave ovens %ecame common <itcen a++liances in 0estern
co$ntries in te late "AG's, !ollowing )evelo+ment o! ine/+ensive cavit, magnetrons*
Microwave eating is $se) in in)$strial +rocesses !or )r,ing an) c$ring +ro)$cts*
Man, semicon)$ctor +rocessing tecni#$es $se microwaves to generate +lasma !or s$c
+$r+oses as reactive ion etcing an) +lasma.enance) cemical va+or )e+osition 1BECE:4*
Microwaves can %e $se) to transmit +ower over long )istances, an) +ost.0orl) 0ar II researc
was )one to e/amine +ossi%ilities* NASA wor<e) in te "AG's an) earl, "A3's to researc te
+ossi%ilities o! $sing Solar +ower satellite 1SBS4 s,stems wit large solar arra,s tat wo$l) %eam
+ower )own to te EartDs s$r!ace via microwaves*
Less.tan.letal wea+onr, e/ists tat $ses millimeter waves to eat a tin la,er o! $man s<in to
an intolera%le tem+erat$re so as to ma<e te targete) +erson move awa,* A two.secon) %$rst o!
te A9 GH( !oc$se) %eam eats te s<in to a tem+erat$re o! "&' ? 19= C4 at a )e+t o! "K8=t o!
an inc 1'*= mm4* Te >nite) States Air ?orce an) Marines are c$rrentl, $sing tis t,+e o!
Active :enial S,stem*
5H6

Microwave frequency an!s
Te microwave s+ectr$m is $s$all, )e!ine) as electromagnetic energ, ranging !rom a++ro/imatel,
" GH( to "''' GH( in !re#$enc,, %$t ol)er $sage incl$)es lower !re#$encies* Most common
a++lications are witin te " to =' GH( range* Microwave !re#$enc, %an)s, as )e!ine) %, te
Ra)io Societ, o! Great 7ritain 1RSG74, are sown in te ta%le %elowI
Microwave !re#$enc, %an)s
Designation Frequency range
L %an) " to H GH(
S %an) H to = GH(
C %an) = to 3 GH(
J %an) 3 to "H GH(
K
$
%an) "H to "3 GH(
K %an) "3 to H8*9 GH(
K
a
%an) H8*9 to =' GH(
e %an) &' to 9' GH(
> %an) =' to 8' GH(
E %an) 9' to G9 GH(
E %an) 8' to A' GH(
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0 %an) G9 to ""' GH(
? %an) A' to "=' GH(
: %an) ""' to "G' GH( 1Hot4
Te term B %an) is sometimes $se) !or K$ 7an)* ?or oter )e!initions see Letter :esignations o!
Microwave 7an)s
"ea#t$ effects
Microwaves contain ins$!!icient energ, to )irectl, cemicall, cange s$%stances %, ioni(ation, an) so
are an e/am+le o! nonioni(ing ra)iation* Te wor) -ra)iation- re!ers to te !act tat energ, can
ra)iate, an) not to te )i!!erent nat$re an) e!!ects o! )i!!erent <in)s o! energ,* S+eci!icall,, te term in
tis conte/t is not to %e con!$se) wit ra)ioactivit,*
A great n$m%er o! st$)ies ave %een $n)erta<en in te last two )eca)es, most concl$)ing te, are sa!e*
It is $n)erstoo) tat microwave ra)iation at a level tat ca$ses eating o! living tiss$e is a(ar)o$s 1)$e
to te +ossi%ilit, o! overeating an) %$rns4 an) most co$ntries ave stan)ar)s limiting e/+os$re, s$c
as te ?e)eral Comm$nications Commission R? sa!et, reg$lations*
S,ntetic reviews o! literat$re in)icate te +re)ominance o! teir sa!et, o! $se*
"istory an! researc$
Bera+s te !irst, )oc$mente), !ormal $se o! te term microwave occ$rre) in "A&"I
-0en trials wit wavelengts as low as "3 cm were ma)e <nown, tere was $n)isg$ise)
s$r+rise tat te +ro%lem o! te micro.wave a) %een solve) so soon*- Telegraph & Telephone
Journal JEII* "GAK"
Bera+s te !irst $se o! te wor) microwave in an astronomical conte/t occ$rre) in "A=8 in an
article -Microwave Ra)iation !rom te S$n an) Moon- %, Ro%ert :ic<e an) Ro%ert 7eringer*
Scattering %arameters
-Scattering- is an i)ea ta<en !rom %illiar)s, or +ool* One ta<es a c$e %all an) !ires it $+ te ta%le at a
collection o! oter %alls* A!ter te im+act, te energ, an) moment$m in te c$e %all is )ivi)e) %etween
all te %alls involve) in te im+act* Te c$e %all -scatters- te stationar, target %alls an) in t$rn is
)e!lecte) or -scattere)- %, tem*
In a microwave circ$it, te e#$ivalent to te energ, an) moment$m o! te c$e %all is te am+lit$)e an)
+ase o! te incoming wave on a transmission line* 1A rater loose analog,, tis4* Tis incoming wave is
-scattere)- %, te circ$it an) its energ, is +artitione) %etween all te +ossi%le o$tgoing waves on all te
oter transmission lines connecte) to te circ$it* Te scattering +arameters are !i/e) +ro+erties o! te
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
1linear4 circ$it wic )escri%e ow te energ, co$+les %etween eac +air o! +orts or transmission lines
connecte) to te circ$it*
?ormall,, s.+arameters can %e )e!ine) !or an, collection o! linear electronic com+onents, weter or not
te wave view o! te +ower !low in te circ$it is necessar,* Te, are alge%raicall, relate) to te
im+e)ance +arameters 1(.+arameters4, also to te a)mittance +arameters 1,.+arameters4 an) to a
notional caracteristic im+e)ance o! te transmission lines*
A vis$al )emonstration o! te meaning o! scattering ma, %e given %, trowing a +iece o! cal< at a
%lac<%oar)****
Definitions&
An n.+ort microwave networ< as n arms into wic +ower can %e !e) an) !rom wic +ower can %e
ta<en* In general, +ower can get !rom an, arm 1as in+$t4 to an, oter arm 1as o$t+$t4* Tere are t$s n
incoming waves an) n o$tgoing waves* 0e also o%serve tat +ower can %e re!lecte) %, a +ort, so te in+$t
+ower to a single +ort can +artition %etween all te +orts o! te networ< to !orm o$tgoing waves*
Associate) wit eac +ort is te notion o! a -re!erence +lane- at wic te wave am+lit$)e an) +ase is
)e!ine)* >s$all, te re!erence +lane associate) wit a certain +ort is at te same +lace wit res+ect to
incoming an) o$tgoing waves*
Te n incoming wave com+le/ am+lit$)es are $s$all, )esignate) %, te n com+le/ #$antities an, an)
te n o$tgoing wave com+le/ #$antities are )esignate) %, te n com+le/ #$antities %n* Te incoming
wave #$antities are assem%le) into an n.vector A an) te o$tgoing wave #$antities into an n.vector 7*
Te o$tgoing waves are e/+resse) in terms o! te incoming waves %, te matri/ e#$ation 7 f SA were
S is an n %, n s#$are matri/ o! com+le/ n$m%ers calle) te -scattering matri/-* It com+letel,
)etermines te %eavio$r o! te networ<* In general, te elements o! tis matri/, wic are terme) -s.
+arameters-, are all !re#$enc,.)e+en)ent*
For example, the matrix equations for a 2-port are
b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a2
b2 = s21 a1 + s22 a2
And the matrix equations for a 3-port are
b1 = s11 a1 + s12 a2 + s13 a3
b2 = s21 a1 + s22 a2 + s23 a3
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
b3 = s31 a1 + s32 a2 + s33 a3
Te wave am+lit$)es an an) %n are o%taine) !rom te +ort c$rrent an) voltages %, te relations a f 1E
g hoI4K1H s#rt1Hho44 an) % f 1E . hoI4K1H s#rt1Hho44* Here, a re!ers to an i! E is En an) I In !or te nt
+ort* Note te s#rt1H4 re)$ces te +ea< val$e to an rms val$e, an) te s#rt1ho4 ma<es te am+lit$)e
normalise) wit res+ect to +ower, so tat te incoming +ower f aai an) te o$tgoing +ower is %%i*
A one.+ort scattering +arameter s is merel, te re!lection coe!!icient gamma, an) as we ave seen we
can relate gamma to te loa) im+e)ance (L f hLKho %, te !orm$la gamma f 1(L."4K1(Lg"4*
Similarl,, given an n %, n -h.matri/- !or an n.+ort networ<, we o%tain te S matri/ !rom te !orm$la S
f 1h.I41hgI4j.", %, +ost.m$lti+l,ing te matri/ 1h.I4 %, te inverse o! te matri/ 1hgI4* Here, I is te n
%, n $nit matri/* Te matri/ o! ( +arameters 1wic as n s#$are) elements4 is te inverse o! te
matri/ o! , +arameters*
'(%ort scattering matri)&
In te case o! a microwave networ< aving two +orts onl,, an in+$t an) an o$t+$t, te s.matri/ as !o$r
s.+arameters, )esignate)
s11 s12
s21 s22
Tese !o$r com+le/ #$antites act$all, contain eigt se+arate n$m%ersL te real an) imaginar, +arts,
or te mo)$l$s an) te +ase angle, o! eac o! te !o$r com+le/ scattering +arameters*
Let $s consi)er te +,sical meaning o! tese s.+arameters* I! te o$t+$t +ort H is terminate), tat is, te
transmission line is connecte) to a matce) loa) im+e)ance giving rise to no re!lections, ten tere is
no in+$t wave on +ort H* Te in+$t wave on +ort " 1a"4 gives rise to a re!lecte) wave at +ort " 1s""a"4
an) a transmitte) wave at +ort H wic is a%sor%e) in te termination on H* Te transmitte) wave si(e is
1sH"a"4*
I! te networ< as no loss an) no gain, te o$t+$t +ower m$st e#$al te in+$t +ower an) so in tis
case ks""kjH g ksH"kjH m$st e#$al $nit,*
0e see tere!ore tat te si(es o! S"" an) SH" )etermine ow te in+$t +ower s+lits %etween te
+ossi%le o$t+$t +ats*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
NOTE sH" relates +ower O>T o! H to +ower IN to ", not vice versa as it is eas, to tin< at !irst sigt*
Clearl,, i! o$r H.+ort microwave networ< re+resents a goo) am+li!ier, we nee) s"" rater small an) sH"
#$ite %ig, let $s sa, "' !or a H')7 am+li!ier*
In general, te s.+arameters tell $s ow m$c +ower -comes %ac<- or -comes o$t- wen we
-trow +ower at- a networ<* Te, also contain +ase si!t in!ormation*
Reci%rocity
Reci+rocit, as to )o wit te s,mmetr, o! te s.matri/* A reci+rocal s.matri/ as s,mmetr, a%o$t te
lea)ing )iagonal* Man, networ<s are reci+rocal* In te case o! a H.+ort networ<, tat means tat sH" f
s"H an) intercanging te in+$t an) o$t+$t +orts )oes not cange te transmission +ro+erties* A
transmission line section is an e/am+le o! a reci+rocal H.+ort* A )$al )irectional co$+ler is an e/am+le
o! a reci+rocal =.+ort* In general !or a reci+rocal n.+ort si@ f s@i*
Am+li!iers are non.reci+rocalL te, ave to %e, oterwise te, wo$l) %e $nsta%le* ?errite )evices are
)eli%eratel, non.reci+rocalL te, are $se) to constr$ct isolators, +ase si!ters, circ$lators, an)
+ower com%iners*
*)am%#es of scattering matrices&
One(%ort S(matri)
Tis is a matri/ consisting o! a single element, te scattering +arameter or re!lection coe!!icient* Yo$
ma, tin< o! it as a " %, " matri/L one row an) one col$mn*
A matce) transmission line, s"" f '
A sort circ$it, at te sort, s"" f " angle ."3' )egrees
Te in+$t to a '*H lam%)a line !ee)ing a sort cic$it, s"" f " angle .&H= )egrees
Yo$r t$rn* A normalise) loa) Hg@"l
Yo$r t$rn again* Te in+$t to a transmission line o! lengt H'*&9 lam%)a connecte) to a
normalise) loa) Hg@"l
Two %ort S(matrices
Tese are H %, H matrices aving te !ollowing s +arametersL s"" s"H sH" sHH*
A '*" lam%)a lengt o! transmission line
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
s11 = 0 s12 = 1 angle -36 degrees
s21 = 1 angle -36 s22 = 0
A "')7 am+li!ier, matce) on in+$t an) o$+$t +orts
s11 = 0 s12 = small
s21 = 316 angle -theta s22 = 0
An isolator aving ")7 !orwar) loss, H" )7 %ac<war) loss, matce) on +orts " an) H
s11 = 0 s12 = 00!"1 some angle
s21 = 0!"1 some angle s22 = 0

Yo$r t$rn* A A cm lengt o! waveg$i)e o! cross sectional )imensions H*9 cms %, "*3 cms at a
!re#$enc, o! 3GH(
Yo$r t$rn again* Te waveg$i)e a%ove as a ca+acitative iris +lace) mi) wa, along it* Ass$me
tat &'m o! te +ower inci)ent on te iris gets tro$g it, an) G'm is re!lecte)* Hint* re+resent
te normalise) loa) a)mittance o! te iris as , f " g @s an) calc$late s !or G'm +ower
re!lection* Tat will give ,o$ te +ase si!t on re!lection as well*
T$ree %ort S(matrices
Tese are & %, & matrices aving te !ollowing s +arameters
s11 s12 s13
s21 s22 s23
s31 s32 s33
Yo$r t$rn* 0rite )own te s matri/ !or a +er!ect circ$lator wit .G' )egrees o! +ase si!ts
%etween s$ccessive +orts*
Yo$r t$rn again* A coa/ial ca%le is connecte) in a Y arrangement wit eac arm "H*&
wavelengts long* At te @$nction, te ca%le arms are all connecte) in +arallel* 0rite )own its S matri/
an) comment on tis meto) o! s+litting +ower !rom a TE )own lea) to serve two television sets*
Stai#ity&
I! a ".+ort networ< as re!lection gain, its s.+arameter as si(e or mo)$l$s greater tan $nit,* More
+ower is re!lecte) tan is inci)ent* Te +ower $s$all, comes !rom a )c +ower s$++l,L G$nn )io)es can
%e $se) as am+li!iers in com%ination wit circ$lators wic se+arate te incoming an) o$tgoing waves*
S$++ose te re!lection gain !rom o$r ".+ort is s"", aving mo)$l$s %igger tan $nit,* I! te ".+ort is
connecte) to a transmission line wit a loa) im+e)ance aving re!lection coe!!icient g", ten
oscillations ma, well occ$r i! g"s"" is %igger tan $nit,* Te ro$n) tri+ gain m$st %e $nit, or greater at
an integer n$m%er o! 1H +i4 ra)ians +ase si!t along te +at* Tis is calle) te -7ar<a$sen criterion-
!or oscillations* Clearl, i! we ave a G$nn so$rce matce) to a matce) transmission line, no
oscillations will occ$r %eca$se g" will %e (ero*
I! an am+li!ier as eiter s"" or sHH greater tan $nit, ten it is #$ite li<el, to oscillate or go $nsta%le
!or some val$es o! so$rce or loa) im+e)ance* I! an am+li!ier 1large sH"4 as s"H wic is not negligi%l,
small, an) i! te o$t+$t an) in+$t are mismatce), ro$n) tri+ gain ma, %e greater tan $nit, giving rise
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
to oscillation* I! te in+$t line as a generator mismatc wit re!lection coe!!icient g", an) te
loa) im+e)ance on +ort H is mismatce) wit re!lection coe!!icient gH, +otential insta%ilit,
a++ens i! g"gHs"HsH" is greater tan $nit,*
Microwave "yri! Circuits+ ,avegui!e Tees+ Magic Tees -"yri! Trees.
"/0RID RIN1S -R2T(R2C* CIRCUITS.
A++lications o! rat.race co$+lers are n$mero$s, an) incl$)e mi/ers an) +ase si!ters* Te rat.
race gets its name !rom its circ$lar sa+e, sown %elow* Te circ$m!erence is "*9 wavelengts* ?or an
e#$al.s+lit rat.race co$+ler, te im+e)ance o! te entire ring is !i/e) at "*="/h
'
, or G'*G oms !or a 9'
om s,stem* ?or an in+$t signal E
in
, te o$t+$ts at +orts H an) = 1tan<s, Tomn4 are e#$al in magnit$)e,
%$t "3' )egrees o$t o! +ase*
Rat.race co$+ler 1e#$al +ower s+lit4
Te co$+ling o! te two arms is sown in te !ig$re %elow, !or an i)eal rat.race co$+ler centere) at "'
GH( 1"',''' MH(4* An e#$al +ower s+lit o! & )7 occ$rs at onl, te center !re#$enc,* Te ".)7
%an)wi)t o! te co$+le) +ort 1S="4 is sown %, te mar<ers to %e &G8' MH(, or &G*8 +ercent*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Bower s+lit o! i)eal rat.race co$+ler
Te gra+ %elow ill$strates te im+e)ance matc o! te same i)eal rat.race co$+ler, at +orts " an) =* 7,
s,mmetr,, te im+e)ance matc at +ort & is te same as at +ort " 1S""fS&&4* ?or %etter tan H*'I"
ES0R 1"= )7 ret$rn loss4, a %an)wi)t o! =H3' MH( 1=H*3m4 is o%taine)*
Im+e)ance matc o! i)eal rat.race co$+ler
Te ne/t gra+ sows te isolation %etween +ort " an) +ort & 1S&"4* In te i)eal case, it is in!inite at
te center !re#$enc,* Te %an)wi)t over wic greater tan H' )7 isolation is o%taine) is &"=' MH(,
or &"*=m*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Isolation o! i)eal rat.race co$+ler
7elow te +ase )i!!erence %etween arms H an) = is +lotte)* At te center !re#$enc,* a +er!ect "3'
)egree )i!!erence is o%serve)* Te %an)wi)t tat %etter tan gK. "' )egrees is maintaine) is &H'' MH(,
or &Hm*
Unequa#(s%#it rat(race cou%#ers
In or)er to +rovi)e an $ne#$al s+lit, te im+e)ances o! te !o$r arms are varie) in +airs, as
sown %elow*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
>ne#$al.s+lit rat.race +ower )ivi)er
E#$ations !or te h
'A
an) h
'7
line im+e)ances, as a !$nction o! te +ower s+lit BAKB7, are given %elowI
h
'A
an) h
'7
are gra+e) %elow vers$s te +ower s+lit e/+ress in )7 1co$+ling ratio4 !or a 9'.
'm s,stem* Clic< ere !or in!o on ow to think in )7*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te gra+ %elow sows te !re#$enc, res+onse !or a rat.race co$+ler were BAKB7f'*H9* Tis
corres+on)s to a 9'.om +ower )ivi)er were te +ower o$t o! +ort H 1B
A
4 is si/ )7 %elow te +ower o$t
o! +ort = 1B
7
4* Solving te a%ove e#$ations !or te line im+e)ances ,iel)s h
'A
f"""*8 oms, an)
h
'7
f99*A oms* Note tat in man, real.li!e cases, tis co$+ler ma, +rove im+ractical %eca$se a line
im+e)ance as ig as """*8 oms ma, %e )i!!ic$lt to acc$ratel, acieve in a 9'.om s,stem*
>ne#$al.s+lit rat.race !re#$enc, res+onse, BAKB7f'*H9
Te gra+ %elow sows te !re#$enc, res+onse !or a rat.race co$+ler were BAKB7f=*'* Tis corres+on)s
to a +ower )ivi)er were te +ower o$t o! +ort H 1B
A
4is si/ )7 iger tan te +ower o$t o!
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
+ort = 1B
7
4* Te line im+e)ances are o++osite to te case were BAKB7f'*H9L ere h
'A
f99*A oms,
an) h
'7
f """*8 oms*
>ne#$al.s+lit rat.race !re#$enc, res+onse, BAKB7f=*'
Power dividers and directional couplers
Power !ivi!ers an! !irectiona# cou%#ers are +assive )evices $se) in te !iel) o! ra)io tecnolog,*
Te, co$+le +art o! te transmission +ower in a transmission line %, a <nown amo$nt o$t tro$g
anoter +ort, o!ten %, $sing two transmission lines set close eno$g togeter s$c tat energ, +assing
tro$g one is co$+le) to te oter* As sown in ?ig$re ", te )evice as !o$r +ortsI in+$t, transmitte),
co$+le), an) isolate)* Te term -main line- re!ers to te section %etween +orts " an) H* On some
)irectional co$+lers, te main line is )esigne) !or ig +ower o+eration 1large connectors4, wile te
co$+le) +ort ma, $se a small SMA connector* O!ten te isolate) +ort is terminate) wit an internal or
e/ternal matce) loa) 1t,+icall, 9' oms4* It so$l) %e +ointe) o$t tat since te )irectional co$+ler is a
linear )evice, te notations on ?ig$re " are ar%itrar,* An, +ort can %e te in+$t, 1as in ?ig$re &4 wic
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
will res$lt in te )irectl, connecte) +ort %eing te transmitte) +ort, te a)@acent +ort %eing te
co$+le) +ort, an) te )iagonal +ort %eing te isolate) +ort*
B,sical consi)erations s$c as internal loa) on te isolate) +ort will limit +ort o+eration* Te co$+le)
o$t+$t !rom te )irectional co$+ler can %e $se) to o%tain te in!ormation 1i*e*, !re#$enc, an) +ower
level4 on te signal wito$t interr$+ting te main +ower !low in te s,stem 1e/ce+t !or a +ower
re)$ction . see ?ig$re H4* 0en te +ower co$+le) o$t to +ort tree is al! te in+$t +ower 1i*e* & )7
%elow te in+$t +ower level4, te +ower on te main transmission line is also & )7 %elow te in+$t
+ower an) e#$als te co$+le) +ower* S$c a co$+ler is re!erre) to as a A' )egree ,%ri), ,%ri), or & )7
co$+ler* Te !re#$enc, range !or coa/ial co$+lers s+eci!ie) %, man$!act$rers is tat o! te co$+ling
arm* Te main arm res+onse is m$c wi)er 1i*e* i! te s+ec is H.= GH(, te main arm co$l) o+erate at "
or 9 GH( . see ?ig$re &4* However it so$l) %e recogni(e) tat te co$+le) res+onse is +erio)ic wit
!re#$enc,* ?or e/am+le, a oK= co$+le) line co$+ler will ave res+onses at noK= were n is an o))
integer*
Common +ro+erties )esire) !or all )irectional co$+lers are wi)e o+erational %an)wi)t, ig )irectivit,,
an) a goo) im+e)ance matc at all +orts wen te oter +orts are terminate) in matce) loa)s* Tese
+er!ormance caracteristics o! ,%ri) or non.,%ri) )irectional co$+lers are sel!.e/+lanator,* Some
oter general caracteristics will %e )isc$sse) %elow*
Cou%#ing factor
Te co$+ling !actor is )e!ine) asI
were B
"
is te in+$t +ower at +ort " an) B
&
is te o$t+$t +ower !rom te co$+le) +ort 1see ?ig$re "4
Te co$+ling !actor re+resents te +rimar, +ro+ert, o! a )irectional co$+ler* Co$+ling is not constant,
%$t varies wit !re#$enc,* 0ile )i!!erent )esigns ma, re)$ce te variance, a +er!ectl, !lat co$+ler
teoreticall, cannot %e %$ilt* :irectional co$+lers are s+eci!ie) in terms o! te co$+ling acc$rac, at te
!re#$enc, %an) center* ?or e/am+le, a "' )7 co$+ling gK. '*9 )7 means tat te )irectional co$+ler can
ave A*9 )7 to "'*9 )7 co$+ling at te !re#$enc, %an) center* Te acc$rac, is )$e to )imensional
tolerances tat can %e el) !or te s+acing o! te two co$+le) lines* Anoter co$+ling s+eci!ication is
!re#$enc, sensitivit,* A larger !re#$enc, sensitivit, will allow a larger !re#$enc, %an) o! o+eration*
M$lti+le #$arter.wavelengt co$+ling sections are $se) to o%tain wi)e !re#$enc, %an)wi)t )irectional
co$+lers* T,+icall, tis t,+e o! )irectional co$+ler is )esigne) to a !re#$enc, %an)wi)t ratio an) a
ma/im$m co$+ling ri++le witin te !re#$enc, %an)* ?or e/am+le a t,+ical HI" !re#$enc, %an)wi)t
co$+ler )esign tat +ro)$ces a "' )7 co$+ling wit a gK. '*" )7 ri++le wo$l), $sing te +revio$s
acc$rac, s+eci!ication, %e sai) to ave A*8 gK. '*" )7 to "'*= gK. '*" )7 o! co$+ling across te !re#$enc,
range*
3oss
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
In an i)eal )irectional co$+ler, te main line loss !rom +ort " to +ort H 1B
"
. B
H
4 )$e to +ower co$+le)
to te co$+le) o$t+$t +ort isI
Te act$al )irectional co$+ler loss will %e a com%ination o! co$+ling loss, )ielectric loss, con)$ctor
loss, an) ES0R loss* :e+en)ing on te !re#$enc, range, co$+ling loss %ecomes less signi!icant a%ove
"9 )7 co$+ling were te oter losses constit$te te ma@orit, o! te total loss* A gra+ o! te teoretical
insertion loss 1)74 vs co$+ling 1)74 !or a )issi+ationless co$+ler is sown in ?ig$re H*
Iso#ation
Isolation o! a )irectional co$+ler can %e )e!ine) as te )i!!erence in signal levels in )7 %etween
te in+$t +ort an) te isolate) +ort wen te two oter +orts are terminate) %, matce) loa)s, orI
Isolation can also %e )e!ine) %etween te two o$t+$t +orts* In tis case, one o! te o$t+$t +orts is $se)
as te in+$tL te oter is consi)ere) te o$t+$t +ort wile te oter two +orts 1in+$t an) isolate)4 are
terminate) %, matce) loa)s*
Conse#$entl,I
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te isolation %etween te in+$t an) te isolate) +orts ma, %e )i!!erent !rom te isolation %etween
te two o$t+$t +orts* ?or e/am+le, te isolation %etween +orts " an) = can %e &' )7 wile te
isolation %etween +orts H an) & can %e a )i!!erent val$e s$c as H9 )7* I! %ot isolation
meas$rements are not availa%le, te, can %e ass$me) to %e e#$al* I! neiter are availa%le, an estimate
o! te isolation is te co$+ling +l$s ret$rn loss 1Stan)ing wave ratio4* Te isolation so$l) %e as ig
as +ossi%le* In act$al co$+lers te isolate) +ort is never com+letel, isolate)* Some R? +ower will
alwa,s %e +resent* 0aveg$i)e )irectional co$+lers will ave te %est isolation*
I! isolation is ig, )irectional co$+lers are e/cellent !or com%ining signals to !ee) a single line to a
receiver !or two.tone receiver tests* In ?ig$re &, one signal enters +ort B
&
an) one enters +ort B
H
, wile
%ot e/it +ort B
"
* Te signal !rom +ort B
&
to +ort B
"
will e/+erience "' )7 o! loss, an) te signal !rom
+ort B
H
to +ort B
"
will ave '*9 )7 loss* Te internal loa) on te isolate) +ort will )issi+ate te signal
losses !rom +ort B
&
an) +ort B
H
* I! te isolators in ?ig$re & are neglecte), te isolation meas$rement
1+ort B
H
to +ort B
&
4 )etermines te amo$nt o! +ower !rom te signal generator ?
H
tat will %e in@ecte)
into te signal generator ?
"
* As te in@ection level increases, it ma, ca$se mo)$lation o! signal generator
?
"
, or even in@ection +ase loc<ing* 7eca$se o! te s,mmetr, o! te )irectional co$+ler, te reverse
in@ection will a++en wit te same +ossi%le mo)$lation +ro%lems o! signal generator ?
H
%, ?
"
*
Tere!ore te isolators are $se) in ?ig$re & to e!!ectivel, increase te isolation 1or )irectivit,4 o! te
)irectional co$+ler* Conse#$entl, te in@ection loss will %e te isolation o! te )irectional co$+ler +l$s
te reverse isolation o! te isolator*
Directivity
:irectivit, is )irectl, relate) to isolation* It is )e!ine) asI
wereI B
&
is te o$t+$t +ower !rom te co$+le) +ort an) B
=
is
te +ower o$t+$t !rom te isolate) +ort*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te )irectivit, so$l) %e as ig as +ossi%le* 0aveg$i)e )irectional co$+lers will ave te %est
)irectivit,* :irectivit, is not )irectl, meas$ra%le, an) is calc$late) !rom te isolation an) co$+ling
meas$rements asI
Directivity -!0. 4 Iso#ation -!0. ( Cou%#ing -!0.
"yri!s
Te ,%ri) co$+ler, or & )7 )irectional co$+ler, in wic te two o$t+$ts are o! e#$al am+lit$)e ta<es
man, !orms* Not too long ago te #$a)rat$re 1A' )egree4 & )7 co$+ler wit o$t+$ts A' )egrees o$t o!
+ase was wat came to min) wen a ,%ri) co$+ler was mentione)* Now an, matce) =.+ort wit
isolate) arms an) e#$al +ower )ivision is calle) a ,%ri) or ,%ri) co$+ler* To)a, te caracteri(ing
!eat$re is te +ase )i!!erence o! te o$t+$ts* I! A' )egrees, it is a A' )egree ,%ri)* I! "3' )egrees, it is
a "3' )egree ,%ri)* Even te 0il<inson +ower )ivi)er wic as ' )egrees +ase )i!!erence is act$all,
a ,%ri) alto$g te !o$rt arm is normall, im%e))e)*
A++lications o! te ,%ri) incl$)e mono+$lse com+arators, mi/ers, +ower com%iners, )ivi)ers,
mo)$lators, an) +ase) arra, ra)ar antenna s,stems*
2m%#itu!e a#ance
Tis terminolog, )e!ines te +ower )i!!erence in )7 %etween te two o$t+$t +orts o! a & )7 ,%ri)* In
an i)eal ,%ri) circ$it, te )i!!erence so$l) %e ' )7* However, in a +ractical )evice te am+lit$)e
%alance is !re#$enc, )e+en)ent an) )e+arts !rom te i)eal ' )7 )i!!erence*
P$ase a#ance
Te +ase )i!!erence %etween te two o$t+$t +orts o! a ,%ri) co$+ler so$l) %e ', A', or "3'
)egrees )e+en)ing on te t,+e $se)* However, li<e am+lit$)e %alance, te +ase )i!!erence is
sensitive to te in+$t !re#$enc, an) t,+icall, will var, a !ew )egrees*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te +ase +ro+erties o! a A' )egree ,%ri) co$+ler can %e $se) to great a)vantage in microwave
circ$its* ?or e/am+le in a %alance) microwave am+li!ier te two in+$t stages are !e) tro$g a ,%ri)
co$+ler* Te ?ET )evice normall, as a ver, +oor matc an) re!lects m$c o! te inci)ent energ,*
However, since te )evices are essentiall, i)entical te re!lection coe!!icients !rom eac )evice are
e#$al* Te re!lecte) voltage !rom te ?ETs are in +ase at te isolate) +ort an) are "3' )egrees )i!!erent
at te in+$t +ort* Tere!ore, all o! te re!lecte) +ower !rom te ?ETs goes to te loa) at te isolate) +ort
an) no +ower goes to te in+$t +ort* Tis res$lts in a goo) in+$t matc 1low ES0R4*
I! +ase matce) lines are $se) !or an antenna in+$t to a "3'p ,%ri) co$+ler as sown in ?ig$re =, a
n$ll will occ$r )irectl, %etween te antennas* I! ,o$ want to receive a signal in tat +osition, ,o$ wo$l)
ave to eiter cange te ,%ri) t,+e or line lengt* I! ,o$ want to re@ect a signal !rom a given
)irection, or create te )i!!erence +attern !or a mono+$lse ra)ar, tis is a goo) a++roac*
Ot$er %ower !ivi!ers
7ot in.+ase 10il<inson4 an) #$a)rat$re 1A'p4 ,%ri) co$+lers ma, %e $se) !or coerent +ower )ivi)er
a++lications* Te 0il<inson +ower )ivi)er as low ES0R at all +orts an) ig isolation %etween o$t+$t
+orts* Te in+$t an) o$t+$t im+e)ances at eac +ort are )esigne) to %e e#$al to te caracteristic
im+e)ance o! te microwave s,stem*
A t,+ical +ower )ivi)er is sown in ?ig$re 9* I)eall,, in+$t +ower wo$l) %e )ivi)e) e#$all, %etween te
o$t+$t +orts* :ivi)ers are ma)e $+ o! m$lti+le co$+lers an), li<e co$+lers, ma, %e reverse) an) $se) as
m$lti+le/ers* Te )raw%ac< is tat !or a !o$r cannel m$lti+le/er, te o$t+$t consists o! onl, "K= te
+ower !rom eac, an) is relativel, ine!!icient* Lossless m$lti+le/ing can onl, %e )one wit !ilter
networ<s*
Coerent +ower )ivision was !irst accom+lise) %, means o! sim+le Tee @$nctions* At microwave
!re#$encies, waveg$i)e tees ave two +ossi%le !orms . te H.Blane or te E.Blane* Tese two @$nctions
s+lit +ower e#$all,, %$t %eca$se o! te )i!!erent !iel) con!ig$rations at te @$nction, te electric !iel)s at
te o$t+$t arms are in.+ase !or te H.Blane tee an) are anti.+ase !or te E.Blane tee* Te com%ination
o! tese two tees to !orm a ,%ri) tee allowe) te reali(ation o! a !o$r.+ort com+onent wic co$l)
+er!orm te vector s$m 1q4 an) )i!!erence 1r4 o! two coerent microwave signals* Tis )evice is <nown
as te magic tee*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
3ow frequency !irectiona# cou%#ers
?or lower !re#$encies a com+act %roa)%an) im+lementation %, means o! $ni)irectional co$+lers
1trans!ormers4 is +ossi%le* In te !ig$re a circ$it is sown wic is meant !or wea< co$+ling an) can %e
$n)erstoo) along tese linesI A signal is coming in one line +air* One trans!ormer re)$ces te voltage o!
te signal te oter re)$ces te c$rrent* Tere!ore te im+e)ance is matce)* Te same arg$ment ol)s
!or ever, oter )irection o! a signal tro$g te co$+ler* Te relative sign o! te in)$ce) voltage an)
c$rrent )etermines te )irection o! te o$tgoing signal*
?or a & )7 co$+ling, tat is e#$al s+litting o! te signal, anoter view migt %e more a++ro+riateI Two
o! te line +airs are com%ine) into a +ol,+ase line* A +ol,+asestrans!ormer can %e $se) to re)istri%$te
te signal onto a set o! =9p rotate) LINES*
LANGE CO>BLER
?or a given in+$t on a Lange co$+ler 1or oter t,+es o! #$a)rat$re co$+lers !or tat matter4, te
tree o$t+$t +orts can %e )enote)
isolate) +ort
tro$g +ort
co$+le) +ort 1.A' )egree transmission angle com+are) to tro$g +ort4
Re!erring to te si/ !inger Lange %elow, i! te %ottom le!t +ort is te in+$t, te to+ le!t is te -co$+le)-
+ort, te to+ rigt is te -tro$g- +ort an) te %ottom rigt is te -isolate)- +ort* Yo$ can !in) te
-tro$g- +ort easil, in a Lange %eca$se it as a :C connection to te in+$t* Te isolate) +ort is on
te same si)e o! te co$+ler as te in+$t !or a normal Lange* More a%o$t a%normal Langes latern
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te +,sical lengt o! a Lange co$+ler is a++ro/imatel, e#$al to one #$arter.wavelengt at te center
!re#$enc, on te ost s$%strate* Te com%ine) wi)t o! te stri+s is com+ara%le to te wi)t o! a h
'

1!i!t,.om4 line on te ost s$%strate*
Mo!e#ing a 3ange cou%#er
All mo)ern CA: +rograms !or linear sim$lation o! microwave circ$its ave te ca+a%ilit, to mo)el a
Lange co$+ler* Here we will sow ,o$ an e/am+le $sing AgilentDs A:S* Te mo)el is sown %elowI we
ave cosen to %$il) o$r Lange on "9 mil al$mina* 7eca$se te lengt o! te Lange is "'' mils, wic
wor<s o$t to a #$arter wavelengt at "H GH(, tat is te center !re#$enc,* 0e +la,e) aro$n) wit te
stri+ wi)t an) ga+s $ntil we acieve) e/actl, & )7 co$+ling at te center* 0i)ts an) ga+s o! "*H9 mils
are consi)ere) )oa%le in a goo) tin.!ilm so+*
7elow is te res+onse +re)icte) %, A:S* ?or a signal in+$t at +ort ", we see a tree.)7 s+lit at +orts H
an) &* Te isolate) +ort gets a signal tat is )own %, more tan H9 )7*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
One more im+ortant +lot is te +ase )i!!erence %etween te o$t+$t +orts* Here is one o! te ma@or
attractions to te Lange co$+ler, ,o$ wonDt see s$c a %ea$ti!$l #$a)rat$re res+onse on a %rancline
co$+lern
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Now letDs +la, aro$n) wit te ga+ )imension* 7elow are two res+onse, te !irst one te ga+ as
%een increase) to "*9 mils* Notice te co$+le) +ort receives less +ower tan te tro$g +ort* Tis
co$+ler wo$l) %e calle) -$n)er.co$+le)-*
Te ne/t !ig$re sows wat a++ens wen te ga+ )imension is re)$ce) to "*' mils* Now we see an
-over.co$+le)- res+onse* Tis is o!ten te most )esira%le case, es+eciall, wen ,o$r a++lication is
wi)e %an)* Te -co$+ling error-, )e!ine) as te )i!!erence in magnit$)e %etween te two o$t+$t +orts,
is less tan "*' )7 !rom 3 to "8 GH(, an octave o! %an)wi)t* Re!erring to te !irst case were e/actl,
& )7 was acieve) at "H GH(, te co$+ling error o! " )7 is onl, maintaine) !rom A to "9 GH(*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
3imitations of 3ange cou%#ers
Lange co$+lers ave %een $se) !rom >H? to e.%an), +era+s iger* 7$t as ,o$ go $+ in !re#$enc,,
,o$Dll nee) to re)$ce ,o$r s$%strate eigt to get microstri+ to %eave 1see microstri+ eigt r$le o!
t$m%4* Re)$ce) eigt means re)$ce) stri+ wi)t, wic is te $ltimate limitation* At some +oint te
stri+s get so narrow tat even i! te, )onDt !ail ,o$r )esign r$les, te, will start to %ecome loss,
%eca$se tere @$st isnDt m$c metal to +rovi)e a con)$ctor*
Langes on al$mina are $s$all, restricte) to a++lications were te s$%strate is "9 mils or tic<erL tis
means ,o$Dll see al$mina Langes o+erate no iger tan H9 GH(* I! ,o$ attem+te) to ma<e a Lange
on "'.mil al$mina, te stri+ wi)ts wo$l) nee) to %e less tan " mil 1H9 microns4*
In MMIC a++lications, Langes can %e ma)e on =.mil s$%strates, %$t it is a !ools erran) to tr, to ma<e
tem on H.mil s$%strates* Accor)ing to o$r r$le o! t$m%, tat means ,o$Dll never see a Lange a%ove 3'
GH( 1!o$r mil GaAs cra+s o$t tere4* I! ,o$ attem+te) to ma<e a Lange on H.mil GaAs, te stri+ wi)ts
wo$l) nee) to %e a%o$t !ive microns* ?orgeta%o$titn
"/0RID -5 D0. COUP3*RS
H,%ri) co$+lers are te s+ecial case o! a !o$r.+ort )irectional co$+ler tat is )esigne) !or a &.)7 1e#$al4
+ower s+lit* H,%ri)s come in two t,+es, A' )egree or #$a)rat$re ,%ri)s, an) "3' )egree ,%ri)s* 0,
isnDt tere a -=9 )egree ,%ri)- ,o$ as<l Ma,%e it it wo$l)nDt isolate te !o$rt +ortn An,one tat can
s$%mit a +roo! o! tis statement will win a gi!tn
All o! te co$+lers )isc$sse) on tis +age ave se+arate +ages tat go into )etail on teir o+eration*
Tis +age will el+ tie te entire mess togeter*
678 !egree $yri! cou%#ers
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Tese incl$)e rat.race co$+lers an) waveg$i)e magic tees* Here we will loo< at te rat.race an)
intro)$ce te vector an) sortan) notation tat is o!ten $se) wen re!erring to "3' )egree
,%ri) co$+lers*
HereDs a +lot tat sows te i)eal, -classic- rat.race res+onse 1e#$al s+lit at center !re#$enc,4*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te rat.race gives a%o$t &Hm %an)wi)t !or a +ase error o! gK."' )egrees !rom te i)eal "3' )egree
s+lit*
98 !egree $yri! cou%#ers
Tese are o!ten calle) #$a)rat$re co$+lers, an) incl$)e Lange co$+lers, te %rancline co$+ler, overla,
co$+lers, e)ge co$+lers, an) sort.slot ,%ri) co$+lers* Here we will @$st loo< at a %rancline, an) sow
,o$ some o! te -sort an)- notation tat is o!ten $se) wen re!erring to ,%ri)s*
7elow te %rancline is $se) as a com%iner* Te in+$t signals are vectors o! magnit$)e A an) 7, ten
te o$t+$ts are as sown* Note tat %eca$se we are )ealing wit voltages, te o$t+$ts ave a s#$are.
root.o!.two !actor* Bower is s+lit e/actl, in al! 1.& )74, e#$al to te s#$are o! te voltages*
Now letDs loo< at it as a )ivi)er* Here onl, an in+$t signal is +resent at +ort A* It s+lits %, & )7 at te two
o$t+$ts, an) is isolate) !rom Bort 7 1i)eall, (ero energ, comes o$t tis +ort4*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
IMPATT diode
An IMP2TT !io!e 1IMPact ioni(ation 2valance Transit.Time4 is a !orm o! ig +ower )io)e $se) in
ig.!re#$enc, electronics an) microwave )evices* Te, are t,+icall, ma)e wit silicon car%i)e owing
to teir ig %rea<)own !iel)s*
Te, o+erate at !re#$encies %etween a%o$t & an) "'' GH( or more* A main a)vantage is teir ig
+ower ca+a%ilit,* Tese )io)es are $se) in a variet, o! a++lications !rom low +ower ra)ar s,stems to
alarms* A ma@or )raw%ac< o! $sing IMBATT )io)es is te ig level o! +ase noise te, generate* Tis
res$lts !rom te statistical nat$re o! te avalance +rocess* Neverteless tese )io)es ma<e e/cellent
microwave generators !or man, a++lications*
Device structure
Te IMBATT )io)e !amil, incl$)es man, )i!!erent @$nctions an) metal semicon)$ctor )evices* Te !irst
IMBATT oscillation was o%taine) !rom a sim+le silicon +.n @$nction )io)e %iase) into a reverse
avalance %rea< )own an) mo$nte) in a microwave cavit,* 7eca$se o! te strong )e+en)ence o! te
ioni(ation coe!!icient on te electric !iel), most o! te electronCole +airs are generate) in te ig !iel)
region* Te generate) electron imme)iatel, moves into te region, wile te generate) oles )ri!t across
te + region* Te time re#$ire) !or te ole to reac te contact constit$tes te transit time )ela,*
Te original +ro+osal !or a microwave )evice o! te IMBATT t,+e was ma)e %, Rea) an) involve) a
str$ct$re* Te Rea) )io)e consists o! two regions as ill$strate) in !ig$re* 1i4 Te Avalance region 1+" C
region wit relativel, ig )o+ing an) ig !iel), 4, in wic avalance m$lti+lication occ$rs an) 1ii4 te
)ri!t region 1+H C region wit essentiall, intrinsic )o+ing an) constant !iel), , in wic te generate)
oles )ri!t towar)s te . contact* O! co$rse, a similar )evice can %e %$ilt wit te con!ig$ration, in
wic electrons generate) !rom te avalance m$lti+lication )ri!t tro$g te intrinsic region*
A !a%ricate) IMBATT )io)e generall, is mo$nte) in a micro wave +ac<age* Te )io)e is mo$nte) wit
its ig C !iel) region close to te Co++er eat sin< so tat te eat generate) at te @$nction can %e
con)$cte) awa, rea)il,* Similar microwave +ac<ages are $se) to o$se oter microwave )evices*
Princi%#e of o%eration
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
At %rea<)own, te n C region is +$nce) tro$g an) !orms te avalance region o! te )io)e* Te
ig resistivit, i C region is te )ri!t (one tro$g wic te avalance generate) electrons move
towar) te ano)e*
Now consi)er a )c %ias E
7
, @$st sort o! tat re#$ire) to ca$se %rea<)own, a++lie) to te )io)e in te
!ig$re* Let an ac voltage o! s$!!icientl, large magnit$)e %e s$+erim+ose) on te )c %ias, s$c tat
)$ring te +ositive c,cle o! te ac voltage, te )io)e is )riven )ee+ into te avalance %rea<)own* At
tf', te ac voltage is (ero, an) onl, a small +re.%rea<)own c$rrent !lows tro$g te )io)e* As t
increases, te voltage goes a%ove te %rea<)own voltage an) secon)ar, electron.ole +airs are +ro)$ce)
%, im+act ioni(ation* As long as te !iel) in te avalance region is maintain a%ove te %rea<)own
!iel) , te electron.ole concentration grow e/+onentiall, wit t* Similarl, tis concentration )eca,
e/+onentiall, wit time wen te !iel) is re)$ce) %elow at te negative swing o! te ac voltage* Te
oles generate) in te avalance region )isa++ear in te +g region an) are collecte) %, te cato)e* Te
electrons are in@ecte) into te i C (one were te, )ri!t towar) te ng region* Ten, te !iel) in te
avalance region reaces its ma/im$m val$e an) te +o+$lation o! te electron.ole +airs starts
%$il)ing $+* At tis time, te ioni(ation coe!!icients ave teir ma/im$m val$es* Alto$g !ollow te
electric !iel) instantaneo$sl, te generate) electron concentration )oes not %eca$se it also )e+en)s on
te n$m%er o! electron.ole +airs alrea), +resent in te avalance region* Hence, te electron
concentration at will ave a small val$e* Even a!ter te !iel) as +asse) its ma/im$m val$e, te
electron.ole concentration contin$es to grow %eca$se te secon)ar, carrier generation rate still remains
a%ove its average val$e* ?or tis reason, te electron concentration in te avalance region attains its
ma/im$m val$e at , wen te !iel) as )ro++e) to its average val$e* T$s, it is clear tat te avalance
region intro)$ces a A'
o
+ase si!t %etween te ac signal an) te electron concentration in tis region*
0it a !$rter increase in t, te ac voltage %ecomes negative, an) te !iel) in te avalance region )ro+s
%elow its critical val$e* Te electrons in te avalance region are ten in@ecte) into te )ri!t (one wic
in)$ces a c$rrent in te e/ternal circ$it wic as a +ase o++osite to tat o! te ac voltage* Te ac
!iel), tere!ore, a%sor%s energ, !rom te )ri!ting electrons as te, are )ecelerate) %, te )ecreasing
!iel)* It is clear tat an i)eal +ase si!t %etween te )io)e c$rrent an) te ac signal is acieve) i! te
tic<ness o! te )ri!t (one is s$c tat te %$nc o! electron is collecte) at te n
g
. ano)e at wen te ac
voltage goes to (ero* Tis con)ition is acieve) %, ma<ing te lengt o! te )ri!t region e#$al to te
wavelengt o! te signal* Tis sit$ation +ro)$ces an a))itional +ase si!t o! A'
o
%etween te ac voltage
an) te )io)e c$rrent* Te wave!orms o! te ac voltage, te, in@ecte) electron carge, an) te c$rrent
in)$ce) in te e/ternal circ$it*
UNIT I: MICRO,2:* 3IN*2R(0*2M TU0*S ; MICRO,2:* CROSS*D(FI*3D
TU0*S
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Klystron
A <#ystron is a s+eciali(e) linear.%eam vac$$m t$%e 1evac$ate) electron t$%e4* Te +se$)o.Gree< wor)
klystron comes !rom te stem !orm touv. 1klys4 o! a Gree< ver% re!erring to te action o! waves
%rea<ing against a sore, an) te en) o! te wor) electron*
Te %roters R$ssell an) Sig$r) Earian o! Stan!or) >niversit, are generall, consi)ere) to %e te
inventors o! te <l,stron* Teir +rotot,+e was com+lete) in A$g$st "A&G* >+on +$%lication in "A&A,
5"6
news o! te <l,stron imme)iatel, in!l$ence) te wor< o! >S an) >K researcers wor<ing on ra)ar
e#$i+ment* Te Earians went on to !o$n) Earian Associates to commerciali(e te tecnolog, 1!or
e/am+le to ma<e small linear accelerators to generate +otons !or e/ternal %eam ra)iation tera+,4* In
teir "A&A +a+er, te, ac<nowle)ge) te contri%$tion o! A* [email protected] an) O* Heil 1wi!e an)
$s%an)4 !or teir velocit, mo)$lation teor, in "A&9*
5H6
:$ring te secon) 0orl) 0ar, te A/is +owers relie) mostl, on 1ten low.+owere)4 <l,stron
tecnolog, !or teir ra)ar s,stem microwave generation, wile te Allies $se) te !ar more +ower!$l %$t
!re#$enc,.)ri!ting tecnolog, o! te cavit, magnetron !or microwave generation* Kl,stron t$%e
tecnologies !or ver, ig.+ower a++lications, s$c as s,ncrotrons an) ra)ar s,stems, ave since %een
)evelo+e)*
Intro!uction
Kl,strons are $se) as an oscillator 1s$c as te re!le/ <l,stron4 or am+li!ier at microwave an) ra)io
!re#$encies to +ro)$ce %ot low.+ower re!erence signals !or s$+eretero),ne ra)ar receivers an) to
+ro)$ce ig.+ower carrier waves !or comm$nications an) te )riving !orce !or linear accelerators* All
mo)ern <l,strons are am+li!iers, since re!le/ <l,strons ave %een s$r+asse) %, alternative tecnologies*
Kl,stron am+li!iers ave te a)vantage 1over te magnetron4 o! coerentl, am+li!,ing a re!erence signal
so its o$t+$t ma, %e +recisel, controlle) in am+lit$)e, !re#$enc, an) +ase* Man, <l,strons ave a
waveg$i)e !or co$+ling microwave energ, into an) o$t o! te )evice, alto$g it is also #$ite common
!or lower +ower an) lower !re#$enc, <l,strons to $se coa/ial co$+lings instea)* In some cases a
co$+ling +ro%e is $se) to co$+le te microwave energ, !rom a <l,stron into a se+arate e/ternal
waveg$i)e*
*)%#anation
Kl,strons am+li!, R? signals %, e/tracting energ, !rom a :C electron %eam* A %eam o! electrons is
+ro)$ce) %, a termionic cato)e 1a eate) +ellet o! low wor< !$nction material4, an) accelerate) to
ig voltage 1t,+icall, in te tens o! <ilovolts4* Tis %eam is ten +asse) tro$g an in+$t cavit,* R?
energ, is !e) into te in+$t cavit, at, or near, its nat$ral !re#$enc, to +ro)$ce a voltage wic acts on
te electron %eam* Te electric !iel) ca$ses te electrons to %$ncI electrons tat +ass tro$g )$ring an
o++osing electric !iel) are accelerate) an) later electrons are slowe), ca$sing te +revio$sl, contin$o$s
electron %eam to !orm %$nces at te in+$t !re#$enc,* To rein!orce te %$ncing, a <l,stron ma, contain
a))itional -%$ncer- cavities* Te electron %$nces e/cite a voltage on te o$t+$t cavit,, an) te R?
energ, )evelo+e) !lows o$t tro$g a waveg$i)e* Te s+ent electron %eam, wic now contains less
energ, tan it starte) wit, is )estro,e) in a collector*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Two(cavity <#ystron am%#ifier
In te two.cam%er <l,stron, te electron %eam is in@ecte) into a resonant cavit,* Te electron %eam,
accelerate) %, a +ositive +otential, is constraine) to travel tro$g a c,lin)rical drift tube in a straigt
+at %, an a/ial magnetic !iel)* 0ile +assing tro$g te !irst cavit,, te electron %eam is velocit,
mo)$late) %, te wea< R? signal* In te moving !rame o! te electron %eam, te velocit, mo)$lation is
e#$ivalent to a +lasma oscillation, so in a #$arter o! one +erio) o! te +lasma !re#$enc,, te velocit,
mo)$lation is converte) to )ensit, mo)$lation, i*e* %$nces o! electrons* As te %$nce) electrons enter
te secon) cam%er te, in)$ce stan)ing waves at te same !re#$enc, as te in+$t signal* Te signal
in)$ce) in te secon) cam%er is m$c stronger tan tat in te !irst*
Two(cavity <#ystron osci##ator
Te two.cavit, am+li!ier <l,stron is rea)il, t$rne) into an oscillator <l,stron %, +rovi)ing a !ee)%ac<
loo+ %etween te in+$t an) o$t+$t cavities* Two.cavit, oscillator <l,strons ave te a)vantage o! %eing
among te lowest.noise microwave so$rces availa%le, an) !or tat reason ave o!ten %een $se) in te
ill$minator s,stems o! missile targeting ra)ars* Te two.cavit, oscillator <l,stron normall, generates
more +ower tan te re!le/ <l,stronwt,+icall, watts o! o$t+$t rater tan milliwatts* Since tere is no
re!lector, onl, one ig.voltage s$++l, is to ca$se te t$%e to oscillate, te voltage m$st %e a)@$ste) to a
+artic$lar val$e* Tis is %eca$se te electron %eam m$st +ro)$ce te %$nce) electrons in te secon)
cavit, in or)er to generate o$t+$t +ower* Eoltage m$st %e a)@$ste) %, var,ing te velocit, o! te
electron %eam to a s$ita%le level )$e to te !i/e) +,sical se+aration %etween te two cavities* O!ten
several -mo)es- o! oscillation can %e o%serve) in a given <l,stron*
Ref#e) <#ystron
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
In te re!le/ <l,stron 1also <nown as a DS$ttonD <l,stron a!ter its inventor4, te electron %eam +asses
tro$g a single resonant cavit,* Te electrons are !ire) into one en) o! te t$%e %, an electron g$n*
A!ter +assing tro$g te resonant cavit, te, are re!lecte) %, a negativel, carge) re!lector electro)e
!or anoter +ass tro$g te cavit,, were te, are ten collecte)* Te electron %eam is velocit,
mo)$late) wen it !irst +asses tro$g te cavit,* Te !ormation o! electron %$nces ta<es +lace in te
)ri!t s+ace %etween te re!lector an) te cavit,* Te voltage on te re!lector m$st %e a)@$ste) so tat te
%$ncing is at a ma/im$m as te electron %eam re.enters te resonant cavit,, t$s ens$ring a ma/im$m
o! energ, is trans!erre) !rom te electron %eam to te R? oscillations in te cavit,*Te voltage so$l)
alwa,s %e switce) on %e!ore +rovi)ing te in+$t to te re!le/ <l,stron as te wole !$nction o! te
re!le/ <l,stron wo$l) %e )estro,e) i! te s$++l, is +rovi)e) a!ter te in+$t* Te re!lector voltage ma, %e
varie) sligtl, !rom te o+tim$m val$e, wic res$lts in some loss o! o$t+$t +ower, %$t also in a
variation in !re#$enc,* Tis e!!ect is $se) to goo) a)vantage !or a$tomatic !re#$enc, control in
receivers, an) in !re#$enc, mo)$lation !or transmitters* Te level o! mo)$lation a++lie) !or
transmission is small eno$g tat te +ower o$t+$t essentiall, remains constant* At regions !ar !rom te
o+tim$m voltage, no oscillations are o%taine) at all* Tis t$%e is calle) a re!le/ <l,stron %eca$se it
re+els te in+$t s$++l, or +er!orms te o++osite !$nction o! a 5Kl,stron6*
Tere are o!ten several regions o! re!lector voltage were te re!le/ <l,stron will oscillateL tese are
re!erre) to as mo)es* Te electronic t$ning range o! te re!le/ <l,stron is $s$all, re!erre) to as te
variation in !re#$enc, %etween al! +ower +ointswte +oints in te oscillating mo)e were te +ower
o$t+$t is al! te ma/im$m o$t+$t in te mo)e* It so$l) %e note) tat te !re#$enc, o! oscillation is
)e+en)ent on te re!lector voltage, an) var,ing tis +rovi)es a cr$)e meto) o! !re#$enc, mo)$lating te
oscillation !re#$enc,, al%eit wit accom+an,ing am+lit$)e mo)$lation as well*
Mo)ern semicon)$ctor tecnolog, as e!!ectivel, re+lace) te re!le/ <l,stron in most a++lications*
Mu#ticavity <#ystron
In all mo)ern <l,strons, te n$m%er o! cavities e/cee)s two* A larger n$m%er o! cavities ma, %e $se) to
increase te gain o! te <l,stron, or to increase te %an)wi)t*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Tuning a <#ystron
Some <l,strons ave cavities tat are t$na%le* T$ning a <l,stron is )elicate wor< wic, i! not )one
+ro+erl,, can ca$se )amage to e#$i+ment or in@$r, to te tecnician* 7, canging te !re#$enc, o! te
in)ivi)$al cavities, te tecnician can cange te o+erating !re#$enc,, gain, o$t+$t +ower, or %an)wi)t
o! te am+li!ier* Te tecnician m$st %e care!$l not to e/cee) te limits o! te gra)$ations, or )amage to
te <l,stron can res$lt*
Man$!act$rers generall, sen) a car) wit te $ni#$e cali%rations !or a <l,stronDs +er!ormance
caracteristics, tat lists te gra)$ations tat are to %e set, !or an, given !re#$enc,* No two <l,strons are
ali<e 1even wen com+aring li<e +artKmo)el n$m%er <l,strons4 so tat ever, car) is s+eci!ic to te
in)ivi)$al $nit* Kl,strons ave serial n$m%ers on eac o! tem tat )isting$ises tem $ni#$el,, an) !or
wic man$!act$rers ma, 1o+e!$ll,4 ave te +er!ormance caracteristics in a )ata%ase* I! not, loss o!
te cali%ration car) ma, %e an insol$%le +ro%lem, ma<ing te <l,stron $n$sa%le or +er!orm marginall,
$n.t$ne)*
Oter +reca$tions ta<en wen t$ning a <l,stron incl$)e $sing non!erro$s tools* I! !erro$s 1magneticall,
reactive4 tools come too close to te intense magnetic !iel)s tat contain te electron %eam 1some
<l,strons em+lo, +ermanent magnets, wic can not %e t$rne) o!!4 te tool can %e +$lle) into te $nit
%, te intense magnetic !orce, smasing !ingers, $rting te tecnician, or )amaging te <l,stron*
S+ecial ligtweigt nonmagnetic tools ma)e o! %er,lli$m allo, ave %een $se) !or t$ning >*S* Air ?orce
<l,strons*
Breca$tions are ro$tinel, ta<en wen trans+orting <l,stron )evices in aircra!t, as te intense magnetic
!iel) can inter!ere wit magnetic navigation e#$i+ment* S+ecial over+ac<s are )esigne) to el+ limit
tis !iel) -in te !iel),- an) t$s trans+ort te <l,stron sa!el,*
O%tica# <#ystron
In an o+tical <l,stron te cavities are re+lace) wit $n)$lators* Eer, ig voltages are nee)e)* Te
electron g$n, te )ri!t t$%e an) te collector are still $se)*
F#oating !rift tue <#ystron
Te !loating )ri!t t$%e <l,stron as a single c,lin)rical cam%er containing an electricall, isolate)
central t$%e* Electricall,, tis is similar to te two cavit, oscillator <l,stron wit a lot o! !ee)%ac<
%etween te two cavities* Electrons e/iting te so$rce cavit, are velocit, mo)$late) %, te electric !iel)
as te, travel tro$g te )ri!t t$%e an) emerge at te )estination cam%er in %$nces, )elivering +ower
to te oscillation in te cavit,* Tis t,+e o! oscillator <l,stron as an a)vantage over te two.cavit,
<l,stron on wic it is %ase)* It onl, nee)s one t$ning element to e!!ect canges in !re#$enc,* Te )ri!t
t$%e is electricall, ins$late) !rom te cavit, walls, an) :C %ias is a++lie) se+aratel,* Te :C %ias on
te )ri!t t$%e ma, %e a)@$ste) to alter te transit time tro$g it, t$s allowing some electronic t$ning o!
te oscillating !re#$enc,* Te amo$nt o! t$ning in tis manner is not large an) is normall, $se) !or
!re#$enc, mo)$lation wen transmitting*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Co##ector
A!ter te R? energ, as %een e/tracte) !rom te electron %eam, te %eam is )estro,e) in a collector*
Some <l,strons incl$)e )e+resse) collectors, wic recover energ, !rom te %eam %e!ore collecting
te electrons, increasing e!!icienc,* M$ltistage )e+resse) collectors enance te energ, recover, %,
-sorting- te electrons in energ, %ins*
2%%#ications
Kl,strons +ro)$ce microwave +ower !ar in e/cess o! tat )evelo+e) %, soli) state* In mo)ern s,stems,
te, are $se) !rom >H? 1"''Ds o! MH(4 $+ tro$g $n)re)s o! gigaert( 1as in te E/ten)e)
Interaction Kl,strons in te Clo$)Sat satellite4* Kl,strons can %e !o$n) at wor< in ra)ar, satellite an)
wi)e%an) ig.+ower comm$nication 1ver, common in television %roa)casting an) EH? satellite
terminals4, an) ig.energ, +,sics 1+article accelerators an) e/+erimental reactors4* At SLAC, !or
e/am+le, <l,strons are ro$tinel, em+lo,e) wic ave o$t+$ts in te range o! 9' megawatts 1+$lse4
an) 9' <ilowatts 1time.average)4 at !re#$encies nearing & GH( 5"6 Bo+$lar ScienceDs -7est o! 0atDs
New H''G-5H65&6 incl$)e) a com+an,5=6 $sing a <l,stron to convert te ,)rocar%ons in ever,)a,
materials, a$tomotive waste, coal, oil sale, an) oil san)s into nat$ral gas an) )iesel !$el*
Confusion wit$ <rytron
A mislea)ingl, similarl, name) t$%e, te <r,tron, is $se) in sim+le switcing a++lications* It as
recentl, gaine) !ame as a ra+i) switc wic can %e $se) in n$clear wea+ons to +recisel, )etonate
e/+losives at ig s+ee)s, in or)er to start te !ission +rocess* Kr,trons ave also %een $se) in
+otoco+iers, raising iss$es o! war tecnolog, trans!er to co$ntries !or items s$c as tis, wic ave
a -)$al $se*-
Traveling-wave tube
A trave#ing(wave tue -T,T. is an electronic )evice $se) to am+li!, ra)io !re#$enc, signals to ig
+ower, $s$all, in an electronic assem%l, <nown as a trave#ing(wave tue am%#ifier 1T0TA4*
Te T0T was invente) %, R$)ol! Kom+!ner in a 7ritis ra)ar la% )$ring 0orl) 0ar II, an) re!ine) %,
Kom+!ner an) ;on Bierce at 7ell La%s* 7ot o! tem ave written %oo<s on te )evice*
5"65H6
In "AA=,
A*S* Gilmo$r wrote a mo)ern T0T %oo<
5&6
wic is wi)el, $se) %, >*S* T0T engineers to)a,,
an) researc +$%lications a%o$t T0Ts are !re#$entl, +$%lise) %, te IEEE*
C$tawa, view o! a T0T* 1"4 Electron g$nL 1H4 R? in+$tL 1&4 MagnetsL 1=4 Atten$atorL 194 Heli/ coilL 184
R? o$t+$tL 1G4 Eac$$m t$%eL 134 Collector*
Te )evice is an elongate) vac$$m t$%e wit an electron g$n 1a eate) cato)e tat emits electrons4 at
one en)* A magnetic containment !iel) aro$n) te t$%e !oc$ses te electrons into a %eam, wic ten
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
+asses )own te mi))le o! a wire eli/ tat stretces !rom te R? in+$t to te R? o$t+$t, te electron
%eam !inall, stri<ing a collector at te oter en)* A )irectional co$+ler, wic can %e eiter a waveg$i)e
or an electromagnetic coil, !e) wit te low.+owere) ra)io signal tat is to %e am+li!ie), is +ositione)
near te emitter, an) in)$ces a c$rrent into te eli/*
Te eli/ acts as a )ela, line, in wic te R? signal travels at near te same s+ee) along te t$%e as te
electron %eam* Te electromagnetic !iel) )$e to te c$rrent in te eli/ interacts wit te electron %eam,
ca$sing %$ncing o! te electrons 1an e!!ect calle) velocity modulation4, an) te electromagnetic !iel)
)$e to te %eam c$rrent ten in)$ces more c$rrent %ac< into te eli/ 1i*e* te c$rrent %$il)s $+ an) t$s
is am+li!ie) as it +asses )own4*
A secon) )irectional co$+ler, +ositione) near te collector, receives an am+li!ie) version o! te in+$t
signal !rom te !ar en) o! te eli/* An atten$ator +lace) on te eli/, $s$all, %etween te in+$t an)
o$t+$t elicies, +revents re!lecte) wave !rom travelling %ac< to te cato)e*
Te %an)wi)t o! a %roa)%an) T0T can %e as ig as tree octaves, alto$g t$ne) 1narrow%an)4
versions e/ist, an) o+erating !re#$encies range !rom &'' MH( to 9' GH(* Te voltage gain o! te t$%e
can %e o! te or)er o! G' )eci%els*
A T0T as sometimes %een re!erre) to as a traveling.wave am+li!ier t$%e 1T0AT4,
5=6596
alto$g tis
term was never reall, a)o+te)* -T0T- is sometimes +rono$nce) %, engineers as -T0IT-*
586
Cou%#e!(cavity T,T
Heli/ T0Ts are limite) in +ea< R? +ower %, te c$rrent an)ling 1an) tere!ore tic<ness4 o! te eli/
wire* As +ower level increases, te wire can overeat an) ca$se te eli/ geometr, to war+* 0ire
tic<ness can %e increase) to im+rove matters, %$t i! te wire is too tic< it %ecomes im+ossi%le to
o%tain te re#$ire) eli/ +itc !or +ro+er o+eration* T,+icall, eli/ T0Ts acieve less tan H*9 <0
o$t+$t +ower*
Te cou%#e!(cavity T,T overcomes tis limit %, re+lacing te eli/ wit a series o! co$+le) cavities
arrange) a/iall, along te %eam* Conce+t$all,, tis str$ct$re +rovi)es a elical waveg$i)e an) ence
am+li!ication can occ$r via velocit, mo)$lation* Helical waveg$i)es ave ver, nonlinear )is+ersion
an) t$s are onl, narrow%an) 1%$t wi)er tan <l,stron4* A co$+le).cavit, T0T can acieve "9 <0
o$t+$t +ower*
O+eration is similar to tat o! a <l,stron, e/ce+t tat co$+le).cavit, T0Ts are )esigne) wit atten$ation
%etween te slow.wave str$ct$re instea) o! a )ri!t t$%e* Te slow.wave str$ct$re gives te T0T its wi)e
%an)wi)t* A !ree electron laser allows iger !re#$encies*
Trave#ing(wave tue am%#ifier
A T0T integrate) wit a reg$late) +ower s$++l, an) +rotection circ$its is re!erre) to as a traveling.wave
t$%e am+li!ier
5G6
1a%%reviate) T,T2 an) o!ten +rono$nce) -T0EET.$-4* It is $se) to +ro)$ce
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
ig.+ower ra)io !re#$enc, signals* Te %an)wi)t o! a %roa)%an) T0TA can %e as ig as one octave,
alto$g t$ne) 1narrow%an)4 versions e/istL o+erating !re#$encies range !rom &'' MH( to 9' GH(*
A T0TA consists o! a traveling.wave t$%e co$+le) wit its +rotection circ$its 1as in <l,stron4 an)
reg$late) +ower s$++l, 1EBC, electronic +ower con)itioner4, wic ma, %e s$++lie) an) integrate) %,
a )i!!erent man$!act$rer* Te main )i!!erence %etween most +ower s$++lies an) tose !or vac$$m t$%es
is tat e!!icient vac$$m t$%es ave )e+resse) collectors to rec,cle <inetic energ, o! te electrons an)
tere!ore te secon)ar, win)ing o! te +ower s$++l, nee)s $+ to 8 ta+s o! wic te eli/ voltage
nee)s +recise reg$lation* Te s$%se#$ent a))ition o! a lineari(er 1as !or in)$ctive o$t+$t t$%e4 can, %,
com+lementar, com+ensation, im+rove te gain com+ression an) oter caracteristics o! te T0TAL
tis com%ination is calle) a lineari(e) T0TA 1LT0TA, -EL.tweet.$-4*
7roa)%an) T0TAs generall, $se a eli/ T0T, an) acieve less tan H*9 <0 o$t+$t +ower* T0TAs
$sing a co$+le) cavit, T0T can acieve "9 <0 o$t+$t +ower, %$t at te e/+ense o! %an)wi)t*
Uses
T0TAs are commonl, $se) as am+li!iers in satellite trans+on)ers, were te in+$t signal is ver, wea<
an) te o$t+$t nee)s to %e ig +ower*
536
A T0TA wose o$t+$t )rives an antenna is a t,+e o! transmitter* T0TA transmitters are $se)
e/tensivel, in ra)ar, +artic$larl, in air%orne !ire.control ra)ar s,stems, an) in electronic war!are an)
sel!.+rotection s,stems*
5A6
In tese t,+es o! a++lications, a control gri) is t,+icall, intro)$ce)
%etween te T0TDs electron g$n an) slow.wave str$ct$re to allow +$lse) o+eration* Te circ$it tat
)rives te control gri) is $s$all, re!erre) to as a gri) mo)$lator*
Anoter ma@or $se o! T0TAs is !or te electromagnetic com+ati%ilit, 1EMC4 testing in)$str, !or
imm$nit, testing o! electronic )evices*
5citation needed6
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Cavity magnetron
A cavity magnetron is a ig.+owere) vac$$m t$%e tat generates coerent microwaves* Te, are
commonl, !o$n) in microwave ovens, as well as vario$s ra)ar a++lications*
Construction an! o%eration
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Magnetron wit section remove) 1magnet is not sown4
All cavit, magnetrons consist o! a ot !ilament 1cato)e4 <e+t at, or +$lse) to, a ig negative +otential
%, a ig.voltage, )irect.c$rrent +ower s$++l,* Te cato)e is %$ilt into te center o! an evac$ate),
lo%e), circ$lar cam%er* A magnetic !iel) +arallel to te !ilament is im+ose) %, a +ermanent magnet*
Te magnetic !iel) ca$ses te electrons, attracte) to te 1relativel,4 +ositive o$ter +art o! te cam%er,
to s+iral o$twar) in a circ$lar +at rater tan moving )irectl, to tis ano)e* S+ace) aro$n) te rim o!
te cam%er are c,lin)rical cavities* Te cavities are o+en along teir lengt an) connect te common
cavit, s+ace* As electrons swee+ +ast tese o+enings, te, in)$ce a resonant, ig.!re#$enc, ra)io !iel)
in te cavit,, wic in t$rn ca$ses te electrons to %$nc into gro$+s* A +ortion o! tis !iel) is e/tracte)
wit a sort antenna tat is connecte) to a waveg$i)e 1a metal t$%e $s$all, o! rectang$lar cross section4*
Te waveg$i)e )irects te e/tracte) R? energ, to te loa), wic ma, %e a coo<ing cam%er in a
microwave oven or a ig.gain antenna in te case o! ra)ar*
A cross.sectional )iagram o! a resonant cavit, magnetron* Magnetic !iel) is +er+en)ic$lar to te +lane
o! te )iagram*
Te si(es o! te cavities )etermine te resonant !re#$enc,, an) tere%, te !re#$enc, o! emitte)
microwaves* However, te !re#$enc, is not +recisel, controlla%le* Tis is not a +ro%lem in man, $ses
s$c as eating or some !orms o! ra)ar were te receiver can %e s,ncroni(e) wit an im+recise
o$t+$t* 0ere +recise !re#$encies are nee)e), oter )evices s$c as te Kl,stron are $se)* Te voltage
a++lie) an) te +ro+erties o! te cato)e )etermine te +ower o! te )evice*
Te magnetron is a !airl, e!!icient )evice* In a microwave oven, !or instance, a ","'' 0att in+$t will
generall, create a%o$t G'' 0atts o! microwave energ,, an e!!icienc, o! aro$n) 89m* Mo)ern, soli).
state, microwave so$rces at tis !re#$enc, t,+icall, o+erate at aro$n) H9 to &'m e!!icienc, an) are
$se) +rimaril, %eca$se te, can generate a wi)e range o! !re#$encies* T$s, te magnetron remains in
wi)es+rea) $se in roles wic re#$ire ig +ower, %$t were +recise !re#$enc, control is $nim+ortant*
2%%#ications
Magnetron wit magnet in its mo$nting %o/* Te ori(ontal +lates !orm a Heatsin<, coole) %, air!low
!rom a !an
Ra!ar
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In ra)ar )evices te waveg$i)e is connecte) to an antenna* Te magnetron is o+erate) wit ver, sort
+$lses o! a++lie) voltage, res$lting in a sort +$lse o! microwave energ, %eing ra)iate)* As in all ra)ar
s,stems, te ra)iation re!lecte) o!! a target is anal,(e) to +ro)$ce a ra)ar ma+ on a screen*
"eating
In microwave ovens te waveg$i)e lea)s to a ra)io !re#$enc,.trans+arent +ort into te coo<ing
cam%er* It is im+ortant tat tere is !oo) in te oven wen it is o+erate) so tat tese waves are
a%sor%e), rater tan re!lecting into te waveg$i)e were te intensit, o! stan)ing waves can
ca$se arcing* Te arcing, i! allowe) to occ$r !or long +erio)s, will )estro, te magnetron* I! a ver,
small o%@ect is %eing microwave), it is recommen)e) tat a glass o! water %e a))e) as an energ,
sin<, alto$g care m$st %e ta<en not to -s$+ereat- te water*
"istory
Te oscillation o! magnetrons was !irst o%serve) an) note) %, A$g$stin xyze<, +ro!essor at te Carles
>niversit,, Brag$e in te C(ec Re+$%lic, alto$g te !irst sim+le, two.+ole magnetrons were
)evelo+e) in te "AH's %, Al%ert H$ll at General ElectricDs Researc La%oratories 1Scenecta),, New
Yor<4, as an o$tgrowt o! is wor< on te magnetic control o! vac$$m t$%es in an attem+t to wor<
aro$n) te +atents el) %, Lee :e ?orest on electrostatic control* Te two.+ole magnetron, also <nown
as a s+lit.ano)e magnetron, a) relativel, low e!!icienc,* Te cavit, version 1+ro+erl, re!erre) to as a
resonant-cavity magnetron4 +rove) to %e !ar more $se!$l*
Tere was an $rgent nee) )$ring ra)ar )evelo+ment in 0orl) 0ar II !or a ig.+ower microwave
generator tat wor<e) in sorter wavelengtswaro$n) "' cm 1& GH(4 rater tan "9' cmw1H'' MH(4
availa%le !rom t$%e.%ase) generators o! te time* It was <nown tat a m$lti.cavit, resonant magnetron
a) %een )evelo+e) in "A&9 %, Hans Hollmann in 7erlin* However, te German militar, consi)ere) its
!re#$enc, )ri!t to %e $n)esira%le an) %ase) teir ra)ar s,stems on te <l,stron instea)* It was +rimaril,
!or tis reason tat German nigt !igter ra)ars were not a matc !or teir 7ritis co$nter+arts*
In "A=', at te >niversit, o! 7irmingam in te >K, ;on Ran)all an) :r* Harr, 7oot +ro)$ce) a
wor<ing +rotot,+e similar to HollmanDs cavit, magnetron, %$t a))e) li#$i) cooling an) a stronger
cavit,* Ran)all an) 7oot soon manage) to increase its +ower o$t+$t "'' !ol)* Instea) o! giving $+ on
te magnetron )$e to its !re#$enc, inacc$rac,, te, sam+le) te o$t+$t signal an) s,nce) teir
receiver to watever !re#$enc, was act$all, %eing generate)*
7eca$se ?rance a) @$st !allen to te Na(is an) 7ritain a) no mone, to )evelo+ te magnetron on a
massive scale, C$rcill agree) tat Sir Henr, Ti(ar) so$l) o!!er te magnetron to te Americans in
e/cange !or teir !inancial an) in)$strial el+* 7, Se+tem%er, te Massac$setts Instit$te o!
Tecnolog, a) set $+ a secret la%orator, to )evelo+ te cavit, magnetron into a via%le ra)ar* Two
monts later, it was in mass +ro)$ction, an) %, earl, "A=", +orta%le air%orne ra)ar were %eing installe)
into American an) 7ritis +lanes*
5"6
An earl, 8 <0 version, %$ilt in Englan) %, te GEC Researc La%oratories, 0em%le,, Lon)on, was
given to te >S government in Se+tem%er "A='* It was later )escri%e) as -te most val$a%le cargo ever
%ro$gt to o$r sores- 1see Ti(ar) Mission4* At te time te most +ower!$l e#$ivalent microwave
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
+ro)$cer availa%le in te >S 1a <l,stron4 a) a +ower o! onl, ten watts* Te cavit, magnetron was
wi)el, $se) )$ring 0orl) 0ar II in microwave ra)ar e#$i+ment an) is o!ten cre)ite) wit giving Allie)
ra)ar a consi)era%le +er!ormance a)vantage over German an) ;a+anese ra)ars, t$s )irectl, in!l$encing
te o$tcome o! te war*
Sort.wave, centimetric ra)ar, wic was ma)e +ossi%le %, te cavit, magnetron, allowe) !or te
)etection o! m$c smaller o%@ects an) te $se o! m$c smaller antennas* Te com%ination o! te small.
cavit, magnetron, small antennas, an) ig resol$tion allowe) small, ig #$alit, ra)ars to %e installe)
in aircra!t* Te, co$l) %e $se) %, maritime +atrol aircra!t to )etect o%@ects as small as a s$%marine
+erisco+e, wic allowe) aircra!t to attac< an) )estro, s$%merge) s$%marines wic a) +revio$sl,
%een $n)etecta%le !rom te air* Centimetric conto$r ma++ing ra)ars li<e HHS im+rove) te acc$rac, o!
Allie) %om%ers $se) in te strategic %om%ing cam+aign* Centimetric g$n.la,ing ra)ars were li<ewise !ar
more acc$rate tan te ol)er tecnolog,* Te, ma)e te %ig.g$nne) Allie) %attlesi+s more )ea)l, an),
along wit te newl, )evelo+e) +ro/imit, !$se, ma)e anti.aircra!t g$ns m$c more )angero$s to
attac<ing aircra!t* Te two co$+le) togeter an) $se) %, anti.aircra!t %atteries, +lace) along te !ligt
+at o! German E." !l,ing %om%s on teir wa, to Lon)on, are cre)ite) wit )estro,ing man, o! te
!l,ing %om%s %e!ore te, reace) teir target*
Since ten, man, millions o! cavit, magnetrons ave %een man$!act$re)L some !or ra)ar, %$t te
vast ma@orit, !or microwave ovens* Te $se in ra)ar itsel! as )win)le) to some e/tent, as more
acc$rate signals ave generall, %een nee)e) an) )evelo+ers ave move) to <l,stron an) traveling
wave t$%e s,stems !or tese nee)s*
"ea#t$ $a=ar!s
Among more s+ec$lative a(ar)s, at least one in +artic$lar is well <nown an) )oc$mente)* As te lens
o! te e,e as no cooling %loo) !low, it is +artic$larl, +rone to overeating wen e/+ose) to microwave
ra)iation* Tis eating can in t$rn lea) to a iger inci)ence o! cataracts in later li!e*
5citation needed6
A
microwave oven wit a war+e) )oor or +oor microwave sealing can %e a(ar)o$s*
Tere is also a consi)era%le electrical a(ar) aro$n) magnetrons, as te, re#$ire a ig voltage
+ower s$++l,* O+erating a magnetron wit te +rotective covers an) interloc<s %,+asse) so$l)
tere!ore %e avoi)e)*
Some magnetrons ave ceramic ins$lators wit a %it o! %er,lli$m o/i)e 1%er,llia4 a))e)wtese
ceramics o!ten a++ear somewat +in< or +$r+le.colore) 1see te +otos a%ove4* Note tat %er,lli$m
o/i)e is wite, so rel,ing on te color to i)enti!, its +resence wo$l) %e $nwise* Te %er,lli$m in tis
ceramic is a serio$s cemical a(ar) i! cr$se) an) inale), or oterwise ingeste)* Single or cronic
e/+os$re can lea) to %er,lliosis, an inc$ra%le l$ng con)ition* In a))ition, %er,llia is liste) as a
con!irme) $man carcinogen %, te IARCL tere!ore, %ro<en ceramic ins$lators or magnetrons so$l)
not %e )irectl, an)le)*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
UNIT : STRIP 3IN*S an! MONO3IT"IC MICRO,2:* INT*1R2T*D CIRCUITS
Microstrip
Microstri+ transmission line is a <in) o! -ig gra)e- +rinte) circ$it constr$ction, consisting o! a trac<
o! co++er or oter con)$ctor on an ins$lating s$%strate* Tere is a -%ac<+lane- on te oter si)e o! te
ins$lating s$%strate, !orme) !rom similar con)$ctor* A +ict$re 1&G<74*
Loo<e) at en) on, tere is a -ot- con)$ctor wic is te trac< on te to+, an) a -ret$rn- con)$ctor
wic is te %ac<+lane on te %ottom* Microstri+ is tere!ore a variant o! H.wire transmission line*
I! one solves te electromagnetic e#$ations to !in) te !iel) )istri%$tions, one !in)s ver, nearl, a
com+letel, TEM 1transverse electromagnetic4 +attern* Tis means tat tere are onl, a !ew regions in
wic tere is a com+onent o! electric or magnetic !iel) in te )irection o! wave +ro+agation* Tere is a
+ict$re o! tese !iel) +atterns 1incom+lete4 in T C E)war)s -?o$n)ations !or Microstri+ Circ$it :esign-
e)ition H +age =9* See te %oo<list !or !$rter %i%liogra+ic )etails*
Te !iel) +attern is commonl, re!erre) to as a e$asi TEM +attern* >n)er some con)itions one as
to ta<e acco$nt o! te e!!ects )$e to longit$)inal !iel)s* An e/am+le is geometrical )is+ersion, were
)i!!erent wave !re#$encies travel at )i!!erent +ase velocities, an) te gro$+ an) +ase velocities are
)i!!erent*
Te #$asi TEM +attern arises %eca$se o! te inter!ace %etween te )ielectric s$%strate an) te
s$rro$n)ing air* Te electric !iel) lines ave a )iscontin$it, in )irection at te inter!ace* Te %o$n)ar,
con)itions !or electric !iel) are tat te normal com+onent 1ie te com+onent at rigt angles to te
s$r!ace4 o! te electric !iel) times te )ielectric constant is contin$o$s across te %o$n)ar,L t$s in te
)ielectric wic ma, ave )ielectric constant "', te electric !iel) s$))enl, )ro+s to "K"' o! its val$e
in air* On te oter an), te tangential com+onent 1+arallel to te inter!ace4 o! te electric !iel) is
contin$o$s across te %o$n)ar,* In general ten we o%serve a s$))en cange o! )irection o! electric
!iel) lines at te inter!ace, wic gives rise to a longit$)inal magnetic !iel) com+onent !rom te secon)
Ma/wellDs e#$ation, c$rl E f . )7K)t*
Since some o! te electric energ, is store) in te air an) some in te )ielectric, te e!!ective )ielectric
constant !or te waves on te transmission line will lie somewere %etween tat o! te air an) tat o! te
)ielectric* T,+icall, te e!!ective )ielectric constant will %e 9'.39m o! te s$%strate )ielectric constant*
As an e/am+le, in 1notionall,4 air s+ace) microstri+ te velocit, o! waves wo$l) %e c f & i "'j3
metres +er secon)* 0e ave to )ivi)e tis !ig$re %, te s#$are root o! te e!!ective )ielectric constant to
!in) te act$al wave velocit, !or te real microstri+ line* At "' GH( te wavelengt on notionall, air
s+ace) microstri+ is tere!ore & cmsL owever on a s$%strate wit e!!ective )ielectric constant o! G te
wavelengt is &K1s#rt{G|4 f "*"&cms* T$s te ma/im$m lengt !or a st$% to %e $se) in st$% matcing,
wic is no more tan al! a wavelengt, is a%o$t 9*8 mm*
A set o! )etaile) )esign !orm$lae an) algoritms is +resente) in T C E)war)s, O+ Cit*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Tere is a ro$g an) rea), nomogram !or calc$lating te im+e)ance o! microstri+ !rom te
)ielectric +ro+erties an) te geometr, in tis +ict$re 1&G<74
Sustrate materia#s&
Im+ortant #$alities o! te )ielectric s$%strate incl$)e
Te microwave )ielectric constant
Te !re#$enc, )e+en)ence o! tis )ielectric constant wic gives rise to -material )is+ersion-
in wic te wave velocit, is !re#$enc,.)e+en)ent
Te s$r!ace !inis an) !latness
Te )ielectric loss tangent, or imaginar, +art o! te )ielectric constant, wic sets te
)ielectric loss
Te cost
Te termal e/+ansion an) con)$ctivit,
Te )imensional sta%ilit, wit time
Te s$r!ace a)esion +ro+erties !or te con)$ctor coatings
Te man$!act$ra%ilit, 1ease o! c$tting, sa+ing, an) )rilling4
Te +orosit, 1!or ig vac$$m a++lications we )onDt want a s$%strate wic
contin$all, -o$tgasses- wen +$m+e)4
T,+es o! s$%strate incl$)e +lastics, sintere) ceramics, glasses, an) single cr,stal s$%strates 1single
cr,stals ma, ave anisotro+ic )ielectric constantsL -anisotro+ic- means te, are )i!!erent along
te )i!!erent cr,stal )irections wit res+ect to te cr,stalline a/es*4
Common sustrate materia#s
Blastics are cea+, easil, man$!act$ra%le, ave goo) s$r!ace a)esion, %$t ave +oor
microwave )ielectric +ro+erties wen com+are) wit oter coices* Te, ave +oor
)imensional sta%ilit,, large termal e/+ansion coe!!icients, an) +oor termal con)$ctivit,*
o :ielectric constantI H*H 1!ast s$%strate4 or "'*= 1slow s$%strate4
o Loss tangent "K"''' 1!ast s$%strate4 &K"''' 1slow s$%strate4
o S$r!ace ro$gness a%o$t 8 microns 1electro+late)4
o Low temal con)$ctivit,, &K"''' watts +er cm s# +er )egree
Ceramics are rigi) an) ar)L te, are )i!!ic$lt to sa+e, c$t, an) )rillL te, come in vario$s +$rit,
gra)es an) +rices eac aving )omains o! a++licationL te, ave low microwave loss an) are
reasona%l, non.)is+ersiveL te, ave e/cellent termal +ro+erties, incl$)ing goo)
)imensional sta%ilit, an) ig termal con)$ctivit,L te, also ave ver, ig )ielectric
strengt* Te, cost more tan +lastics* In +rinci+le te si(e is not limite)*
o :ielectric constant 3."' 1)e+en)ing on +$rit,4 so slow s$%strate
o Loss tangent "K"',''' to "K",''' )e+en)ing on +$rit,
o S$r!ace ro$gness at %est "KH' micron
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
o Hig termal con)$ctivit,, '*& watts +er s# cm +er )egree K
Single cr,stal sa++ire is $se) !or )eman)ing a++licationsL it is ver, ar), nee)s orientation !or
te )esire) )ielectric +ro+erties wic are anisotro+icL is ver, e/+ensive, can onl, %e ma)e in
small seetsL as ig )ielectric constant so is $se) !or ver, com+act circ$its at ig
!re#$enciesL as low )ielectric lossL as e/cellent termal +ro+erties an) s$r!ace +olis*
o :ielectric constant A*= to ""*8 )e+en)ing on cr,stal orientation 1slow s$%strate4
o Loss tangent 9K"'','''
o S$r!ace ro$gness "K"'' micron
o Hig termal con)$ctivit, '*= watts +er s# cm +er )egree K
Single cr,stal Galli$m Arseni)e 1GaAs4 an) Silicon 1Si4 are %ot $se) !or monolitic
microwave integrate) circ$its 1MMICs4*
o :ealing wit GaAs !irst we ave*****

:ielectric constant "& 1slow s$%strate4

Loss tangent 8K"',''' 1ig resistivit, GaAs4

S$r!ace ro$gness "K=' micron

Termal con)$ctivit, '*& watts +er s# cm +er )egree K 1ig4

GaAs is e/+ensive an) +ie(oelectricL aco$stic mo)es can +ro+agate in te s$%strate
an) can co$+le to te electromagnetic waves on te con)$ctors*
o Now )ealing wit Silicon we ave*****

:ielectric constant "H 1slow s$%strate4

Loss tangent 9K"''' 1ig resistivit,4

S$r!ace ro$gness "K=' micron

Termal con)$ctivit, '*A watts +er s# cm +er )egree K 1ig4

Te )ielectric strengt o! ceramics an) o! single cr,stals !ar e/cee)s te strengt o! +lastics, an) so
te +ower an)ling a%ilities are corres+on)ingl, iger, an) te %rea<)own o! ig e !ilter str$ct$res
corres+on)ingl, less o! a +ro%lem*
It is also a goo) i)ea to ave a ig )ielectric constant s$%strate an) a slow wave +ro+agation velocit,L
tis re)$ces te ra)iation loss !rom te circ$its* However at te iger !re#$encies te circ$its get
im+ossi%le small, wic restricts te +ower an)ling ca+a%ilit,* ?or tese a++lications one o!ten coses
!$se) #$art( 1)ielectric constant &*34*
Cross.section o! microstri+ geometr,* Con)$ctor 1A4 is se+arate) !rom gro$n) +lane 1:4 %, )ielectric
s$%strate 1C4* >++er )ielectric 174 is t,+icall, air*
Microstri% is a t,+e o! electrical transmission line wic can %e !a%ricate) $sing +rinte) circ$it %oar)
5BC76 tecnolog,, an) is $se) to conve, microwave.!re#$enc, signals* It consists o! a con)$cting stri+
se+arate) !rom a gro$n) +lane %, a )ielectric la,er <nown as te sustrate* Microwave com+onents
s$c as antennas, co$+lers, !ilters, +ower )ivi)ers etc* can %e !orme) !rom microstri+, te entire )evice
e/isting as te +attern o! metalli(ation on te s$%strate* Microstri+ is t$s !ar cea+er tan tra)itional
waveg$i)e tecnolog,, as well as %eing !ar ligter an) more com+act*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te )isa)vantages o! microstri+ com+are) wit waveg$i)e are te generall, lower +ower
an)ling ca+acit,, an) iger losses* Also, $nli<e waveg$i)e, microstri+ is not enclose), an) is
tere!ore s$sce+ti%le to cross.tal< an) $nintentional ra)iation*
?or lowest cost, microstri+ )evices ma, %e %$ilt on an or)inar, ?R= 1stan)ar) BC74 s$%strate*
However it is o!ten !o$n) tat te )ielectric losses in ?R= are too ig at microwave !re#$encies, an)
tat te )ielectric constant is not s$!!icientl, tigtl, controlle)* ?or tese reasons, an al$mina s$%strate
is commonl, $se)*
On a smaller scale, microstri+ transmission lines are also %$ilt into microwave monolitic integrate)
circ$its 5MMIC6s*
Microstri+ lines are also $se) in ig.s+ee) )igital BC7 )esigns, were signals nee) to %e ro$te) !rom one
+art o! te assem%l, to anoter wit minimal )istortion, an) avoi)ing ig cross.tal< an) ra)iation*
Microstri+ is ver, similar to stri+line an) co+lanar waveg$i)e 5CB06, an) it is +ossi%le to integrate
all tree on te same s$%strate*
In$omogeneity
Te electromagnetic wave carrie) %, a microstri+ line e/ists +artl, in te )ielectric s$%strate, an) +artl,
in te air a%ove it* In general, te )ielectric constant o! te s$%strate will %e greater tan tat o! te air,
so tat te wave is travelling in an inomogeneo$s me)i$m* In conse#$ence, te +ro+agation velocit, is
somewere %etween te s+ee) o! ra)io waves in te s$%strate, an) te s+ee) o! ra)io waves in air* Tis
%eavio$r is commonl, )escri%e) %, stating te effective !ie#ectric constant 1or effective re#ative
%ermittivity4 o! te microstri+L tis %eing te )ielectric constant o! an e#$ivalent omogeneo$s
me)i$m 1i*e* one res$lting in te same +ro+agation velocit,4*
?$rter conse#$ences o! an inomogeneo$s me)i$m incl$)eI
Te line will not s$++ort a tr$e TEM waveL at non.(ero !re#$encies, %ot te E an) H !iel)s will
ave longit$)inal com+onents 1a ,%ri) mo)e4*
5"6
Te longit$)inal com+onents are small
owever, an) so te )ominant mo)e is re!erre) to as quasi(T*M*
Te line is )is+ersive* 0it increasing !re#$enc,, te e!!ective )ielectric constant gra)$all,
clim%s towar)s tat o! te s$%strate, so tat te +ase velocit, gra)$all, )ecreases*
5"65H6
Tis is
tr$e even wit a non.)is+ersive s$%strate material 1te s$%strate )ielectric constant will
$s$all, !all wit increasing !re#$enc,4*
Te caracteristic im+e)ance o! te line canges sligtl, wit !re#$enc, 1again, even wit a non.
)is+ersive s$%strate material4* Te caracteristic im+e)ance o! non.TEM mo)es is not $ni#$el,
)e!ine), an) )e+en)ing on te +recise )e!inition $se), te im+e)ance o! microstri+ eiter rises,
!alls, or !alls ten rises wit increasing !re#$enc,*
5&6
Te low.!re#$enc, limit o! te caracteristic
im+e)ance is re!erre) to as te quasi(static c$aracteristic im%e!ance, an) is te same !or all
)e!initions o! caracteristic im+e)ance*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te wave im+e)ance varies over te cross.section o! te line*
C$aracteristic Im%e!ance
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
It is claime) tat !or most oter cases, te error in im+e)ance is less tan "m, an) is alwa,s less tan
Hm*
586
7, covering all as+ect.ratios in one !orm$la, 0eeler "AGG im+roves on 0eeler "A89
596
wic
gives one !orm$la !or w K h } &*& an) anoter !or 1t$s intro)$cing a )iscontin$it, in te res$lt at w K h f
&*&4* Neverteless, te "A89 +a+er is +era+s te more o!ten cite)* A n$m%er o! oter a++ro/imate
!orm$lae !or te caracteristic im+e)ance ave %een a)vance) %, oter a$tors* However, most o! tese
are a++lica%le to onl, a limite) range o! as+ect.ratios, or else cover te entire range +iecewise*
0en!s
In or)er to %$il) a com+lete circ$it in microstri+, it is o!ten necessar, !or te +at o! a stri+ to t$rn
tro$g a large angle* An a%r$+t A'p %en) in a microstri+ will ca$se a signi!icant +ortion o! te signal on
te stri+ to %e re!lecte) %ac< towar)s its so$rce, wit onl, +art o! te signal transmitte) on aro$n) te
%en)* One means o! e!!ecting a low.re!lection %en), is to c$rve te +at o! te stri+ in an arc o! ra)i$s at
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
least & times te stri+.wi)t*
5G6
However, a !ar more common tecni#$e, an) one wic cons$mes
a smaller area o! s$%strate, is to $se a mitre! en!*
Microstri+ A'p mitre) %en)* Te +ercentage mitre is "''/K)
To a !irst a++ro/imation, an a%r$+t $n.mitre) %en) %eaves as a s$nt ca+acitance +lace) %etween te
gro$n) +lane an) te %en) in te stri+* Mitring te %en) re)$ces te area o! metalli(ation, an) so
removes te e/cess ca+acitance* Te %ercentage mitre is te c$t.awa, !raction o! te )iagonal %etween
te inner an) o$ter corners o! te $n.mitre) %en)*
Te o+tim$m mitre !or a wi)e range o! microstri+ geometries as %een )etermine) e/+erimentall,
%, :o$ville an) ;ames*
536
Te, !in) tat a goo) !it !or te o+tim$m +ercentage mitre is given %,,
s$%@ect to an) te wit te s$%strate )ielectric constant * Tis !orm$la is entirel, in)e+en)ent o! * Te
act$al range o! +arameters !or wic :o$ville an) ;ames +resent evi)ence is an) * Te, re+ort a ES0R
o! %etter tan "*" 1i*e* a ret$rn %etter tan .H8)74 !or an, +ercentage mitre witin =m 1o! te original d4
o! tat given %, te !orm$la* Note tat !or te minim$m w K h o! '*H9, te +ercentage mitre is A8m, so
tat te stri+ is ver, nearl, c$t tro$g*
?or %ot te c$rve) an) mitre) %en)s, te electrical lengt is somewat sorter tan te +,sical +at.
lengt o! te stri+*
Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit
?rom 0i<i+e)ia, te !ree enc,clo+e)ia
1Re)irecte) !rom MMIC4
;$m+ toI navigation, searc
MMICs, or Mono#it$ic Microwave Integrate! Circuits, are a t,+e o! integrate) circ$it 1IC4
)evices tat o+erate at microwave !re#$encies 1&'' MH( to &'' GH(4*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Botogra+ o! a GaAs MMIC 1a H."3GH( $+converter4
Te, t,+icall, +er!orm !$nctions s$c as microwave mi/ing, +ower am+li!ication, low noise
am+li!ication, an) ig !re#$enc, switcing* In+$ts an) o$t+$ts on MMIC )evices are !re#$entl,
matce) to a caracteristic im+e)ance o! 9' oms* Tis ma<es tem easier to $se, as casca)ing o!
MMICs )oes not ten re#$ire an e/ternal matcing networ<* A))itionall, most microwave test
e#$i+ment is )esigne) to o+erate in a 9' om environment*
MMICs are )imensionall, small 1!rom aro$n) " mm~ to "' mm~4 an) can %e mass +ro)$ce), wic as
allowe) te +roli!eration o! ig !re#$enc, )evices s$c as cell$lar +ones* MMICs were originall,
!a%ricate) $sing galli$m arseni)e 1GaAs4, a III.E com+o$n) semicon)$ctor* It as two !$n)amental
a)vantages over Silicon 1Si4, te tra)itional material !or IC realisationI )evice 1transistor4 s+ee) an) a
semi.ins$lating s$%strate* 7ot !actors el+ wit te )esign o! ig !re#$enc, circ$it !$nctions*
However, te s+ee) o! Si.%ase) tecnologies as gra)$all, increase) as transistor !eat$re si(es ave
re)$ce) an) MMICs can now also %e !a%ricate) in Si tecnolog,* Te +rimar, a)vantage o! Si
tecnolog, is cost* Te wa!er )iameters are larger 1t,+icall, 3- or "H- com+are) wit =- or 8- !or GaAs4
an) te wa!er costs are lower* Tis lea)s to m$c lower cost ICs*
Oter III.E tecnologies, s$c as In)i$m Bos+i)e 1InB4, ave %een sown to o!!er s$+erior
+er!ormance to GaAs in terms o! gain, iger c$to!! !re#$enc,, an) low noise* However te, also ten)
to %e more e/+ensive )$e to smaller wa!er si(es an) increase) material !ragilit,*
Silicon Germani$m 1SiGe4 is a Si.%ase) com+o$n) semicon)$ctor tecnolog, o!!ering iger s+ee)
transistors tan conventional Si )evices %$t wit similar cost a)vantages*
UNIT :I MICRO,2:* TU0*S 2ND MICRO,2:* M*2SUR*M*NTS
Frequency measurement&
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Co$nters an) +re.scalers !or )irect !re#$enc, meas$rement in terms o! a #$art( cr,stal re!erence
oscillator are o!ten $se) at lower !re#$encies, %$t te, give $+ c$rrentl, at !re#$encies a%ove a%o$t
"'GH(* An alternative is to meas$re te wavelengt o! microwaves an) calc$late te !re#$enc, !rom te
relationsi+ 1!re#$enc,4 times 1wavelengt4 f wave velocit,* O! co$rse, te )irect !re#$enc, co$nter
will give a !ar more acc$rate in)ication o! !re#$enc,* ?or man, +$r+oses te "m acc$rac, o! a
wavelengt meas$rement s$!!ices* A resonant cavit, ma)e !rom waveg$i)e wit a sli)ing sort can %e
$se) to meas$re !re#$enc, to a +recision an) +otential acc$rac, o! "Ke o! te cavit,, were e is te
#$alit, !actor o!ten in te range "'''."',''' !or +ractical cavities*
>Precision> an! >accuracy>&
Brecision is governe) %, te !ineness o! gra)$ations on a scale, or te -tolerance- wit wic a rea)ing
can %e ma)e* ?or e/am+le, on an or)inar, +lastic r$ler te gra)$ations ma, %e "KHmm at teir !inest,
an) tis re+resents te limiting +recision*
Acc$rac, is governe) %, weter te gra)$ations on te scale ave %een correctl, )rawn wit res+ect
to te original stan)ar)* ?or e/am+le, o$r +lastic r$ler ma, ave %een +$t into %oiling water an)
stretce) %, " +art in H'* Te meas$rements on tis r$ler ma, %e +recise to "KHmm, %$t in a "' cm
meas$rement te, will %e inacc$rate %, "'KH' cm or 9mm, ten times as m$c*
In a cavit, wavemeter, te +recision is set %, te cavit, e !actor wic sets te wi)t o! te
resonance* Te acc$rac, )e+en)s on te cali%ration, or even ow te scale as %een !orce) %,
+revio$s $sers win)ing )own te micrometer against te en) sto+***
,ave#engt$ measurement&
0avelengt is meas$re) %, means o! signal strengt sam+ling +ro%es wic are move) in te )irection
o! wave +ro+agation %, means o! a sli)ing carriage an) vernier )istance scale* Te signal strengt
varies %eca$se o! inter!erence %etween !orwar) an) %ac<war) +ro+agating wavesL tis gives rise to a
stan)ing wave +attern wit minima s+ace) "KH wavelengt*
At a !re#$enc, o! "' GH( te wavelengt in !ree s+ace is & cm* Hal! a wavelengt is "9mm an) a
vernier scale ma, meas$re tis to a +recision o! "KH'mm* Te e/+ecte) +recision o! meas$rement
is tere!ore " +art in &'' or a%o$t '*&&m
Te location o! a ma/im$m is less +recise tan te location o! a minim$mL te in)icating signal
strengt meter can %e set to ave a gain s$c tat te n$ll is ver, sar+l, )etermine)* In +ractice one
wo$l) average te +osition o! two +oints o! e#$al signal strengt eiter si)e o! te n$llL an) one wo$l)
also average te rea)ings ta<en wit te carriage moving in +ositive an) negative )irections to eliminate
%ac<las errors*
M$lti+le rea)ings wit error averaging can re)$ce te ran)om errors %, a !$rter !actor o! & !or a r$n
o! "' meas$rements*
Signa# strengt$ measurement
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Te "' GH( microwave signal in te waveg$i)e is -co++e)- %, te BIN mo)$lator at a !re#$enc, o!
"<H( 1a$)io4 an) te s#$are wave wic )oes tis is +rovi)e) %, te %enc +ower s$++l,*
Te )etector )io)es in te mo$nts on te wavemeter an) slotte) line recti!, an) !ilter tis "'GH(
AM signal an) ret$rn a "<H( s#$are wave wic ,o$ can o%serve )irectl, on te oscillosco+e* Te,
are act$all, %eing $se) as -envelo+e )etectors- as is te )etector )io)e in ,o$r AM ra)io*
Te ES0R in)icator is a "<H( t$ne) a$)io am+li!ier wit G')7 ),namic range at least, an) a
cali%rate) atten$ator sets its gain* Te meter meas$res te si(e o! te a$)io signal at "<H(*
2n ?(an! s#otte! #ine
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
2not$er e)am%#e of an ?(an! s#otte! #ine&
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
S,R tune! am%#ifier meter an! in!icator
Since te )etectors are -s#$are law- teir o$t+$t voltage is +ro+ortional to te s#$are o! te
microwave signal voltage* Regar)e) as a linear meter ten, te ES0R in)icator gives a )e!lection
+ro+ortional to te BO0ER o! te microwave signal 1EiEKho4* Tat is te reason !or te c$rio$s
cali%ration on te ES0R scales*
Hal! scale )e!lection on te ES0R meter tere!ore re+resents a microwave voltage o! "Ks#rt1H4 or '*G'G
o! tat corres+on)ing to !$ll scale )e!lection*
Moreover, te ES0R meter is cali%rate) -%ac<war)s- in tat one sets te voltage ma/im$m at !$ll scale
)e!lection, ten rea)s te ES0R !rom te voltage minim$m* T$s te cali%ration +oint at al! scale
)e!lection is act$all, "K'*G'G or "*="= ES0R* Cec< tis* At "K"' o! !$ll scale )e!lection te ES0R
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
cali%ration +oint is s#rt1"'4 or &*"8* At tis +oint one increases te gain %, a !actor o! "' wit te main
atten$ator a)@$stment, an) rea)s te ES0R scale !rom &*"8 to "' on te oter al! o! te ES0R
scale* Get a )emonstrator to sow ,o$ ow i! tis isnDt ,et clear*
Note tat te gain )7 scales an) te atten$ator on te ES0R in)icator corres+on) to BO0ER o!
te microwave signal, not to BO0ER o! te "<H( a$)io in+$t*
Measurements of im%e!ance an! ref#ection coefficient&
A visit to ,o$r !avo$rite microwave %oo< sows tat a meas$rement o! te stan)ing wave ratio alone is
s$!!icient to )etermine te magnit$)e, or mo)$l$s, o! te com+le/ re!lection coe!!icient* In t$rn tis
gives te ret$rn loss !rom a loa) )irectl,* Te stan)ing wave ratio ma, %e meas$re) )irectl, $sing a
travelling signal strengt +ro%e in a slotte) line* Te slot in waveg$i)e is c$t so tat it )oes not c$t an,
o! te c$rrent !low in te insi)e s$r!ace o! te g$i)e wall* It tere!ore )oes not )ist$r% te !iel) +attern
an) )oes not ra)iate an) contri%$te to te loss* In te J %an) waveg$i)e slotte) lines in o$r la%, tere
is a !errite !ringing collar wic a))itionall, con!ines te energ, to te g$i)e*
To )etermine te +ase o! te re!lection coe!!icient we nee) to !in) o$t te +osition o! a stan)ing wave
minim$m wit res+ect to a -re!erence +lane-* Te +roce)$re is as !ollowsI.
?irst, meas$re te g$i)e wavelengt, an) recor) it wit its associate) acc$rac, estimate*
Secon), !in) te +osition o! a stan)ing wave minim$m !or te loa) %eing meas$re), in terms o!
te ar%itrar, scale gra)$ations o! te vernier scale*
Tir), re+lace te loa) wit a sort to esta%lis a re!erence +lane at te loa) +osition, an) meas$re te
closest minim$m 1wic will %e a )ee+ n$ll4 in terms o! te ar%itrar, scale gra)$ations o! te vernier
scale* E/+ress te )istance %etween te meas$rement !or te loa) an) te sort as a !raction o! a g$i)e
wavelengt, an) note i! te sort meas$rement as move) -towar)s te generator- or -towar)s te
loa)-* Te )istance will alwa,s %e less tan "K= g$i)e wavelengt towar)s te nearest minim$m*
?o$rt, locate te r } " line on te SMITH cart an) set ,o$r )ivi)ers so tat te, are on te centre o!
te cart at one en), an) on te meas$re) ES0R at te oter along te r } " line* 1Tat is, i! ES0R f
"*G, !in) te val$e r f "*G4*
?i!t, locate te sort circ$it +oint on te SMITH cart at wic r f ', an) / f ', an) co$nt ro$n)
towar)s te generator or loa) te !raction o! a g$i)e wavelengt )etermine) %, te +osition o!
te minim$m*
0ell )one* I! ,o$ +lot te +oint o$t !rom te centre o! te SMITH cart a )istance -ES0R- an) ro$n)
as in)icate) ,o$ will %e a%le to rea) o!! te normalise) loa) im+e)ance in terms o! te line or g$i)e
caracteristic im+e)ance* Te !raction o! )istance o$t !rom centre to rim o! te SMITH cart re+resents
te mo)$l$s o! te re!lection coe!!icient 5mo)1gamma46 an) te angle ro$n) !rom te r}" line in
)egrees re+resents te +ase angle o! te re!lection coe!!icient 5arg1gamma46*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
Microwave wavegui!e enc$es&
Tese )emonstration %ences intro)$ce te novice st$)ent to te essentials o! te %eavio$r o!
microwaves in te la%orator,* Te wavelengt is convenient at te o+erating !re#$enc, in J %an) 13."H
GH( a++ro/4 Te waveg$i)e $se) is 0GA', so calle) %eca$se te +rinci+al waveg$i)e )imension is
'*A'' inces, A'' -to$- or -mils- )e+en)ing on weter ,o$ are $sing 7ritis or American +arlance*
Te g$i)e wavelengt at "' GH( in 0GA' is notionall, &*A3 cm 1te !ree s+ace wavelengt is & cm4 so
te stan)ing wave +attern re+eats at a )istance o! a%o$t H cm*
2n ?(an! wavegui!e enc$&
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
2not$er ?(an! wavegui!e enc$+ use! for transmitting&
Te %ences incl$)e an atten$ator, an) an isolator* 7ot o! tese el+ to sto+ te re!lecte) +ower !rom
reacing te oscillator an) +$lling te !re#$enc, o! te cavit, an) G$nn )io)e o!! t$ne wen te loa)
im+e)ance is varie)*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
2n iso#ator+ ma!e from a magnet an! ferrite(#oa!e! wavegui!e&
Tere is a )$al )irectional co$+ler, arrange) as a +air o! crosse) waveg$i)es, wic sam+les some o!
te !orwar) wave +ower an) co$+les it to a cali%rate) cavit, wavemeter !or meas$ring te oscillator
!re#$enc,* Ta<en togeter wit a meas$rement o! g$i)e wavelengt, we ave ten two in)e+en)ent
cec<s on te oscillator !re#$enc,* Tere is also a BIN mo)$lator wic co+s te "'GH( signal at a
!re#$enc, o! "KH( s#$are wave*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
T$e PIN mo!u#ator+ !irectiona# cou%#er+ an! %art of t$e wavemeter sca#e&
Te g$i)e wavelengt is an im+ortant +ro+ert, to %e meas$re), an) so$l) not %e cange) )$ring te
co$rse o! a series o! meas$rements* A al! g$i)e wavelengt 1a%o$t H cm4 re+resents a +lot o! once
ro$n) te SMITH cart* As remar<e), we can )etermine te +osition o! a minim$m to a%o$t "KH'mm
+recision, or a%o$t " )egree o! angle aro$n) te cart* Tat re+resents '*''"H9 lam%)a error in te +ase
+lot on te SMITH cart*
Networ< ana#ysers&
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
A networ< anal,ser ma<es meas$rements o! com+le/ re!lection coe!!icients on H.+ort microwave
networ<s* In a))ition, it can ma<e meas$rements o! te com+le/ am+lit$)e ratio %etween te o$tgoing
wave on one +ort an) te incoming wave on te oter* Tere are t$s !o$r +ossi%le com+le/ am+lit$)e
ratios wic can %e meas$re)* I! we )esignate te two +orts " an) H res+ectivel,, tese ratios ma, %e
written s"" s"H sH" sHH* Tese are te !o$r -s.+arameters- or -scattering +arameters- !or te networ<*
Togeter te, ma, %e assem%le) into a matri/ calle) te -s.matri/- or -scattering matri/-*
Te networ< anal,ser wor<s on a )i!!erent +rinci+le to te slotte) line* It !orms s$ms an) )i!!erences o!
te +ort c$rrents an) voltages, %, $sing a c$nning %ri)ge arrangement* Te +ase angles are !o$n) %,
$sing s,ncrono$s )etection aving in.+ase an) #$a)rat$re com+onents* ?rom te meas$re) voltage
an) c$rrents it )etermines te incoming an) o$tgoing wave am+lit$)es* As we recall !rom elsewere in
te notes, Eg f 1E g hoI4KH an) E. f 1E . hoI4KH*
Networ< anal,sers can %e a$tomate) an) controlle) %, com+$ter, an) ma<e meas$rements at a series o!
)i!!erent !re#$encies )erive) !rom a com+$ter controlle) master oscillator* Te, ten +lot te s.
+arameters against !re#$enc,, eiter on a SMITH cart or )irectl,*
Te im+ortant e/+erimental tecni#$e to te $se o! a networ< anal,ser lies in te cali%ration +roce)$re*
It is $s$al to +resent te anal,ser wit <nown scattering events, !rom matce) terminations an) sort
circ$its at <nown +laces* It can ten a)@$st its +resentation o! s.+arameters !or im+er!ections in te
transmission lines connecting te anal,ser to te networ<, so tat te $ser never as to consi)er te
errors )irectl, +rovi)ing eKse can tr$st te cali%ration +roce)$re* It is even +ossi%le to cali%rate o$t te
e!!ects o! intervening transmission com+onents, s$c as ci+ +ac<ages, an) meas$re te -%are- s.
+arameters o! a ci+ at re!erence +lanes on.ci+*
MAHALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE ,TRICHY
2 networ< ana#yser SMIT" c$art %#ot of a !i%o#e