Transforming Data

into Information
This lesson includes the following
sections:
• How Computers Represent Data
• How Computers Process Data
• Factors Affecting Processing Speed
• Extending the Processor's Power to
Other Devices
How Computers Represent Data
• Binary Numbers
• The Binary Number System
• Bits and Bytes
• Text Codes
How Computers Represent Data
– Binary Numbers
• Computer processing is performed by transistors,
which are switches with only two possible states: on
and off.

• All computer data is converted to a series of binary

numbers– 1 and 0. For example, you see a sentence as
a collection of letters, but the computer sees each
letter as a collection of 1s and 0s.

• If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it has

a value of 0, it is off. A computer's transistors can be
switched on and off millions of times each second.
Ten different
symbols in
the decimal
system

Numbers above 9
use more than 1 digit
Base 10 Base 2
The Binary Number System
0 0
• To convert data into strings of 1 1
numbers, computers use the binary
number system. 2 10
3 11
• Humans use the decimal system
4 100
(“deci” stands for “ten”).
5 101
• The binary number system works the 6 110
same way as the decimal system, but
has only two available symbols (0 and 7 111
1) rather than ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1000
8, and 9).
9 1001
10 1010
How Computers Represent Data - Bits and Bytes

• A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1

or 0.

• Computers work with collections of bits, grouping

them to represent larger pieces of data, such as letters
of the alphabet.
.

• Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of

memory needed to store one alphanumeric character.

• With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256

different symbols or characters.
1 01 10 1 01 01 1 01
How Computers Represent Data - Text Codes
• A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s
and 0s) to represent characters understood by humans
(letters and numerals).

• An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-

bit codes, but is used primarily in older mainframe
systems.

• In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each

character consists of eight bits (one byte) of data.
ASCII is used in nearly all personal computers.

• In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of

16 bits (two bytes) of data.
Code Character
00110000 0
00110001 1
00110010 2
Examples from the
00110011 3
ASCII Text Code
00110100 4
00110101 5
01000001 A
01000010 B
01000011 C
01000100 D
01000101 E
How Computers Process Data

Where Processing Occurs:

• The Control Unit

• The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Machine Cycles
• The Role of Memory in Processing
• Types of RAM
How Computers Process Data –
Where Processing Occurs

• Processing takes place in the PC's central processing

unit (CPU).

• The system's memory also plays a crucial role in

processing data.

• Both the CPU and memory are attached to the

system's motherboard, which connects all the
computer's devices together, enabling them to
communicate.
How Computers Process Data –
The Control Unit

The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

• The control unit directs the flow of data through the

CPU, and to and from other devices.

• The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which

contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can
perform.
How Computers Process Data –
The Arithmetic Logic Unit

• The actual manipulation of data takes place in the

ALU.

• The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic

operations.

• The ALU is connected to a set of registers—small

memory areas in the CPU, which hold data and
program instructions while they are being processed.
ALU Operations List

Arithmetic Logical
Operations Operations
+ Add =, ≠ equal to, not equal to

− Subtract >, > greater than, not greater

than
x Multiply <, < less than, not less than
÷ Divide ≥, ≥ greater than or equal to,
not greater than or equal to
^ Raise by a power ≤, ≤ less than or equal to,
not less than or equal to
How Computers Process Data –
Machine Cycles
• The CPU follows a set of steps-called a machine cycle-
for each instruction it carries out.

• By using a technique called pipelining, many CPUs can

process more than one instruction at a time.

• The machine cycle includes two smaller cycles:

During the instruction cycle, the CPU "fetches" a

command or data from memory and "decodes" it for
the CPU.

During the execution cycle, the CPU carries out the

instruction, and may store the instruction's result in
memory.
How Computers Process Data –
The Role of Memory

• RAM stores data and program code needed by the

CPU. The contents of RAM change rapidly and often.

• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or

permanent). It holds instructions that run the
computer when the power is first turned on.

• The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a

unique number, called the memory address.
How Computers Process Data -
Types of RAM

There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged

with electricity very frequently, or they will lose their
contents.

• Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be recharged

as often as DRAM, and can hold its contents longer.

Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its

contents after power is turned off. Flash memory is used
in digital cameras to store pictures.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed

• Registers

• RAM

• The System Clock

• The Bus

• Cache Memory
Factors Affecting Processing Speed – Registers

• The CPU contains a number of small memory areas,

called registers, which store data and instructions
while the CPU processes them.

• The size of the registers (also called word size)

determines the amount of data with which the
computer can work at a one time.

• Today, most PCs have 32-bit registers, mean the CPU

can process four bytes of data at one time. Register
sizes are rapidly growing to 64 bits.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed – RAM
• The amount of RAM in a PC has a direct affect on
the system's speed.

• The more RAM a PC has, the more program

instructions and data can be held in memory, which
is faster than storage on disk.

• If a PC does not have enough memory to run a

program, it must move data between RAM and the
hard disk frequently. This process, called swapping,
can greatly slow a PC's performance.
More RAM = Better Performance!
Factors Affecting Processing Speed –
The System Clock
• The computer's system clock sets the pace for the CPU
by using a vibrating quartz crystal.

• A single "tick" of the clock is the time required to turn

a transistor off and back on. This is called a clock
cycle.

• Clock cycles are measured in Hertz (Hz), a measure of

cycles per second. If a computer has a clock speed of
300 MHz, then its system clock "ticks" 300 million
times every second.

• The faster a PC's clock runs, the more instructions the

PC can execute each second.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed –
The Bus
• A bus is a path between the components of a
computer. Data and instructions travel along these
paths.

• The data bus' width determines how many bits can be

transmitted between the CPU and other devices.

• The address bus runs only between the CPU and

RAM, and carries nothing but memory addresses for
the CPU to use.

• Peripheral devices are connected to the CPU by an

expansion bus.
Factors Affecting Processing Speed –
Cache Memory

• Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the

most recent data and instructions that have been
loaded by the CPU.

• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the

CPU and RAM, making it faster than normal RAM.

• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache.

External cache is called Level-2 (L2) cache.

• The amount of cache memory has a tremendous

impact on the computer's speed.
Extending the Processor's Power
to Other Devices
• Ports

• Expansion Slots and Boards

Extending the Processor's Power
to Other Devices – Ports
• External devices—such as those used for input and
output—are connected to the system by ports on the
back of the computer.

• PCs feature a number of built-in ports, which are

ready to accept devices such as a printer, mouse,
keyboard, phone line, microphone and speakers,
and others.

• Most computers come with a serial port and a

parallel port. A serial port transmits one bit of data
at a time; a parallel port transmits data one byte at
a time.
Adding Other Devices –
Expansion Slots and Boards
• If the PC does not have a port for an external device,
you can install an expansion board into one of the
empty expansion slots.

• A board provides the correct port for the new device,

and connects the device to the CPU by way of the
computer's expansion bus.

• Newer bus technologies such as Universal Serial Bus

(USB) and IEEE 1394 enable many devices to be
connected to one port.

• Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is an older

standard for extending the bus to multiple devices
through a single port.
lesson 7 Review

• List two reasons why computers use the binary

number system.
• List the two main parts of the CPU and explain how
they work together.
• Explain the difference between RAM and ROM.
• Identify two RAM technologies used in PCs.
• List three hardware factors that affect processing
speed.
• Identify four connections used to attach devices to a
PC.