Fundamental of

Computers

Dr. Himanshu Gupta

Senior Faculty Member
AIIT, AMITY University, Noida.
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device used to process data.
• A computer can convert data into information that is
useful to people.
• A complete computer system includes four distinct
parts:
Hardware
Software
Data
User
Hardware

• A computer's hardware consists of electronic

devices; the parts you can see and touch.

• The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware

used by the computer, such as a keyboard,
monitor, modem, mouse, etc.
Software

• Software – also called programs – consists of organized

sets of instructions for controlling the computer.

• Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help it

manage its own tasks and devices.

• Other programs exist for the user, and enable the

computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating
documents.
Data
• Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can
manipulate and process into information that is
useful to people.
• Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has
been reduced to digits, or numbers. The computer
stores and reads all data as numbers.
• Although computers use data in digital form, they
convert data into forms that people can
understand, such as text, numerals, sounds, and
images.
Users
• People are the computer's operators, or users.

• Some types of computers can operate without

much intervention from people, but personal
computers are designed specifically for use by
people.
Computer Architecture

• Types of Hardware
• The CPU
• Memory
• How Memory is Measured
• Input and Output Devices
• Storage Devices
Types of Hardware

A computer's hardware devices are categorized as

follows:
• Processor
• Memory
• Input and output (I/O) devices
• Storage devices
01101111
10001111
01101010 10000000
01001010
CPU
The procedure that The processor
transforms raw data is also called
into useful the central
information is called processing
processing. This unit (CPU). It
function is divided manages all
between the devices and
computer's processor performs the
and memory. actual
processing of
data.

The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the

computer's main circuit board (the motherboard).
Memory
• Memory also consists of chips attached to the
motherboard.

• Memory holds data and program instructions as

the CPU works with them. This memory is called
Random Access Memory (RAM).

• The CPU can find any piece of data

in RAM, when it needs it for processing.

• RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data

only when the power is on. When the power
is off, RAM's contents are lost.
How Memory is Measured

• The smallest usable unit of measure for memory is

the byte – the amount of memory required to hold
one character, like the letter A or the numeral 2.
• Computers work with larger chunks of data,
measured in multiple bytes, as shown below:

Unit Approx. Value Actual Value

(bytes) (bytes)

Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 1,048,576
Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 1,073,741,824
Terabyte (TB) 1,000,000,000,000 1,099,511,627,776
Input and Output Devices

• Input devices accept data and instructions from the

user or from another computer system. The keyboard
and mouse are examples of input devices.

• Output devices return processed data back to the

user or to another computer system. The printer and
monitor are examples.

• Communications devices (such as modems and

network interface cards) perform both input and
output, allowing computers to share information.
Storage Devices
• Storage devices hold data not currently being used
by the CPU. Data is commonly stored on a magnetic
or optical disk. Each type uses a special medium for
storing data on its surface.

• A disk drive is a device that reads data from and

writes data to a disk. Most new computers feature a
floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive, and an optical
disk drive.

• The most common optical storage devices are CD-

ROM and DVD-ROM drives.
Software

• Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells

the computer how to do certain tasks. A set of
instructions is often called a program.

• When a computer is using a particular program, it is

said to be running or executing the program.

• The two most common types of programs are system

software and application software.
System Software
• System software exists primarily for the computer
itself, to help the computer perform specific
functions.

• One major type of system software is the operating

system (OS). All computers require an operating
system.

• The OS tells the computer how to interact with the

user and its own devices.

• Common operating systems include Windows, the

Macintosh OS, OS/2, and UNIX .
Applications Software
• Application software tells the computer how to
accomplish tasks the user requires, such as creating a
document or editing a graphic image.
• Some important kinds of application software are:

Word processing programs Spreadsheet software

Database management Presentation programs
Graphics programs Networking software
Web design tools and browsers Internet applications
Communications programs Utilities
Entertainment and education Multimedia authoring
Computer Classifications
Super Computers
Mainframe Computers
Mini Computers
Workstation
Micro Computers (PC)
How Computers Represent Data

• Binary Numbers
• The Binary Number System
• Bits and Bytes
• Text Codes
Binary Numbers
• Computer processing is performed by transistors,
which are switches with only two possible states: on
and off.

• All computer data is converted to a series of binary

numbers– 1 and 0. For example, you see a sentence as
a collection of letters, but the computer sees each
letter as a collection of 1s and 0s.

• If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it has

a value of 0, it is off. A computer's transistors can be
switched on and off millions of times each second.
Base 10 Base 2
The Binary Number System
0 0
• To convert data into strings of 1 1
numbers, computers use the binary
number system.
2 10
3 11
• Humans use the decimal system
4 100
(“deci” stands for “ten”).
5 101
• The binary number system works the 6 110
same way as the decimal system, but
has only two available symbols (0 and 7 111
1) rather than ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1000
8, and 9).
9 1001
10 1010
How Computers Represent Data - Bits and
Bytes
• A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1
or 0.

• Computers work with collections of bits, grouping

them to represent larger pieces of data, such as letters
of the alphabet.
.

• Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of

memory needed to store one alphanumeric character.

• With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256

different symbols or characters.
1 01 10 1 01 01 1 01
How Computers Represent Data - Text Codes
• A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s
and 0s) to represent characters understood by humans
(letters and numerals).

• An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-

bit codes, but is used primarily in older mainframe
systems.

• In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each

character consists of eight bits (one byte) of data.
ASCII is used in nearly all personal computers.

• In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of

16 bits (two bytes) of data.
Code Character
00110000 0
00110001 1
00110010 2
Examples from the 00110011 3
ASCII Text Code
00110100 4
00110101 5
01000001 A
01000010 B
01000011 C
01000100 D
01000101 E
How Computers Process Data

Where Processing Occurs:

• The Control Unit

• The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Machine Cycles

• The Role of Memory in Processing

• Types of RAM
CPU

• Processing takes place in the PC's central processing

unit (CPU).

• The system's memory also plays a crucial role in

processing data.

• Both the CPU and memory are attached to the

system's motherboard, which connects all the
computer's devices together, enabling them to
communicate.
The Control Unit

The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

• The control unit directs the flow of data through the

CPU, and to and from other devices.

• The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which

contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can
perform.
The Arithmetic Logic Unit

• The actual manipulation of data takes place in the

ALU.

• The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic

operations.

• The ALU is connected to a set of registers—small

memory areas in the CPU, which hold data and
program instructions while they are being processed.
ALU Operations List

Arithmetic Logical
Operations Operations
+ Add =, ≠ equal to, not equal to
− Subtract >, > greater than, not greater
than
x Multiply <, < less than, not less than
÷ Divide ≥, ≥ greater than or equal to,
not greater than or equal to
^ Raise by a power ≤, ≤ less than or equal to,
not less than or equal to
Memory
• RAM stores data and program code needed by the
CPU. The contents of RAM change rapidly and often.

• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or

permanent). It holds instructions that run the
computer when the power is first turned on.

• The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a

unique number, called the memory address.
Types of RAM

There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged

with electricity very frequently, or they will lose their
contents.

• Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be recharged

as often as DRAM, and can hold its contents longer.

Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its

contents after power is turned off. Flash memory is used
in digital cameras to store pictures.
More RAM = Better Performance!
Cache Memory
• Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the
most recent data and instructions that have been
loaded by the CPU.

• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the

CPU and RAM, making it faster than normal RAM.

• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache.

External cache is called Level-2 (L2) cache.

• The amount of cache memory has a tremendous

impact on the computer's speed.
Operating system

• The operating system manages all the other

programs that run on the PC.

• The operating system provides services to programs

and the user, including file management, memory
management, and printing

• To provide services to programs, the OS makes

system calls—requesting other hardware and
software resources to perform tasks.
Operating System - Multitasking
• Multitasking is the capability of running multiple
processes simultaneously.

• A multitasking OS lets you run multiple programs at

the same time.

• Through multitasking, you can do several chores at

one time, such as printing a document while
downloading a file from the Internet.

• There are two types of multitasking: cooperative and

preemptive.
Operating System - Managing Files
• The operating system keeps track of all the files on
each disk.

• Users can make file management easier by creating

a hierarchical file system that includes folders and
subfolders arranged in a logical order.
Operating system - Managing Hardware
• The OS uses interrupt requests (IRQs) to maintain
organized communication with the CPU and other
pieces of hardware.

• Each hardware device is controlled by a piece of

software, called a driver, which allows the OS to
activate and use the device.

• The operating system provides the software

necessary to link computers and form a network.
The User Interface
• Graphical User Interfaces
(GUIs)

• Command-Line Interfaces
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
• Most modern operating systems, like Windows and
the Macintosh OS, provide a graphical user interface
(GUI).

• A GUI lets you control the system by using a mouse

to click graphical objects on screen.

• A GUI is based on the desktop metaphor. Graphical

objects appear on a background (the desktop),
representing resources you can use.
Icons
Program
running in
Desktop
a window
Window control buttons

Start menu
Start button
Dialog box
Taskbar
.
Command-Line Interfaces
• Some older operating systems, such as DOS and
UNIX, use command-line interfaces.

• In a command-line interface, you type commands at a

prompt.

• Under command-line interfaces, individual

applications do not need to look or function the same
way, so different programs can look very different
Databases and Database Management
Systems

• The Difference between Databases and DBMSes

• Database Basics

• DBMSes Basics
The Difference between Databases and
DBMSes
• A database is a repository for collections of related
data or facts.

• A database management system (DBMS) is a

software tool that lets users add, view, and work
with the data in a database.

• Large databases and DBMS’ are commonly used by

companies, but many productivity applications are
built around database concepts.
Databases and DBMSes - Database Basics
Databases use three main structures for organizing
data:
• Fields, which store various pieces of data related
to a single entity.

• Records, or collections of fields relating to an

entity.

• Tables, which are collections of related records.

The two primary types of databases are flat-file

databases (with only one table) and relational databases
(with multiple, related tables).
Field

Record
PROFESSIONAL ADDRESS BOOK

Table
Databases and DBMSes - DBMS Basics
A DBMS allows users to access and manage the data
collected in a database.

Data management tasks (all done through the DBMS)

can be divided into three categories:

• Entering data into the database.

• Sorting (rearranging) the data in the database.

• Obtaining subsets of the data for use.

Computer Network

A network connects computers so they can communicate,

exchange information, and share resources.

The main benefits of using a network are:

• Simultaneous Access

• Shared Peripheral Devices

• Personal Communication
The Uses of a Network - Simultaneous Access

• In organizations, many people may need to use the

same data or programs. A network solves this
problem.

• Shared data and programs can be stored on a

central network server. A server that stores data
files may be called a file server.

• Managers may assign access rights to users. Some

users may only be able to read data, others may be
able to make changes to existing files.
The Uses of a Network -Shared Peripheral
Devices
• Because peripheral (external) devices like printers
can be expensive, it is cost-effective to connect a
device to a network so users can share it.

• Through a process called spooling, users can send

multiple documents (called print jobs) to a
networked printer at the same time. The documents
are temporarily stored on the server and printed in
turn.
The Uses of a Network - Personal
Communication
• One of the most common uses of networks is for
electronic mail (e-mail).

• An e-mail system enables users to exchange written

messages (often with data files attached) across the
local network or over the Internet.

• Two other popular network-based communications

systems are teleconferencing and videoconferencing.
1 2 3 4
Type of Networks – Local Area Networks
(LANs)
• A LAN is a network whose computers are located
relatively near one another. The nodes may be
connected by a cable, infrared link, or small
transmitters.

• A network transmits data among computers by

breaking it into small pieces, called packets.

• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that

governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
Type of Networks – Wide Area Networks
(WANs)
• Multiple LANs can be connected together using
devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which
enable them to share data.

• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together.

The LANs can be many miles apart.

• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data

over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links
such as satellites.
Type A
header

Payload Type A
header

Payload

ROUTER ROUTER
Significant
geographical
SERVER distance SERVER

Type A
header

Payload

LAN 1 LAN 2

WAN
Networks Structure – Client/Server Networks

• In client/server computing, individual nodes share the

processing and storage workload with the server.

• Client/server networks require specialized software

that enables nodes and the server to collaborate on
processing and storage, but no special type of network
hardware.
1 3

2
Networks Structure – Peer-to-Peer Networks

• In a peer-to-peer network, all nodes have an equal

relation to one another.

• Each node usually has access to some resources on

other nodes, so users can share files, programs, or
devices on other users' systems.

• Some peer-to-peer networks use a server, but some

do not.
Network Topologies for LANs
A network's topology is the layout of the cables and
devices that connect the nodes. The four most common
network topologies are:

• Bus. Each node is connected in series along a

single conduit.

• Star. All nodes are connected to a central hub.

• Ring. Nodes are connected in a circular chain,

with the conduit beginning and ending at the
same computer.

• Mesh. Each node has a separate connection to

every other node.
Network Media and Hardware
• In a network, the media are the wires, cables and other
means by which data travels from its source to its
destination.

• The most common network media are twisted-pair

cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless
links.

• Each node uses a special device, called a network

interface card (NIC). The card connects to the
network media and controls the flow of data.

• NICs must use a common network technology to

communicate. The most popular network technologies
for LANs are Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring.
Word Processing Programs and Their Uses
• Word processors provide tools for creating, editing,
and formatting text-based documents.

• You can use a word processor to create virtually any

type of document, from a simple letter to a complete
book.

• A word processor's formatting tools let you create

professional-quality documents easily.
Word processors provide tools to produce
professional looking documents.
The Word Processor's Interface
Most Windows-based word processors offer a similar
set of tools, which you use to navigate, edit, and format
documents:

• Document area

• Menu bar

• Toolbars

• Rulers

• Scroll Bars

• Status Bar
Menu bar Toolbars

Ruler Scroll bar

Scroll boxes

Document area
Status bar
Spreadsheet Programs and Their Uses

• Spreadsheets provide tools for working with

numerical data.

• You can use a spreadsheet program to create

budgets, balance sheets, and other types of
number- based documents.

• You can display your information in a traditional

row-and-column format, or in a chart.
Report using
color and graphics

Classic row and column

format
The Spreadsheet's Interface
• In a spreadsheet program, you work in a document
called a worksheet. You can collect multiple
worksheets into a file called a workbook.

• Most Windows-based word spreadsheets offer a

similar set of tools, including a formula bar, where
you can enter and edit data.

• Data is displayed in cells. A cell is the intersection

of a row and column.

• Each cell has a cell address – the combination of

the cell's column letter and row number.
Cell Menu bar
Tool bars Formula bar

Row

Column Scroll boxes

Status bar