Control engineering

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on
mathematical modelling of systems of a diverse nature, analyzing their
dynamic behavior, and using control theory to create a controller that will
cause the systems to behave in a desired manner.

Contents
• 1 Background
• 2 Control systems
• 3 See also
• 4 External links

Modern control engineering is closely related to electrical and computer

engineering (E&CE), as electronic circuits can often be easily described using
control theory techniques. At many universities, control engineering courses
are primarily taught by E&CE faculty members. Previous to modern
electronics, process control devices were devised by mechanical engineers
using mechanical feedback along with pneumatic and hydraulic control
devices, some of which are still in use today.
The field of control within chemical engineering is often known as process
control. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in
a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical
engineering program, and employs many of the same principles in control
engineering.
Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering, as it can
be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived.
Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance
management, and even human behaviour. Students of control engineering may
start with a linear control system course which requires elementary
mathematics and Laplace transforms (called classical control theory). In linear
control, the student does frequency and time domain analysis. Digital control
and non-linear control courses require Z Transformations and algebra
respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education. From
here onwards there are several sub branches.
Control systems play a critical role in space flight
Control engineering is the engineering discipline that focuses on the modelling
of a diverse range of dynamic systems (e.g mechanical systems) and the
design of controllers that will cause these systems to behave in the desired
manner. Although such controllers need not be electrical many are and hence
control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering.
Electrical circuits, digital signal processors and microcontrollers can all be
used to implement Control systems. Control engineering has a wide range of
applications from the flight and propulsion systems of commercial airliners to
the cruise control present in many modern automobiles.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when designing control systems. For
example, in an automobile with cruise control the vehicle's speed is
continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the motor's
speed accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, control theory can be used
to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such
systems stability is important and control theory can help ensure stability is
achieved.
Although feedback is an important aspect of control engineering, control
engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is
known as open loop control. A classic example of open loop control is a
washing machine that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of
sensors.

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

Control Systems
• Adaptive control
• Building Automation
• Coefficient diagram method
• Control reconfiguration
• Feedback
• H infinity
• Intelligent control
• Laplace transform
• Model predictive control
• Non-linear control
• Optimal control
• Process control
• Quantitative feedback theory
• Robotic unicycle
• Robust control
• Servomechanism
• State space
• VisSim
• Control Labs Worldwide
• Control & Instrumentation Systems Engineering program at KFUPM,
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
• Control Engineering articles, like designing safety circuits
• Nanorobotics Control - Computational Nanomechatronics Lab. at
Center for Automation in Nanobiotech (CAN)
• masters in control systems
• The Michigan Chemical Engineering Process Dynamics and Controls
Open Textbook
Digital signal processing
Theory — Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, estimation theory, detection
theory
Sub-fields — audio signal processing | control engineering | digital image
processing | speech processing | statistical signal processing
Techniques — Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) | Discrete-time Fourier
transform (DTFT) | bilinear transform | Z-transform, advanced Z-transform
Sampling — oversampling | undersampling | downsampling | upsampling |
aliasing | anti-aliasing filter | sampling rate | Nyquist rate/frequency
This box: view • talk • edit

Robotic unicycle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The problem of creating a robotic unicycle, a self-powered unicycle that
balances itself in three dimensions, is an interesting problem in robotics and
control theory. Balancing such a vehicle is a similar control problem to
balancing an inverted pendulum.
The theoretical work on the unicycle problem is complemented by work on the
construction of actual mechanically ridden unicycles.
A number of vehicles are almost robotic unicycles:
The Segway is a vehicle which is capable of automatically balancing itself in
the forwards-and-backwards direction, but has two parallel wheels rather than
being capable of balancing from side to side.
The Eunicycle is a powered unicycle that is capable of balancing itself
forwards and backwards automatically, but requires a human rider to balance
it from side to side.
In 2003, Bombardier announced a conceptual design for such a device used as
a sport vehicle, the EMBRIO. It is unclear whether Bombardier intends to
create a working prototype of this vehicle.

Contents
• 1 Trivia
• 2 References
• 3 See also
• 4 External links

• Pixar's 1987 animated film "Red's Dream" depicts a

computer-animated unicycle riding itself. It is unclear to what
degree this provided motivation for the research described
above.
• S. V. Ulyanov et. al. Soft computing for the intelligent robust
control of a robotic unicycle with a new physical measure for
mechanical controllability. Soft Computing Volume 2 Issue 2
(1998) pp 73-88.
• Zenkov, DV, AM Bloch, and JE Marsden [1999] Stabilization of
the Unicycle with Rider. Proc. CDC 38, 3470-3471 (pdf format
available here)
• Zenkov, DV, AM Bloch, NE Leonard and JE Marsden, Matching
and Stabilization of Low-dimensional Nonholonomic Systems.
Proc. CDC, 39, (2000), 1289-1295. (pdf format available here)
• Sheng, Zaiquan; Yamafuji, Kazuo: Realization of a Human
Riding a Unicycle by a Robot. Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE
International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 2
(c1995), pp 1319 - 1326
• A. Schoonwinkel, "Design and test of a computer stabilized
unicycle," Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, California,
1987.
• Inverted pendulum
• Unicycle physics
• Lyapunov-Malkin theorem
• GizmoDuck
• Eunicycle - an example of a powered unicycle that self-
balances front-and-back, but needs to be balanced by the
rider side-to-side
• http://www.ifr.mavt.ethz.ch/movic98/proceedings/78c.pdf
another paper
• An interesting post from the Unicycling mailing list
• Mike Hinson's collection of unicyling, robotics, and physics
links
• Bombardier Recreation Products EMBRIO one-wheeled
recreational vehicle concept design
• The loonycycle, which superficially resembles a simple
robotic unicycle, but uses side-thrusting fans for lateral
balance
• Rosie the Robot - a Question of Balance Ken Perlin's page on
robotic unicycles, with designs and java applet examples.
• Pixar - Red's Dream
• A robotic unicycle built for a university engineering project
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About

PID controller
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from PID loop)

Jump to: navigation, search

A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic

control loop feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. A
PID controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process
variable and a desired setpoint by calculating and then outputting a corrective
action that can adjust the process accordingly.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters;
the Proportional, the Integral and Derivative values. The Proportional value
determines the reaction to the current error, the Integral determines the
reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the Derivative determines the
reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of
these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as
the position of a control valve or the power supply of a heating element.
By "tuning" the three constants in the PID controller algorithm the PID can
provide control action designed for specific process requirements. The
response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of
the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the
setpoint and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID
algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the
appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired
control outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I
controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are
particularly common, since derivative action is very sensitive to measurement
noise, and the absence of an integral value prevents the system from reaching
its target value due to the control action.
A block diagram of a PID controller

Note: Due to the diversity of the field of control theory and application, many
naming conventions for the relevant variables are in common use.

Contents
• 1 Control loop basics
• 2 PID controller theory
○ 2.1 Proportional term
○ 2.2 Integral term
○ 2.3 Derivative term
○ 2.4 Summary
• 3 Loop tuning
○ 3.1 Ziegler-Nichols method
○ 3.2 PID tuning software
• 4 Modifications to the PID algorithm
• 5 Limitations of PID control
• 6 Physical implementation of PID control
• 7 Alternative Nomenclature and PID forms
○ 7.1 Pseudocode
○ 7.2 Ideal vs Standard PID form
○ 7.3 Series / interacting form
• 8 See also
• 9 External links
○ 9.1 PID tutorials
○ 9.2 Simulations
○ 9.3 Special topics and PID control applications
• 10 References

A familiar example of a control loop is the action taken to keep one's shower
water at the ideal temperature. The person feels the water to estimate its
temperature. Based on this measurement they perform a control action: use
the hot water tap to adjust the process. The person would repeat this input-
output control loop, adjusting the hot water flow until the process temperature
stabilized at the desired value.
Feeling the water temperature is taking a measurement of the process value or
process variable (PV). The desired temperature is called the setpoint (SP).
The output from the controller and input to the process (the tap position) is
called the manipulated variable (MV). The difference between the
measurement and the setpoint is the error (e), too hot or too cold and by how
much.
As a controller, one decides roughly how much to change the tap position
(MV) after one determines the temperature (PV), and therefore the error. This
first estimate is the equivalent of the proportional action of a PID controller.
The integral action of a PID controller can be thought of as gradually
adjusting the temperature when it is almost right. Derivative action can be
thought of as making smaller and smaller changes as one gets close to the right
temperature and stopping when it is just right, rather than going too far.
Making a change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a
high gain controller and will lead to overshoot. If the controller were to
repeatedly make changes that were too large and repeatedly overshoot the
target, this control loop would be termed unstable and the output would
oscillate around the setpoint in either a constant, a growing or a decaying
sinusoid. A human would not do this because we are adaptive controllers,
learning from the process history, but PID controllers do not have the ability to
learn and must be set up correctly. Selecting the correct gains for effective
control is known as tuning the controller.
If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further
changes by the controller will be in response to changes in other measured or
unmeasured inputs to the process that impact on the process, and hence on the
PV. Variables that impact on the process other than the MV are known as
disturbances and generally controllers are used to reject disturbances and/or
implement setpoint changes. Changes in feed water temperature constitute a
disturbance to the shower process.
In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a
measurable output (PV), a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input
to the process (MV) that will affect the relevant PV. Controllers are used in
industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical composition,
level in a tank containing fluid, speed and practically every other variable for
which a measurement exists. Automobile cruise control is an example of a
process which utilizes automated control.
Due to their long history, simplicity, well grounded theory and simple setup
and maintenance requirements, PID controllers are the controllers of choice
for many of these applications.
Note: This section describes the ideal parallel or non-interacting form of the
PID controller. For other forms please see the Section "Alternative notation
and PID forms".
The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum
constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). Hence:

where Pout, Iout, and Dout are the contributions to the output from the PID
controller from each of the three terms, as defined below.
The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the
current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying
the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain.
The proportional term is given by:

Where
• Pout: Proportional output
• Kp: Proportional Gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
Change of response for varying Kp

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given
change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become
unstable (See the section on Loop Tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in
a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive (or
sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may
be too small when responding to system disturbances.
In the absence of disturbances pure proportional control will not settle at its
target value, but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the
proportional gain and the process gain. Despite the steady-state offset, both
tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the proportional term
that should contribute the bulk of the output change.
The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude
of the error and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error
over time (integrating the error) gives the accumulated offset that should have
been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the
integral gain and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the
contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by
the integral gain, Ki.
The integral term is given by:
Change of response for varying Ki

Where
• Iout: Integral output
• Ki: Integral Gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• τ: Time in the past contributing to the integral response
The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the
movement of the process towards setpoint and eliminates the residual steady-
state error that occurs with a proportional only controller. However, since the
integral term is responding to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause
the present value to overshoot the setpoint value (cross over the setpoint and
then create a deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding
integral gain tuning and controller stability, see the section on Loop Tuning.
The rate of change of the process error is calculated by determining the slope
of the error over time (i.e. its first derivative with respect to time) and
multiplying this rate of change by the derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the
contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the
derivative gain, Kd.
The derivative term is given by:
Change of response for varying Kd

Where
• Dout: Derivative output
• Kd: Derivative Gain, a tuning parameter
• e: Error = SP − PV
• t: Time or instantaneous time (the present)
The derivative term slows the rate of change of the controller output and this
effect is most noticeable close to the controller setpoint. Hence, derivative
control is used to reduce the magnitude of the overshoot produced by the
integral component and improve the combined controller-process stability.
However, differentiation of a signal amplifies noise in the signal and thus this
term in the controller is highly sensitive to noise in the error term, and can
cause a process to become unstable if the noise and the derivative gain are
sufficiently large.
The output from the three terms, the proportional, the integral and the
derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller.
Defining u(t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:

and the tuning parameters are

1. Kp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster
response since the larger the error, the larger the feedback
to compensate. An excessively large proportional gain will
lead to process instability.
2. Ki: Integral Gain - Larger Ki implies steady state errors are
eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger overshoot: any
negative error integrated during transient response must be
integrated away by positive error before we reach steady
state.
3. Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but
slows down transient response and may lead to instability.
If the PID controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral and
derivative terms) are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be
unstable, i.e. its output diverges, with or without oscillation, and is limited
only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning a control loop is the
adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral
gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired control
response.
The optimum behavior on a process change or setpoint change varies
depending on the application. Some processes must not allow an overshoot of
the process variable beyond the setpoint if, for example, this would be unsafe.
Other processes must minimize the energy expended in reaching a new
setpoint. Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required
and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions
and setpoints. Some processes have a degree of non-linearity and so
parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work when the process
is starting up from no-load. This section describes some traditional manual
methods for loop tuning.
There are several methods for tuning a PID loop. The most effective methods
generally involve the development of some form of process model, then
choosing P, I, and D based on the dynamic model parameters. Manual "tune
by feel" methods can be inefficient.
The choice of method will depend largely on whether or not the loop can be
taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If the system
can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the
system to a step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time,
and using this response to determine the control parameters.
Choosing a Tuning Method

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Process upset, some

Ziegler-
Proven Method. Online method. trial-and-error, very
Nichols
aggressive tuning

Tune By No math required. Online method. Erratic, not repeatable

Feel

Consistent tuning. Online or offline

Softwar method. May include valve and Some cost and training
e Tools sensor analysis. Allow simulation involved.
before downloading.

Some math. Offline

Cohen-
Good process models. method. Only good for
Coon
first-order processes.

If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I and D
values to zero. Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates, then the P
should be left set to be approximately half of that value for a "quarter
amplitude decay" type response. Then increase I until any offset is correct in
sufficient time for the process. However, too much I will cause instability.
Finally, increase D, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its
reference after a load disturbance. However, too much D will cause excessive
response and overshoot. A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to
reach the setpoint more quickly; however, some systems cannot accept
overshoot, in which case an "over damped" tune is required, which will
require a P setting significantly less than half that of the P setting causing
oscillation.
Effects of increasing parameters

Parame Oversh Settling S.S.

Rise Time
ter oot Time Error

Small Decrea
Kp Decrease Increase
Change se

Elimina
Ki Decrease Increase Increase
te

Small Decreas
Kd Decrease None
Change e

Another tuning method is formally known as the Ziegler-Nichols method,

introduced by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols. As in the method
above, the I and D gains are first set to zero. The "P" gain is increased until it
reaches the "critical gain" Kc at which the output of the loop starts to oscillate.
Kc and the oscillation period Pc are used to set the gains as shown:
Ziegler-Nichols method

Control Kp Ki Kd
Type

0.5·K
P - -
c

0.45· 1.2Kp /
PI -
Kc Pc

0.6·K KpPc /
PID 2Kp / Pc
c 8

Most modern industrial facilities no longer tune loops using the manual
calculation methods shown above. Instead, PID tuning and loop optimization
software are used to ensure consistent results. These software packages will
gather the data, develop process models, and suggest optimal tuning. Some
software packages can even develop tuning by gathering data from reference
changes.
Mathematical PID loop tuning induces an impulse in the system, and then uses
the controlled system's frequency response to design the PID loop values. In
loops with response times of several minutes, mathematical loop tuning is
recommended, because trial and error can literally take days just to find a
stable set of loop values. Optimal values are harder to find. Some digital loop
controllers offer a self-tuning feature in which very small setpoint changes are
sent to the process, allowing the controller itself to calculate optimal tuning
values.
Other formulas are available to tune the loop according to different
performance criteria.
The basic PID algorithm presents some challenges in control applications that
have been addressed by minor modifications to the PID form.
One common problem resulting from the ideal PID implementations is integral
windup. This can be addressed by:
• Initializing the controller integral to a desired value,
commonly the process present value for startup problems
• Disabling the integral function until the PV has entered the
controllable region
• Limiting the time period over which the integral error is
calculated
• Preventing the integral term from accumulating above or
below pre-determined bounds
Many PID loops control a mechanical device (for example, a valve).
Mechanical maintenance can be a major cost and wear leads to control
degradation in the form of either stiction or a deadband in the mechanical
response to an input signal. The rate of mechanical wear is mainly a function
of how often a device is activated to make a change. Where wear is a
significant concern, the PID loop may have an output deadband to reduce the
frequency of activation of the output (valve). This is accomplished by
modifying the controller to hold its output steady if the change would be small
(within the defined deadband range). The calculated output must leave the
deadband before the actual output will change.
The proportional and differential terms can produce excessive movement in
the output when a system is subjected to an instantaneous "step" increase in
the error, such as a large setpoint change. In the case of the derivative term,
this is due to taking the derivative of the error, which is very large in the case
of an instantaneous step change. As a result, some PID algorithms incorporate
the following modifications:
• derivative of output In this case the PID controller
measures the differential of the output quantity, rather than
the derivative of the error. The output is always continuous
(i.e., never has a step change). For this to be effective, the
derivative of the output must have the same sign as the
derivative of the error.
• setpoint ramping In this modification, the setpoint is
gradually moved from its old value to a newly specified value
using a linear or first order differential ramp function. This
avoids the discontinuity present in a simple step change.
• setpoint weighting Setpoint weighting uses different
multipliers for the error depending on which element of the
controller it is used in. The error in the integral term must be
the true control error to avoid steady-state control errors.
This affects the controller's setpoint response. These
parameters do not affect the response to load disturbances
and measurement noise.
While PID controllers are applicable to many control problems, they can
perform poorly in some applications.
PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID
loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot,
oscillate or "hunt" about the control setpoint value. The control system
performance can be improved by combining the PID controller functionality
with that of a Feed-Forward control output as described in Control Theory.
Any information or intelligence derived from the system state can be "fed
forward" or combined with the PID output to improve the overall system
performance. The Feed-Forward value alone can often provide a major portion
of the controller output. The PID controller can then be used to respond to
whatever difference or "error" that remains between the controller setpoint and
the feedback value. Since the Feed-Forward output is not a function of the
process feedback, it can never cause the control system to oscillate, thus
improving the system response and stability.
For example, in most motion control systems, in order to accelerate a
mechanical load under control, more force or torque is required from the
prime mover, motor or actuator. If a velocity loop PID controller is being used
to control the speed of the load and command the force or torque being applied
by the prime mover, then it is beneficial to take the instantaneous acceleration
desired for the load, scale that value appropriately and add it to the output of
the PID velocity loop controller. This means that whenever the load is being
accelerated or decelerated, a proportional amount of force is commanded from
the prime mover regardless of the feedback value. The PID loop in this
situation uses the feedback information to effect any increase or decrease of
the combined output in order to reduce the remaining difference between the
process setpoint and the feedback value. Working together, the combined
Feed-Forward open loop controller and closed loop PID controller can provide
more responsive, stable and reliable control systems.
Another problem faced with PID controllers is that they are linear. Thus,
performance of PID controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC
systems) is variable. Often PID controllers are enhanced through methods
such as gain scheduling or fuzzy logic. Further practical application issues can
arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. A high enough
sampling rate and measurement precision and measurement accuracy (more
relevant to FF and MPC).
A problem with the differential term is that small amounts of measurement or
process noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it is
helpful to filter the measurements, with a running average, also known as a
low-pass filter. However, low-pass filtering and derivative control cancel each
other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation means is a much better choice.
Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in most systems with
little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PID controller as a PI
controller.
In the early history of automatic process control the PID controller was
implemented as a mechanical device. These mechanical controllers used a
lever, spring and a mass and were often energized by compressed air. These
pneumatic controllers were once the industry standard.
Electronic analog controllers can be made from a solid-state or tube amplifier,
a capacitor and a resistance. Electronic analog PID control loops were often
found within more complex electronic systems, for example, the head
positioning of a disk drive, the power conditioning of a power supply, or even
the movement-detection circuit of a modern seismometer. Nowadays,
electronic controllers have largely been replaced by digital controllers
implemented with microcontrollers or FPGAs.
Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in software in
programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or as a panel-mounted digital
controller. Software implementations have the advantages that they are
relatively cheap, highly reliable and reasonably flexible with respect to the
implementation of the PID algorithm.
Here is a simple software loop that implements the PID algorithm:
start:
previous_error = error or 0 if undefined
error = setpoint - actual_position
P = Kp * error
I = I + Ki * error * dt
D = Kd * (error - previous_error) / dt
output = P + I + D
wait(dt)
goto start
Note that the form of the PID controller most often encountered in industry,
and the one most relevant to tuning algorithms is the "standard form". In this
form the Kp gain is applied to the Iout, and Dout terms, yielding:

Where
Ti is the Integral Time

Td is the Derivative Time

In the ideal parallel form, shown in the Controller Theory section

the gain parameters are related to the parameters of the standard form through

and Kd = KpTd. This parallel form, where the parameters are treated
as simple gains, is the most general and flexible form. However, it is also the
form where the parameters have the least physical interpretation and is
generally reserved for theoretical treatment of the PID controller. The
"standard" form, despite being slightly more complex mathematically, is more
common in industry.
Another representation of the PID controller is the series, or "interacting"
form. This form essentially consists of a PD and PI controller in series, and it
made early (analog) controllers easier to build. When the controllers later
became digital, many kept using the interacting form.
• Feedback
• Control Theory
• Instability
• Oscillation
• Oscillation (mathematics)
• What is PID? A Tutorial Overview
• Introduction to Closed-Loop Control
• PID Tutorial
• P.I.D. Without a PhD: a beginner's guide to PID loop theory
with sample programming code
• What's All This P-I-D Stuff, Anyhow? Article in Electronic
Design
• Shows how to build a PID controller with basic electronic
components go to page 22
• Tuning loops quickly at start-up
• PID controller using MatLab and Simulink
• PID controller laboratory, Java applets for PID tuning
• Good, basic PID simulation in Excel
• Proven Methods and Best Practices for PID Control
• Inverted Pendulum Based on Microcontroller, a version of
AN964 Microchip
• Liptak, Bela (1995). Instrument Engineers' Handbook: Process
Control. Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Company, 20-29.
ISBN 0-8019-8242-1.
• Van, Doren, Vance J. (July 1, 2003). "Loop Tuning
Fundamentals". Control Engineering. Red Business
Information.
• Sellers, David. An Overview of Proportional plus Integral plus
Derivative Control and Suggestions for Its Successful
Application and Implementation (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-05-
05.
• Articles, Whitepapers, and tutorials on PID control
• Graham, Ron (10/03/2005). FAQ on PID controller tuning.
Retrieved on 2007-05-05.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PID_controller"
Categories: Control theory | Control engineering | Control devices | Classical
control
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