CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING In feedback control, the variable being controlled is measured and compared with a target value. This difference between the actual and desired value is called the error. Feedback control manipulates an input to the system to minimize this error. Figure below shows an overview of a basic feedback control loop. The error in the system would be the Output - Desired Output. Desired at ‘Output inal Output aS onto) ++ Control Process - ¥ Decision manent Sensor |= Measured Output Feedback control reacts to the system and works to minimize this error. The desired output is generally entered into the system through a user interface. The output of the system is measured (by a flow meter, thermometer or similar instrument) and the difference is calculated. This difference is used to control the system inputs to reduce the error in the system.Ju Sto understand the principle of feedback control, consider Figure below. In order to bake cookies, one has to preheat an electric oven to 350°F, After setting the desired temperature, a sensor takes a reading inside the oven. If the oven is below the set temperature, a signal is sent to the heater to power on until the oven heats to the desired temperature. In this example, the variable to be controlled (oven temperature) is measured and determines how the input variable (heat into oven) should be manipulated to reach the desired value. Power Temp * Switch =) Even x SYSTEMS ss ENGINEERING Temp SettingCONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Feedback control can also be demonstrated with human behavior. For example, if a person goes outside in winter, he or she will experience a temperature drop in the skin. The brain (controller) receives this signal and generates a motor action to put on a jacket. This minimizes the discrepancy between the skin temperature and the physiological set point in the person. The example is illustrated below:CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING There are two types of feedback control: Negative Feedback - the most useful control type since it typically helps a system converge toward an equilibrium state Positive Feedback — this feedback can lead a system away from an equilibrium state thus rendering it unstable, even potentially producing unexpected results.u wy. & CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING By definition, negative feedback is when a change (increase/decrease) in some variable results in an opposite change (decrease/increase) in a second variable. This is demonstrated in Figure below where a loop represents a variation toward a plus that triggers a correction toward the minus, and vice versa. Negative feedback leads to a tight control situation whereby the corrective action taken by the controller forces the controlled variable toward the set point, thus leading the system to oscillate round equilibrium. Situation at the start equilibrium Set Point situation at theCONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING As opposed to negative feedback, positive feedback is when a change (increase/decrease) in some variable results in a subsequently similar change (increase/decrease) in a second variable. In some cases, positive feedback leads to an undesirable behavior whereby the system diverges away from equilibrium. This can cause the system to either run away toward infinity, risking an expansion or even an explosion, or run away toward zero, which leads to a total blocking of activities as shown in the Figure below Explosion BockngyIn this section, we establish an orderly sequence for the design of feedback control systems that will be followed as we progress through the rest of the book. Figure below shows the described process as well as the chapters in which the steps are discussed. Sep Sep? Sep Step Steps Sup i ze IEmukiple Analyze, eae Woks, rece |} desig, ads a physica Dawa traslem toobnina ; theblock tosce that system and function tke psa || eck diagram, || | terial || #8 Le iaoramios >| rauironents speictions block syitomimo [°] ° sient ow a ee, “ from te ingen aschenaic dagen, | | TKeetiop | | qucieaions reqirenens. xs syuce ste, aremet epiceotnion CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERINGCONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Step 1: Transform Requirements Into a Physical System We begin by transforming the requirements into a physical system. Step 2: Draw a Functional Block Diagram The designer now translates a qualitative description of the system into a functional block diagram that describes the component parts of the system (that is, function and/or hardware) and shows their interconnection. At this point the designer may produce a detailed layout of the system from which the next phase of the analysis and design sequence, developing a schematic diagram, can be launched. Step 3: Create a Schematic After producing the description of a physical system, the control systems engineer transforms the physical system into a schematic diagram. The control system designer can begin with the physical description to derive a schematic. The engineer must make approximations about the system and neglect certain phenomena, or else the schematic will be unwieldy, making it diffificult to extract a useful mathematical model during the next phase of the analysis and design sequence.CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Mode! (Block Diagram) Once the schematic is drawn, the designer uses physical laws, such as Kirchhoff's laws for electrical networks and Newton's law for mechanical systems, along with simplifying assumptions, to model the system mathematically. Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram Subsystem models are interconnected to form block diagrams of larger systems where each block has a mathematical description. Once the block diagram is reduced, we are ready to analyze and design the system. Step 6: Analyze and Design The next phase of the process, following block diagram reduction, is analysis and design. If you are interested only in the performance of an individual subsystem, you can skip the block diagram reduction and move immediately into analysis and design. In this phase, the engineer analyzes the system to see if the response specififications and performance requirements can be met by simple adjustments of system parameters. If specifications cannot be met, the designer then designs additional hardware in order to effect a desired performance.CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Control systems engineering is an exciting field in which to apply your engineering talents, because it cuts across numerous disciplines and numerous functions within those disciplines. The control engineer can be found at the top level of large projects, engaged at the conceptual phase in determining or implementing overall system requirements. These requirements include total system performance specifications, subsystem functions, and the interconnection of these functions, including interface requirements, hardware and software design, and test plans and procedures. Many engineers are engaged in only one area, such as circuit design or software development. However, as a control systems engineer, you may fifind yourself working in a broad arena and interacting with people from numerous branches of engineering and the sciences. For example, if you are working on a biological system, you will need to interact with colleagues in the biological sciences, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and computer engineering, not to mention mathematics and physics. You will be working with these engineers at all levels of project development from concept through design and, finally, testing. At the design level, the control systems engineer can be performing hardware selection, design, and interface, including total subsystem design to meet specified requirements. The control engineer can be working with sensors and motors as well as electronic, pneumatic, and hydraulicCONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Control systems contribute to every aspect of modern society. In our homes we find them in everything from toasters to heating systems to DVD players. Control systems also have widespread applications in science and industry, from steering ships and planes to guiding missiles. Control systems also exist naturally; our bodies contain numerous control systems. Even economic and psychological system representations have been proposed based on control system theory. Control systems are used where power gain, remote control, or conversion of the form of the input is required. A control system has an input, a process, and an output. Control systems can be open loop or closed loop. Open-loop systems do not monitor or correct the output for disturbances; however, they are simpler and less expensive than closed-loop systems. Closed-loop systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error is detected, the system corrects the output and hence corrects the effects of disturbances.CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Control systems analysis and design focuses on three primary objectives: 1. Producing the desired transient response 2. Reducing steady-state errors 3. Achieving stability Asystem must be stable in order to produce the proper transient and steady-state response. Transient response is important because it affects the speed of the system and influences human patience and comfort, not to mention mechanical stress. Steady-state response determines the accuracy of the control system; it governs how closely the output matches the desired response.The design of a control system follows these steps: Step 1 Determine a physical system and specifications from requirements. Step 2 Draw a functional block diagram. Step 3 Represent the physical system as a schematic. Step 4 Use the schematic to obtain a mathematical model, such as a block diagram. Step 5 Reduce the block diagram. Step 6 Analyze and design the system to meet specified requirements and specifications that include stability, [i 0 N T R 0 L transient response, and steady-state performance. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING