ECE 391

supplemental notes - #1

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Lumped vs. Distributed Circuits

Lumped-Element Circuits:
•  Physical dimensions of circuit are such that voltage
across and current through conductors connecting
elements does not vary.
•  Current in two-terminal lumped circuit element does not
vary (phase change or transit time are neglected)

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Lumped vs. Distributed Circuits
Distributed Circuits:
•  Current varies along conductors and elements;
•  Voltage across points along conductor or within element
varies
è phase change or transit time cannot be neglected

Example: 25 cm

f = 300MHz vp=c è∞

c 3 ×108 ms
λ= = = 1m
f 300 ×10 6 1s
current
wavelength λ
= 1 period in space distance
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Example: Hybrid Microwave

Integrated Circuit (MIC)
distributed element

transmission line
interconnection

lumped element

èlow loss
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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When Do We Need to Consider
Transmission Lines Efects
digital domain analog domain
100% λ
90%
10%
0% distance
tr tf
risetime falltime

flight time (delay time) td=d/vp maximum dimension d

tr, tf vs td d vs λ
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Lumped vs. Distributed

td = length/velocity
Z0, td

VS RL
vs (t ) = v0 u (t )

§  Rule-of-thumb (heuristic)

Delay time td = length of line / velocity
Rise time of signal tr (fall time tf)

Signal path can be treated as

lumped element" distributed element"
if! tr td > 6 if! t r td < 2.5
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Example
•  CMOS Buffer with tr = tf = 0.5 ns
•  FR-4 PCB (velocity ≈ 0.45 c)
•  Note: VDD
vp ≈ c εr signal εr
gnd

Determine maximum distance d so that tr/td > 6

tr/td = tr/(d/vp) > 6 è d < tr vp/6

d < 0.5ns * (0.45*30cm/ns)/6 = 1.125 cm ≈ 11 mm

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

TL Problem Classification
“faster board”
risetime
0 2.5td 6td
clock reset signals
simulate and check after no problems with critical timing (or
layout of ckt go for it! edge sensitivity)
simulate and non-critical signals
consider quick no problems
check after (e.g. data lines with
hand analysis go for it!
layout of ckt tsu ≈ 6 td)
simulate and status signals; slow,
check after no problems expected insensitive lines
layout of ckt
In this region,
other consid.
begin to surface
(EMI, crosstalk)
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Sinusoidal Signals

V0 cos(2π ft)
= V0 cos(ω t)

z

phase constant
V0 cos(ω (t − td )
ω 2π
β= = = V0 cos(ω t − ω td )
vp λ z
= V0 cos(ω t − ω ) = V0 cos(ω t − β z)
vp
In practice: lumped if td < 0.1 T (d < 0.1 λ)
safely lumped if d < 0.01λ 9
Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Illustration

CH1 CH2

time
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Example: Lumped vs. Distributed
For example, the spatial dependence z of the current
i(z, t) = I 0 cos(ω t − β z)
in a conductor can be neglected if z λ << 1.
1.25
Example: f = 100 MHz
1
Normalized current I(z,t=0) 0.75 f = 1GHz
0.5
0.25 f = 10 GHz
0
-0.25
-0.5
-0.75
-1
-1.25
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Distance (cm)

resistor
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Concept: Electrical Length

•  Electrical length (θ, E) is a measure of the
physical length expressed in terms of
wavelength λ

z
θ = E = 2π (in radians)
λ
z
θ = E = 360 0 (in degrees)
λ
z
E= (as fraction of wavelength)
λ
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Transmission Line Examples

coaxial line two-wire line (also twisted-pair)

microstrip stripline

coplanar strip (CPS) coplanar waveguide (CPW)

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Transmission Lines/Interconnects
§  What is a transmission line?
–  lumped vs. distributed circuit?
–  how many conductors?
§  Types of transmission lines
–  on-chip (à transmission line?)
–  off chip
–  PCB, packages
–  cables (coax, twisted pair, …)
–  etc.
§  Applications of transmission lines
–  interconnections
§  signal transmission
§  power transmission
–  circuit elements/functional components (at high frequencies)
§  filters (e.g. coupled lines, stubs, …)
§  couplers
§  power dividers
§  matching networks
–  …
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Interconnect Technologies

Inter- Line Line Max.

connection Width Thickness Length
On-chip Type (µm) (µm) (cm)

On-Chip 0.5-2 0.5-2 0.3-1.5

Package Thin-Film 10-25 5-8 20-45

75-10
PCB Ceramic 16-25 20-50
0
60-10
 PCB
0
8-70 40-70

cables, etc.
Source: IBM (plus changes)

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Transmission Line –
Characteristic Dimensions
Cross-sectional Dimensions
<< wavelength

D << λ D L

D
L
L < λ  L >> λ
Lengths vary from fractions of a
wavelength to many wavelengths
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Model for Transmission Line

Note: here R,L,G,C

generic equivalent
circuit model represent total values
per section

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Transmission Line Parameters

Cross-sectional view of typical uniform interconnects:

§  Capacitance between conductors, C (F/m)

§  Inductance of conductor loop, L (H/m)
§  Resistance of conductors (conductor loss), R (Ω/m)
§  Shunt conductance (dielectric loss), G (S/m)

R,L,G,C are specified as per-unit-length parameters

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Derivation of Transmission Line Equations

∂i(z, t )
− [v(z + Δz, t ) − v(z , t )] = LΔz
∂t
∂v(z + Δz , t )
− [i (z + Δz, t ) − i(z, t )] = CΔz
∂t
Note: here L,C are per-unit-length parameters
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Transmission Line Equations

Lossless transmission line
i
∂i(z, t )
− [v(z + Δz, t ) − v(z , t )] = LΔz
∂t
∂v(z + Δz , t )
− [i (z + Δz, t ) − i(z, t )] = CΔz
∂t

after taking Δz → 0

Telegrapher’s Equations
∂v( z , t ) ∂i ( z , t ) ∂i ( z , t ) ∂v( z , t )
− =L − =C
∂z ∂t ∂z ∂t

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Wave Equations
∂v( z , t ) ∂i ( z , t ) ∂i ( z , t ) ∂v( z , t )
− =L − =C
∂z ∂t ∂z ∂t

Wave Equations

∂ 2 v( z , t ) ∂ 2 v( z , t ) 1 ∂ 2 v( z , t )
= LC =
∂z 2 ∂t 2 v 2p ∂t 2

∂ 2i ( z , t ) ∂ 2i ( z , t ) 1 ∂ 2i ( z , t )
= LC = 2
∂z 2 ∂t 2 vp ∂t 2

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

General Wave Solutions

∂ 2v ∂ 2v 1 ∂ 2v
= LC =
∂z 2 ∂t 2 v 2p ∂t 2

General Solution for Voltage

v( z , t ) = v + ( z − v p t ) + v − ( z + v p t )
= v + (t − z / v p ) + v − (t + z / v p )

+z direction -z direction
1
Velocity of Propagation vp = (m/s )
LC
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Illustration of Space–Time Variation of
Single Traveling Wave
v( z , t ) = v + ( z − v p t ) + v − ( z + v p t )
= v + (t − z / v p ) + v − (t + z / v p )

vp

vp

time distance
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Wave Solutions for Current

i( z, t ) = i + (t − z / v p ) + i − (t + z / v p )
∂v( z, t ) ∂i( z, t ) ∂i( z, t ) ∂v( z, t )
− =L − =C
∂z ∂t ∂z ∂t

1 +
vp
{ } {
v (t − z / v p ) − v − (t + z / v p ) = L i + (t − z / v p ) + i − (t + z / v p ) }
1 −
vp
{ } {
i (t − z / v p ) − i − (t + z / v p ) = C v + (t − z / v p ) + v − (t + z / v p ) }

v + (t − z / v p ) v − (t + z / v p )
i( z, t ) = −
Z0 Z0
1 L
Characteristic Impedance Z0 = v p L = = (Ω)
v pC C
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Summary of
Transmission Line Parameters
•  Capacitance per-unit-length C (F/m)
•  Inductance per-unit-length L (H/m)
•  Characteristic impedance Z 0 (Ω)
•  Velocity of propagation v p (m/s)
•  Per-unit-length delay time t p = 1 v p (s/m)
•  Delay time (TD) t d = l v p = l t p (sec)
L 1
Z0 = vp = t p = LC td = l LC
C LC
L = Z0 v p = Z0 t p C = 1 (Z 0v p ) = t p Z 0
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Properties of Ideal Transmission Lines

§  C from 2D electro-static solution

§  L from 2D magneto-static solution

§  Velocity of propagation

1 1 c
vp = = = 0 c0 ≈ 30 cm/nsec
LC µ0 µ r ε 0ε r εr
(neglecting magnetic materials)
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Propagation Speeds for
Typical Dielectrics

Dielectric Rel. Dielectric Constant Propagation Delay time

εr speed
(cm/nsec)
per unit length
(ps/cm)
Polyimide 2.5 – 3.5 16-19 53 - 62
Silicon dioxide 3.9 15 66
Epoxy glass (PCB) 5.0 13 75
Alumina (ceramic) 9.5 10 103

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Example T-Line Structures

Parallel-Plate Line Coaxial Line

w
t

εr a

εr s
b

c

2πε 0ε r µ0 ⎛ b ⎞
w s C= L= ln⎜ ⎟
C = ε 0ε r L = µ0 ln(b a ) 2π ⎝ a ⎠
s w
µ ln(b a )
Z0 =
µ s 2ρ ε 0ε r 2π
Z0 = RDC =
wt ρ ρ
ε 0ε r w RDC = +
π a π (c − b 2 )
2 2

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Examples (cont’d)
r
r

s
s

2ρ ρ
RDC = RDC =
π r2 π r2
πε 2πε
C= C=
cosh −1
(s 2r ) cosh −1 (s r )
µ0 µ0
L= cosh −1 (s 2r ) L= cosh −1 (s r )
π 2π
1 µ0 1 µ0
Z0 = cosh −1 (s 2r ) Z0 = cosh −1 (s r )
π ε 2π ε

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

Examples (cont’d)
stripline microstrip
W
ε0
t

W
εr

εr
t
b
h

1 µ ⎛ 1+ w b ⎞ 1 µ ⎛ 4h ⎞
Z0 = ln⎜ ⎟ Z0 = ln⎜ ⎟
4 ε ⎜⎝ w b + t b ⎟⎠ 2π ε 0ε eff ⎝ d ⎠
1
C = εr d = 0.536w + 0.67t
c0 Z 0
Z0 ε eff ≈ 0.475ε r + 0.67
L = εr
c0
(very approximate!)
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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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Alternative Formulas
w

ε0
t

A
w

εr

εr
t
b
h

B

60Ω ⎛ 4b ⎞
Z 0,sym = ln⎜ ⎟ 87 Ω ⎛ 5.98h ⎞
ε r ⎜⎝ 0.67π (t + 0.8w) ⎟⎠ Z0 = ln⎜ ⎟
ε r + 1.41 ⎝ 0.8w + t ⎠
for w/b < 0.35 and
t/b < 0.25 for 0.1 < w/h < 2
and 1 < εr < 15
Z 0, sym (2 A, w, t , ε r ) * Z 0, sym (2 B, w, t , ε r )
Z 0,offset ≅ 2
Z 0, sym (2 A, w, t , ε r ) + Z 0, sym (2 B, w, t , ε r )

more accurate if 2A # 2A+t and 2B # 2B+t

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Oregon State University ECE391– Transmission Lines Spring Term 2014

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