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A Tektronix Company

TIP S A N D TECH N IQ UES F OR

Efficient DC Testing and Current–Voltage Characterization

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TIPS AND TECHNIQUES FOR

Efficient DC Testing and Current–Voltage Characterization

This e-guide explores some of the most common DC current vs. voltage (I-V) tests being performed today, the seemingly inherent complications posed by each, and how new
techniques can help to not only overcome these challenges but enhance efficiency and productivity, as well.

Contents
I-V Characterization of Two-Terminal Devices.. ............................................3

Characterizing the I-V Parameters of Three-Terminal Devices......................4

Measuring Resistance:
Configuring an Instrument to Properly Display Results................................5

Device Power and Efficiency Measurements..............................................6

DC Power Consumption Analysis for Low Power Devices...........................7

Characterizing Power Supply Transients....................................................8

2 T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s f o r E f f i c i e n t D C Te s t i n g a n d C u r r e n t – Vo l t a g e C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
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I-V Characterization of Two-Terminal Devices

The current-voltage (I-V) characteristic of

a two-terminal device is defined as the
relationship of the current through the device
and the voltage across its terminals. I-V
characterization is routinely performed in
research and development on a variety of
electronic two-terminal devices, including
resistors, diodes, LEDs, solar cells, and
sensors. I-V characterization of two-terminal
devices involves stepping the voltage Connections from a source measure unit (SMU)
level across a device or the current level instrument to a two-terminal device.
I-V Curve of an LED using a Model 2450 SourceMeter SMU Instrument. through a device from one level to another
®

and measuring the resulting currents or voltages in an operation that is known as a sweep. The
data collected is plotted with voltage on the X-axis and the current on the Y-axis to produce the
characteristic I-V curve.
Two-terminal I-V characterization can be greatly simplified with a source measure
Typically, test instrumentation such as power supplies and digital multimeters (DMMs) are used unit (SMU) instrument, such as Keithley’s 2450 or 2460 SourceMeter ® SMU
to perform these sweeps, however, this traditional method can be quite confusing for novice and Instrument, which combines the capabilities of a high resolution power supply
even experiences users. and a precision DMM into a single instrument.
• Configuring the instrumentation to perform sweeps can be complicated and requires • The source-measure-delay cycle ensures proper timing for the source to settle
programming if there is no built-in sweep capability. before measuring and performs sweeps without any external synchronization.
• Synchronizing multiple instruments to collect I-V curve data requires extensive instrument • Built-in sweep capabilities use either a source voltage/ measure current or source
knowledge and programming. current/measure voltage test method that can be configured quickly for faster results.
• Visualizing the data takes time. It must be moved from the instrument to a spreadsheet • Collected data can be viewed immediately via the Touch, Test, Invent® user interface.
application and a graph must be configured to properly display the I-V curve.
Number 3225
2450 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument
Easy I-V Characterization of Diodes
Application Note Using the Model 2450 SourceMeter®
Series
The Model 2450 is Keithley’s next-generation SourceMeter source measure
unit (SMU) Instrument that truly brings Ohm’s law (current, voltage, and
SMU Instrument

Easy I-V Characterization of Diodes Using the

resistance) testing right to your fingertips. Its innovative graphical user
interface (GUI) and advanced, capacitive touchscreen technology allow Introduction Diode I-V Tests
intuitive usage and minimize the learning curve to enable engineers and
scientists to learn faster, work smarter, and invent easier. The 2450 is the Diodes are two-terminal electronic devices that typically enable In general, the parameter testing of diodes typically involves
SMU for everyone: a versatile instrument, particularly well-suited for char- current to flow in one direction (forward bias) and block the being able to source and measure both current and voltage over
acterizing modern scaled semiconductors, nano-scale devices and materi-
a wide range. For example, while sweeping a forward voltage

Model 2450 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument

als, organic semiconductors, printed electronics, and other small-geometry current from flowing (reverse bias) in the opposite direction.
and low-power devices. All this combined with Keithley SMU precision and However, there are many types of diodes that perform various from 0V to about 1V, the resulting measured current can range

Model 2450 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument.

accuracy allow users to Touch, Test, InventTM with the new favorite go-to functions such as Zener, light emitting (LEDs), organic light from 10 –12A to 1A. However, the actual magnitudes, the types
instrument in the lab for years to come. emitting (OLEDs), Shockley, avalanche, photodiode, etc. of I-V tests, and the parameters extracted are dependent on the
Each of these specific types of diodes can be differentiated particular diodes to be tested. To test an LED, the user will want
Learn Faster, Work Smarter, Invent Easier by their current-voltage (I-V) characteristics. I-V testing of to measure the luminous intensity as a function of an applied
• Capabilities of analyzers,
Unlike conventional instruments with dedicated pushbutton technology and small, obscure, limit- diodes is performed in research labs as well as in a production current, whereas an engineer testing a Zener diode will want to
curve tracers, and I-V systems
at a fraction of their cost. ed-character displays, the 2450 features a five-inch, full-color, high resolution touchscreen that facil- environment on packaged devices or on a wafer. know the “clamped” or Zener voltage at a particular test current.
itates ease of use, learning, and optimizes overall speed and productivity. A simple icon-based menu However, there are many common tests among the various types
• Five-inch, high resolution structure reduces configuration steps by as much as 50 percent and eliminates the cumbersome I-V characterization of a diode typically requires a sensitive
of diodes.

Learn moare about Model 2450

capacitive touchscreen GUI multi-layer menu structures typically used on soft-key instruments. Built-in, context-sensitive help
enables intuitive operation and minimizes the need to review a separate manual. These capabilities
ammeter, voltmeter, voltage source, and current source. Being
• 0.012% basic measure accuracy able to program, synchronize, and connect all these separate A typical diode I-V curve is shown in Figure 2 indicating the
combined with its application versatility make the 2450 the SMU instrument inherently easy to
with 6½-digit resolution forward, reverse, and breakdown regions, as well as common
use for basic and advanced measurement applications, regardless of your experience level with instruments can be cumbersome and time consuming, as well
• Enhanced sensitivity with
SMU instruments. as require a considerable amount of rack or bench space. To test points, the forward voltage (V F), leakage current (IR), and
new 20mV and 10nA source/ simplify testing and reduce rack space, a single unit, such as the breakdown voltage (V R). The forward voltage test (V F)
measure ranges

Read the Application Note

Keithley’s Model 2450 SourceMeter SMU Instrument, is ideal involves sourcing a specified forward bias current within the
normal operating range of the diode, then measuring the

SourceMeter® SMU Instrument

• Source and sink (4-quadrant) for diode characterization because it can source and measure
operation both current and voltage. The Model 2450 can sweep the source resulting voltage drop. The leakage current test (IR) determines
voltage and measure current over many decades (10 –11A to 1A), the low level of current that leaks across the diode under reverse
• Four “Quickset” modes for fast
setup and measurements which is required for diode testing. These measurements can voltage conditions. This test is performed by sourcing a specified
be generated automatically over the bus or just as easily via the reverse voltage, then measuring the resulting leakage current.
• Built-in, context-sensitive front In the reverse breakdown voltage test (V R), a specified reverse
panel help large touchscreen, which enables the user to set up tests and
2450 main home screen. View of 2450 menu. graph them on the screen. The Model 2450 is pictured in Figure current bias is sourced and the resulting voltage drop across the
• Front panel input banana 1 sourcing voltage and measuring current on a red LED that is diode is measured.
jacks; rear panel input triaxial Fourth-Generation,
connections All-in-One SMU Instrument connected to its inputs in a four-wire configuration.
The 2450 is the fourth-generation member of
Quad. II +1A Quad. I
I
• 2450 SCPI and TSP scripting
®
Keithley’s award-winning SourceMeter family
programming modes of SMU instruments and leverages the proven
+100mA

Download the Data Sheet

capabilities of the Model 2400 SourceMeter SMU
• Model 2400 SCPI-compatible Instrument. It offers a highly flexible, four-quad- Forward
programming mode VF
rant voltage and current source/load coupled with -200V -20V +20V +200V

precision voltage and current meters. This all-in-

• Front panel USB memory
one instrument can be used as a: V
port for data/programming/ VR IR

SMU INSTRUMENTS
-100mA Reverse
configuration I/O • Precision power supply with V and I readback Breakdown
• True current source
• Digital multimeter (DCV, DCI, ohms, and Quad. III -1A Quad. IV
power with 6½-digit resolution).
• Precision electronic load 2450 power envelope. Figure 1. Model 2450 SourceMeter SMU Instrument measuring the I-V
• Trigger controller characteristics of a red LED.
Figure 2. Current-voltage curve of a typical diode showing the forward,
reverse, and breakdown regions.
This application note explains how to perform I-V
characterization on diodes easily using the Model 2450
SourceMeter SMU Instrument. In particular, it describes how Making Connections from the
1.888.KEITHLEY (U.S. only)
to take, graph, and store measurements using the front panel Diode to the Model 2450
www.keithley.com
A Greater Measure of Confidence A Tektronix Company user interface, as well as how to automate the measurements The diode is connected to the Model 2450 as shown in Figure 3.
over the bus. A four-wire connection is made to eliminate the effects of lead

3 T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s f o r E f f i c i e n t D C Te s t i n g a n d C u r r e n t – Vo l t a g e C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
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Characterizing the I-V Parameters of Three-Terminal Devices

Characterizing the I-V parameters of three-terminal devices, like MOSFETs is crucial to ensuring proper
operation in the intended application and in meeting specifications. Some of these I-V tests include
gate leakage, breakdown voltage, threshold voltage, transfer characteristics, drain current, and ON-
resistance. Though this process shares many similarities with two-terminal-device I-V characterization,
with three-terminal electronic components, the current-voltage relationship at one pair of terminals
is dependent on the current or voltage on a third terminal. The data from each sweep is plotted on
a complex current-voltage graph with multiple curves, each curve representing the current-voltage
relationship of the terminal pair at a different value of current or voltage on the third terminal.

Characterizing three-terminal devices often requires several instruments, including a sensitive

ammeter, multiple voltage sources, and a voltmeter.

• Integrating, programming, and synchronizing multiple instruments can be tedious and

time consuming. Tablet-based applications, such as the Keithley IVy Android
Application, provide immediate visualization and control of
• Instrument and device timing behaviors, setting proper ranges, offset corrections, etc., must a three-terminal “family of curves.”
be considered to get proper results.
• Requires writing programs or configuring pre-written test software to source voltage or current
in a certain range, then measure the current or voltage relationship.
• SMU instruments simplify three-terminal device testing by combining source and measure
operations into a single instrument, but at least two SMU instruments are required.
Number 3206
A Tektronix Company

Keithley has harnessed the power of mobile electronics to simplify the task of three-terminal Application Note
Series
Simplifying FET Testing with Series
2600B System SourceMeter® SMU
Instruments

device testing. The IVy Android Application for Keithley Series 2600B SourceMeter ® SMU Introduction
Field effect transistors (FETs) are important semiconductor
devices with many applications because they are fundamental
components of many devices and electronic instruments. Some
of the countless applications for FETs include their use as

instruments enables incredibly easy, interactive three-terminal device characterizing in just

amplifiers, memory devices, switches, logic devices, and sensors.
The most commonly used FET is the MOSFET, which is the basis
for digital integrated circuits.
Characterizing FETs’ current-voltage (I-V) parameters
is crucial to ensuring they work properly in their intended

three simple steps and with minimal setup. Learn what makes Keithley IVy the fastest
applications and meet specifications. Some of these I-V tests

Simplifying FET Testing with Series 2600B

may include gate leakage, breakdown voltage, threshold voltage,
transfer characteristics, drain current, on-resistance, etc. FET
Figure 1. Model 2636B with the TSP Express software tool generating a drain
testing often involves the use of several instruments, including family of curves on a MOSFET
a sensitive ammeter, multiple voltage sources, and a voltmeter.

System SourceMeter® SMU Instruments.

Programming and synchronizing multiple instruments, however, controls the current that flows from the source (IS) to the drain

and easiest way to create a family of curves for a three-terminal device.

can be tedious and time consuming. The use of a turnkey (ID) terminals.
semiconductor characterization system is one alternative
The many types of FETs include the MOSFET (metal-oxide-
approach that solves the integration problem and offers other
semiconductor), MESFET (metal-semiconductor), JFET (junction),
important benefits, but systems of this type typically cost tens
of thousands of dollars. A third approach involves using Source OFET (organic), GNRFET (graphene nano-ribbon), and CNTFET
Measurement Units (SMUs) to perform parameter testing on FETs (carbon nanotube). These FETs differ in the design of their
and other semiconductor devices. An SMU is an instrument that channels. Figure 2 illustrates the MOSFET, CNTFET, and JFET.
can quickly and accurately source and measure both current

Read the Application Note

Gate CNT Gate
and voltage. The number of SMUs required in the test usually Source SiO2 Drain Source Drain Source p+ Drain
depends on the number of FET terminals that must be biased n–
p+
n– SiO2
n–
Si Gate
and/or measured.
MOSFET Carbon Nanotube FET JFET
This application note explains how to simplify I-V
measurements on FETs using a Series 2600B System SourceMeter Figure 2. MOSFET (insulated gate), CNTFET (carbon nanotube channel), and
SMU Instrument with the TSP® Express embedded software tool. JFET (junction FET)
The Series 2600B family of one- and two-channel SMUs offers a
range of instruments ideal for electrical characterization of FETs Using a Series 2600B SMU for FET Testing
that can source and measure over a wide range of voltage and
A FET’s I-V characteristics can be used to extract many
current. These SMUs have current resolution to 0.1fA and can
parameters about the device, to study the effects of fabrication
be current limited to prevent damage to the device. The TSP
Express software tool simplifies performing common I-V tests on techniques and process variations, and to determine the quality
FETs and other semiconductor devices, without programming or of the contacts. Figure 3 illustrates a DC I-V test configuration
installing software. Figure 1 illustrates a typical test setup. for a MOSFET using a two-channel Series 2600B SMU. In this
configuration, the Force HI terminal of Channel 1 (SMU CH1) is
Field Effect Transistors connected to the gate of the MOSFET and the Force HI terminal
The field effect transistor is a majority charge-carrier device in Channel 2 (SMU CH2) is connected to the drain. The source
which the current-carrying capability is varied by an applied terminal of the MOSFET is connected to the Force LO terminals
electric field. The FET has three main terminals: the gate, the of both SMU channels or to a third SMU if it is necessary to
drain, and the source. A voltage applied to the gate terminal (VG) source and measure from all three terminals of the MOSFET.

Get advice on efficient DC I-V characterization to maximize productivity.

Send us your question or join the discussion in our application forum

4 T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s f o r E f f i c i e n t D C Te s t i n g a n d C u r r e n t – Vo l t a g e C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
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Measuring Resistance - Configuring an Instrument to Properly Display Results

Resistance is the measure of a material’s opposition to the flow of electricity and its measurement
is specified in the unit of Ohms. Resistance measurements are typically performed by sourcing a
known current level through a device, measuring the resulting voltage across its terminals, then
using Ohms Law to calculate the resistance. This is the method used most often by the resistance
measurement functions of digital multimeters (DMMs) and source measure unit (SMU) instruments to
measure resistance.

Making a resistance measurement using SMU instruments is relatively easy, but there are
associated challenges when changes to how that resistance is measured need to be made.
Modern instruments, such as Keithley’s Model 2450 or 2460 Touchscreen SourceMeter® SMU Instruments, can display
• The current level being sourced into the device under test needs to be modified to determine resistivity on the user interface.
how it responds at different levels.
More current is needed to get a good measurement through a very low resistance device. Modern instruments, such as Keithley’s
Touchscreen SourceMeter® SMU Instruments,
The device has extremely high resistance and the source voltage/measure current test can also display a measurement historgram
method is required. on the front panel.

• Data visualization is needed for a trend plot of resistance over time to determine how the
device is affected by environmental factors, self-heating, or component drive.

The Keithley Model 2450 and 2460 SourceMeter® SMU instruments feature a Touch, Test,
Invent® graphical user interface (GUI) that makes it very easy to configure the instrument Number 3282

Measuring Low Resistance Devices

Application Note

to measure different current levels. They can be just as easily configured to use the source Series with High Current Using the Model 2460
SourceMeter® SMU Instrument
Introduction test as possible. This four-wire measurement cancels out the
resistance of the test leads in the measurement.
Low resistance measurements offer a good way to identify
Figure 1 illustrates the front-panel connections, which can

voltage/measure current method or source current/measure voltage. And, while trending

resistance elements that have changed over time. Often,
these types of measurements are used to evaluate if a device be made with four insulated banana cables that are rated to the

Measuring Low
or material has degraded due to environmental factors like maximum current (7A), such as two sets of Keithley’s Model 8608
heat, fatigue, corrosion, vibration, etc. For many applications, High-Performance Clip Lead Set.
these measurements are typically lower than 10Ω. A change
in resistance value is often the best indicator of some form of
degradation between two points of contact. Low resistance

Resistance Devices with

measurements performed using high currents are commonly

data is difficult to do on traditional instruments, the colorful GUI on the models 2450 and
used to evaluate high power resistors, circuit breakers, switches,
bus bars, cables and connectors, and other resistance elements.

High Current using the

Figure 1. Model 2460 front-panel connections for low resistance
measurements
Most digital multimeters (DMMs) lack the ability to make
low resistance measurements with high currents. A DMM Figure 2 illustrates the rear-panel connections, which can be

2460 displays the trend plot directly on the instrument as data is being collected.
combined with a power supply will work, but these instruments made with either the Model 2460-KIT Screw-Terminal Connector
must first be integrated into a system in order to automate Kit (included with the Model 2460) or a Model 2460-BAN Banana
Test Leads/Adapter Cable with appropriate cabling.

Model 2460 SourceMeter®

the measurement process, then the resistance must be
calculated manually.
Source Measure Unit (SMU) instruments or SourceMeter®
instruments can simplify making low resistance measurements
with high current stimulus. A SourceMeter instrument is capable
of sourcing and measuring both current and voltage. Keithley’s

SMU Instrument
Model 2460 High Current SourceMeter SMU Instrument has the
flexibility to source/sink high current and measure voltage and
current, making it a perfect solution for measuring low resistance
devices that require stimulus currents up to 7A. The Model 2460
automatically calculates the resistance, so there’s no need to
make the calculation manually. Built-in features such as remote
sensing and offset compensation help optimize low resistance
technical brief technical brief
measurements. The Model 2460 offers <1mΩ resolution.
Low resistance measurements can be made using either
the Model 2460’s front-panel or rear-panel terminals, as shown
in Figures 1 and 2. Note that either the front-panel terminals

Read the Application Note

or rear-panel terminals must be used—the connections Figure 2. Model 2460 low resistance connections on rear panel
can’t be mixed.
Common sources of error for low
Using the Model 2450 to Measure Resistance Using the Model 2450 to Measure Resistance When the leads are connected to the device under test
(DUT), note that the FORCE LO and SENSE LO connections resistance measurements

Using SCPI Commands Using TSP Commands are attached to one of the DUT leads and the FORCE HI and
SENSE HI connections are attached to the other lead. The sense
Low resistance measurements are subject to errors from a variety
of sources, including lead resistance, non-ohmic contacts, and
connections should be connected as close to the resistor under device heating.

The Model 2450 has three methods for measuring resistance:

The Model 2450 has three methods for measuring resistance: The result of executing the code is shown in the screen capture
shown below. Notice that even though the measurement units 1. Source Voltage and Measure Current, Set Measure
1. Source Voltage and Measure Current, Set Measure Units to Ohms
are in ohms, the measurement range is 10µA.
Units to Ohms
2. Source Current and Measure Voltage, Set Measure
2. Source Current and Measure Voltage, Set Measure Units to Ohms
Units to Ohms 3. Measure Resistance – Using Auto-Ohms (Ohmmeter) Mode
3. Measure Resistance – Using Auto-Ohms (Ohmmeter) Mode These three modes will be explained in more detail with TSP
These three modes will be explained in more detail with examples for each. In each case, a 100kΩ resistor is used as
SCPI examples for each. In each case, a 100kΩ resistor is used the DUT. All the program examples were written using Test
Script Builder.
as the DUT.
2. Source Current and Measure Voltage, Read Ohms:
1. Source Voltage and Measure Current, Read Ohms:
1. Source Voltage and Measure Current, Read Ohms: Here is an example if the user wants to take resistance readings
Here is an example if the user wants to take resistance readings by sourcing current and measuring voltage. Specifically, this
Here is an example if the user wants to take resistance readings
by sourcing voltage and measuring current. Specifically, this program takes five readings by sourcing 5e–6 A, measuring
by sourcing voltage and measuring current. Specifically, this program takes five readings by sourcing 5V, measuring current voltage with autorange enabled, and setting the measure units
program takes five readings by sourcing 5V, measuring current 2. Source Current and Measure Voltage, Read Ohms: with autorange enabled, and setting the measure units to to ohms. Offset compensation is enabled. The source and and
with autorange enabled, and setting the measure units to ohms. Offset compensation is turned on. The source and
Here is an example if the user wants to take resistance readings measure values are retrieved.

Using the Model 2450 Using the Model 2450

ohms. Offset compensation is turned on. The source and measure values are retrieved.
by sourcing current and measuring voltage. Specifically, this reset()
measure values are retrieved. reset()
program takes five readings by sourcing 5e–6A, measuring smu.measure.func = smu.FUNC_DC_VOLTAGE
*RST voltage with autorange enabled, and setting the measure units smu.measure.func = smu.FUNC_DC_CURRENT smu.measure.autorange = smu.ON
SENS:FUNC ‘CURR’ to ohms. Offset compensation is enabled. The source and and smu.measure.autorange = smu.ON smu.measure.unit = smu.UNIT_OHM
SENS:CURR:RANG:AUTO ON smu.measure.unit = smu.UNIT_OHM smu.measure.count = 5
measure values are retrieved.
SENS:CURR:UNIT OHM smu.measure.count = 5

to Measure Resistance to Measure Resistance

smu.source.func = smu.FUNC_DC_CURRENT
*RST smu.source.func = smu.FUNC_DC_VOLTAGE
SENS:CURR:OCOM ON smu.source.level = 5e-6
SENS:FUNC ‘VOLT’ smu.source.level = 5
SOUR:FUNC VOLT smu.source.vlimit.level = 10
SENS:VOLT:RANG:AUTO ON smu.source.ilimit.level = 0.01
SOUR:VOLT 5 smu.source.output = smu.ON
SENS:VOLT:UNIT OHM smu.source.output = smu.ON smu.measure.read(defbuffer1)
SOUR:VOLT:ILIM 0.01
SENS:VOLT:OCOM ON smu.measure.read(defbuffer1) for i=1, defbuffer1.n do
COUNT 5
SOUR:FUNC CURR for i=1, defbuffer1.n do

Using SCPI Commands Using TSP® Commands

OUTP ON print(defbuffer1.relativetimestamps[i],
SOUR:CURR 5e-6 print(defbuffer1.relativetimestamps[i], defbuffer1[i])
TRAC:TRIG “defbuffer1” defbuffer1[i])
SOUR:CURR:VLIM 10 end
TRAC:DATA? 1, 5, “defbuffer1”, SOUR, READ end smu.source.output=smu.OFF
COUNT 5
OUTP OFF smu.source.output=smu.OFF
OUTP ON The result of executing the code is shown in the screen capture
TRAC:TRIG “defbuffer1” The result of executing the code is shown in the screen capture shown below. Notice that even though the measurement units
shown below. Notice that even though the measurement units are in ohms, the measurement range is 2V.
TRAC:DATA? 1, 5, “defbuffer1”, SOUR, READ
are in ohms, the measurement range is 100µA.
OUTP OFF
The result of executing the code is shown in the screen capture
shown below. Notice that even though the measurement units
are in ohms, the measurement range is 2V.

Learn More from these Technical Notes

1

5 T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s f o r E f f i c i e n t D C Te s t i n g a n d C u r r e n t – Vo l t a g e C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
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Device Power and Efficiency Measurements

Greener, more efficient semiconductor devices, integrated circuits, and power systems require testing to evaluate
parameters such as maximum power, battery discharge rates, power efficiency vs. current, or device off-state
current. Power is a calculated measurement and requires measuring the voltage across the device, as well as
the current through the device. The voltage measurement is then multiplied by the current measurement to Instruments like the 2450
SourceMeter SMU Instrument
calculate the power. Efficiency is the ratio of power drawn out of a device to the power sourced in to the device. can display power and solar cell
max power, short circuit current,
While measuring power is fairly straightforward with a source measure unit (SMU) instrument, measuring and open circuit voltage.
efficiency is a bit more involved.

• Multiple instruments are required to measure power at both the input and output of the device.
• Traditional instruments do not calculate or display efficiency.
• Automating the test using a PC requires knowledge of the instrument command set and PC
programming skills.

Keithley Model 2450 or 2460 SourceMeter ® SMU instruments with Touch, Test, Invent® graphical user
interface greatly simplify the process of measuring power efficiency through the use of Keithley’s Test
Script Processor (TSP®) technology and TSP-Link® virtual backplane. Using TSP technology and TSP-
Link communication bus, power efficiency measurements, which require two instruments, can be made
quickly and easily from the front panel of a single instrument with the power efficiency calculated and
displayed automatically.
2460 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument
100 Watts, 7 Amps

The Model 2460 High Current SourceMeter® Source Measure Unit (SMU)
Instrument brings advanced Touch, Test, Invent® technology right to your
fingertips. It combines an innovative graphical user interface (GUI) with
capacitive touchscreen technology to make testing intuitive and minimize
the learning curve to help engineers and scientists learn faster, work
smarter, and invent easier. With its 7A DC and pulse current capability, the
Model 2460 is optimized for characterizing and testing high power mate-
rials, devices, and modules such as silicon carbide (SiC), gallium nitride

Model 2460 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument

Model 2460 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument

(GaN), DC-DC converters, power MOSFETs, solar cells and panels, LEDs
and lighting systems, electrochemical cells and batteries, and much more.
These new capabilities, combined with Keithley’s decades of expertise in
developing high precision, high accuracy SMU instruments, will make the
Model 2460 a “go-to instrument” for high current applications in the lab
and in the rack for years to come.
• One tightly coupled instrument Learn Faster, Work Smarter, Invent Easier
that combines capabilities The Model 2460 features a five-inch, full-color, high resolution touchscreen that supports intuitive
from analyzers, curve tracers, operation, helps operators become familiar with the instrument quickly, and optimizes overall speed
and I-V systems at a fraction of and productivity. A simple icon-based menu structure reduces the number of steps required to con-
their cost figure a test by as much as 50 percent and eliminates the cumbersome multi-layer menu structures Number 3234
typically used on soft-key instruments. Built-in, context-sensitive help supports intuitive operation
• Wide coverage up to 105V, 7A and minimizes the need to review a separate manual. These capabilities, combined with the Model
I-V Characterization of Photovoltaic Cells
DC/7A pulse, 100W max. 2460’s high versatility, simplify its operation in both basic and advanced measurement applications,
regardless of the user’s previous experience in working with SMU instruments.
• Five-inch, high resolution
capacitive touchscreen GUI Application Note and Panels Using the Keithley Model 2450 or
• 0.012% basic measure accuracy Series Model 2460 SourceMeter® SMU Instrument
with 6½-digit resolution

• Source and sink (4-quadrant)

operation
Introduction
Model 2450
• Four “Quickset” modes for fast
setup and measurements Solar or photovoltaic (PV) cells are devices that absorb photons

I-V Characterization of Photovoltaic

from a light source and then release electrons, causing an electric Solar Cell
2460 main home screen The Model 2460’s icon-based menu structure
• Context-sensitive help function helps even novice users configure tests current to flow when the cell is connected to a load. Solar
quickly and confidently.
panels are just a collection of solar cells connected in series and

Learn more about

• Front panel input banana
jacks; rear panel input mass parallel that provide more power than just a single, smaller cell.
termination screw connections
+7A
All-in-One SMU Instrument Researchers and manufacturers of PV cells and panels strive
• 2460 SCPI and TSP® scripting The Model 2460, built on the fourth genera- to achieve the highest possible efficiency with minimal losses.

Cells Using the Model 2450 SourceMeter

Quadrant II Quadrant I
+5A
programming modes +4A
– Sink + Source tion of the award-winning SourceMeter SMU As a result, electrical characterization of the cell as well as PV
platform, leverages the proven capabilities Model 2460 Solar Panel
• Front-panel USB 2.0 memory of previously introduced high current SMU materials is performed as part of research and development and

the Model 2460

during the manufacturing process. The current-voltage (I-V)
+1A
I/O port for transferring 0A instruments from Keithley, including the Models
data, test scripts, or test –1A 2420, 2425, and 2440. It offers a highly flexible, characterization of the cell is performed to derive important
configurations four-quadrant voltage and current source/load
parameters about the cell’s performance, including its maximum

SMU INSTRUMENTS
coupled with precision voltage and current

SMU Instrument
–4A
–5A Quadrant III Quadrant IV measurements. This all-in-one instrument can current (Imax) and voltage (Vmax), open circuit voltage (Voc), short
– Source + Sink
–7A
be used as a: circuit current (ISC), and its efficiency (η).
–100V –20V –10V 0V +10V +20V +100V • Precision power supply with V and I readback
DC or Pulsed • True current source These I-V characteristics can easily be generated using
• Digital multimeter (DCV, DCI, ohms, and a Keithley Model 2450 or Model 2460 SourceMeter SMU
Model 2460 power envelope.
power with 6½-digit resolution) Instrument, which can source and measure both current and Figure 1. Models 2450 and 2460 making I-V measurements on a solar cell
• Precision electronic load voltage. Because both SourceMeter instruments have four- and a solar panel.
• Trigger controller quadrant source capability, they can sink the cell current as concentrations, and junction depth. The series resistance is an
a function of an applied voltage. Table 1 shows the power

Download the Data Sheet

important parameter because it reduces both the cell’s short-
1.888.KEITHLEY (U.S. only) envelope of both the Models 2450 and 2460. circuit current and its maximum power output. Ideally, the series
www.keithley.com Model 2450 2460 resistance should be zero ohms. The shunt resistance represents
A Tektronix Company
±100 V @ ±1.05 A the loss due to surface leakage along the edge of the cell or to

Read the Application Note

±210 V @ ±105 mA ±20 V @ ±4 A
Output*
±21 V @ ±1.05 A ±10 V @ ±5 A crystal defects. Ideally, the shunt resistance should be infinite.
±7 V @ ±7 A
* To sink higher current levels, use Keithley Model 2651A High Power System
SourceMeter Instrument, which can sink up to 20A at 10VDC. rs
PV Cell
Table 1. Power Envelopes of Model 2450 and Model 2460 SourceMeter
instruments
Photon hυ
This application note explains how to simplify I-V IL rsh Load RL
characterization of solar cells and panels by using the Model
2450 or 2460, shown in Figure 1. In particular, this application
note explains how to perform I-V testing from the front panel of
the instrument, including how to generate graphs and save data
to a USB drive. It also details how to automate the measurements
Figure 2. Idealized equivalent circuit of a photovoltaic cell.
over a communication bus.
If a load resistor (R L) is connected to an illuminated solar
The Solar Cell cell, then the total current becomes:
The solar cell may be represented by the equivalent circuit I = IS(eqV/kT – 1) – IL
model shown in Figure 2, which consists of a light-induced
where: IS = current due to diode saturation
current source (IL), a diode that generates a saturation current
IL = current due to optical generation

Get advice on efficient DC I-V characterization to maximize productivity.

[IS(eqV/kT – 1)], series resistance (rs), and shunt resistance (rsh).
The series resistance is due to the resistance of the metal Several parameters are used to characterize the efficiency
contacts, ohmic losses in the front surface of the cell, impurity of the solar cell, including the maximum power point (Pmax),

Send us your question or join the discussion in our application forum

6 T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s f o r E f f i c i e n t D C Te s t i n g a n d C u r r e n t – Vo l t a g e C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
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DC Power Consumption Analysis for Low Power Products

Characterizing a power usage profile is essential for low power devices, such as Internet of things (IoT,)
portable wireless, wearable, portable and implantable medical, and low power industrial products.
Power usage directly correlates with battery drain and impacts product usefulness. DC Power analysis
is a non-trivial task, since these devices often draw
current in wide ranges from nano-amps to amps
depending on operating modes and often have
short wake up times, as well, tthat can last for as
little as a few microseconds and require extensive
data logging periods to capture a complete power
usage profile.

There are several challenges associated with

analyzing DC power consumption low power
devices, including: DC power analysis using a
DMM7510 Graphical Sampling
• Achieving high accuracy load current measurements over wide ranges - Typical DC power Multimeter and 2280S High
consumption profile for low power products has wide ranges of load current from nano-Amps Performance Power Supply.
to Amps. Most instruments do not have high accuracy/sensitivity across all ranges.
• Capturing narrow load current bursts when the product transitions to its active modes -
Most individual pulses occur as bursts of activities with a duration as narrow as microseconds. The DMM7510 Graphical Sampling Multimeter and 2280S Precision Measurement
Existing instruments do not have the high sample rate required to capture the load current burst. DC Power Supply combination offers high accuracy, high signal sampling rate,
• Extensive data logging – These tests typically run for long periods, requiring test instruments a large memory for long data logging periods, low burden voltage, and clean,
with memory sufficient to support long-term monitoring. stable power. An unprecedented combination of performance and price makes
this an ideal solution for low DC power consumption testing.
• Error introduced by the test instruments - Existing solutions introduce error into the system
as burden voltage. Since the overall power consumption is low in this application, a high No
da enh w w
ta an it
lo ce h
gg d
DMM7510 7½-Digit Graphical Sampling Multimeter

burden voltage introduced in the

Series 2280S Precision Measurement, Low Noise, in
g

Programmable DC Power Supplies The Model DMM7510 combines all the advantages
of a precision digital multimeter, a graphical
touchscreen display, and a high speed, high
The Series 2280S Precision Measurement, Low Noise, resolution digitizer to create an industry first:
Programmable DC Power Supplies are much more than a graphical sampling multimeter. The digitizer

system results in large error.

just sources of clean power; they are also precision gives the Model DMM7510 unprecedented signal

Precision measurement, low noise, programmable DC power supplies

Precision measurement, low noise, programmable DC power supplies

measurement instruments. They can source stable, low analysis flexibility; the five-inch capacitive touch-
noise voltages as well as monitor load currents over screen display makes it easy to observe, interact
a wide dynamic range from amps to nanoamps. The with, and explore measurements with “pinch
Model 2280S-32-6 can output up to 32V at up to 6A; the and zoom” simplicity. This combination of high
Model 2280S-60-3 can output up to 60V at up to 3.2A. performance and high ease of use offers unparal-
leled insight into your test results.
Both supplies use linear regulation to ensure low

Graphical sampling DMM

Graphical sampling DMM

output noise and superior load current measurement Capture Waveforms with the
sensitivity. A high resolution color Thin Film Transistor Built-in 1MS/sec Digitizer
(TFT) screen displays a wide range of information on
measurements. Soft-key buttons and a navigation wheel Capturing and displaying waveforms and tran-
combine with the TFT display to provide an easy-to-nav- sient events just got easier with the DMM7510’s
• Precision multimeter with 3½- voltage or current digitizing function. The built-in 1MS/sec, 18-bit digitizer makes it possible to

• Clean stable power -

igate user interface that speeds instrument setup and
operation. In addition, built-in plotting functions allow monitoring trends such as drift. These sup- to 7½-digit resolution acquire waveforms without the need to use a separate instrument. The digitizing functions employ
plies provide the flexibility required for both benchtop and automated test system applications. For the same ranges that the DC voltage and current functions use to deliver exceptional dynamic mea-
• 14 PPM basic one-year DCV surement range. In addition, the voltage digitizing function uses the same DC voltage input imped-
• Measure small load currents example, they provide a list mode, triggers, and other speed optimization functions to minimize test accuracy ance (10GΩ or 10MΩ) levels to reduce loading significantly on the DUT.
with 0.05% accuracy and 10nA time in automated testing applications.
resolution • 100mV, 1Ω, and 10µA ranges
DMM-Quality Low Current Measurements with High Resolution offer the sensitivity needed for
• Measure voltage and current with
6½-digit resolution Unlike conventional power supplies, Series 2280S supplies can also make measurements with up to measuring low level signals
6½ digits of resolution. Voltage output measurements can be resolved down to 100µV. These supplies
• Capture the peak of a load current measure load currents from 100nA to amps and can resolve down to 10nA. Four load current mea- • Make accurate low resistance

Existing solutions may introduce

burst as short as 140µs using measurements with offset
external triggering or capture
surement ranges (10A, 1A, 100mA, and 10mA) support measuring a device’s full load current, standby
mode current, and small sleep mode currents with DMM-quality accuracy. The high resolution allows compensated ohms, four-wire,
load current changes using a
and dry circuit functions

Series 2280S
level threshold, sampling at 2800 characterizing small changes in load currents with confidence. It also makes it possible to make a

Model DMM7510
readings per second broad range of measurements on a single range with excellent accuracy across both low and high
• Capture and display waveforms

Analyzing Device Power Consumption Using

current values.
• Output up to 192W of low noise, or transients with 1MS/sec
linear regulated power Measure Rapidly Changing Load Currents digitizer
• Programmable rise and fall times Capture measurements with either an external control signal The high speed digitizing function allows Advanced triggering options make it possi-
• Large internal memory buffer;

a 2280S Precision Measurement Supply eliminate voltage overshoot and or an analog level threshold crossing capturing and displaying voltage and ble to capture a signal at precisely the right
store over 11 million readings in current waveforms. point.
undershoot transients

errors with noisy outputs. Precision DC

To monitor fast-changing and pulse-like load currents properly, Series 2280S supplies offer the speed standard mode or 27.5 million

7-1/2 Digit Graphic

• Built-in graphing simplifies necessary to capture load changes that occur at intervals as short as 140µs. This capability allows in compact mode
analyzing trends or displaying designers and manufacturers of portable, battery-operated devices to monitor load currents easily in
Application Note voltage or current waveforms all of a device’s operating modes so they can determine the device’s total power consumption. • Auto-calibration feature
improves accuracy and stability
• High resolution TFT display and This high speed measurement capability allows measuring each state of a power-up load sequence by minimizing temperature and
soft-key/icon-based user interface and a power-down sequence. Measurements can be made as fast as 2500 readings per second, mak-
simplify power supply operation
time drift
ing it possible to characterize and test the current draw at each of the start-up states.

Power Supply
• Display more with five-inch,

DIGITAL MULTIMETERS & SYSTEMS

• Programmable output sequences

Sampling Multimeter
reduce test times high resolution touchscreen
As battery-powered wireless devices have become a standard Traditional ways of measuring Delay Measure Delay Measure
interface
part of everyone’s life, battery consumption becomes a critical • Sink up to 0.45A to discharge
factor of the device’s performance. More and more studies are low current voltage quickly • Readings and screen images
focused on improving the power efficiency of electric devices There are two traditional ways to measure low currents: • Digital I/O for direct can be saved quickly via the
communication with other devices front panel USB memory port

DC POWER SUPPLIES
and components.
1. Connect a precision resistor, R, in series with the circuit and and instruments
• Multiple connectivity options:
For the battery-powered devices, the power consumption can measure the voltage across the resistor, VR with a high-pre- • GPIB, USB, and LAN interfaces GPIB, USB, and LXI-compliant
be represented by the input current because the input voltage cision digital multimeter. Calculate the current value as VR/R. LAN interfaces
• Built-in web page allows
is a constant voltage during a load current measurement. If we Trigger Trigger

Measuring Ultra-Low Power Analyzing Device Power

2. Measure the current by using an oscilloscope and a cur- automated control, monitoring, and
• Two-year specifications allow
can measure the load current under different working modes, data logging
rent probe. for longer calibration cycles The built-in graphing utility supports displaying and comparing measurements
we will be able to compute power consumption. As a result, Figure 1. Make time-critical measurements on fast-changing or pulse-like loads. An external
• Automate tests easily with or waveforms from up to four reading buffers at once.
However, both ways have limitations. trigger initiates the acquisition. Programmable delay and measure times enable measurements
we will be able to deduct the device’s battery life in its active KickStart start-up software
at a specific time on the load current pulse. In addition to the digital trigger, a level threshold
modes and its standby mode. However, measuring DC current setting can be used to store up to 2500 measurements at a programmed reading rate.
Measuring current with a digital 1.888.KEITHLEY (U.S. only)
precisely, especially low current can be a difficult challenge.
Accurately measuring the load current down to milliamp or mulitimeter www.keithley.com
1.888.KEITHLEY (U.S. only)

Download the Data Sheets

A Greater Measure of Confidence A Tektronix Company

in Wireless Sensor Node Consumption Using

even to microamp levels without affecting the original circuit
To measure the current with a precision sense resistor in www.keithley.com
current presents significant challenges for the test methodol-
series, the engineer has broken the circuit and inserts a resis- A Greater Measure of Confidence A Tektronix Company
ogy used and for the selection of appropriate instrumentation
tor in a location which will not compromise the resistance with
with sufficient sensitivity.
components that would be in parallel with the sense resistor.

Applications Using a 2280S Precision

the Model DMM7510 Measurement Supply

Read the Application Notes

7
previous index next

Characterizing Load Current Waveforms and Transient Behavior

Most electronic systems contain

analog circuits, microprocessors, Panning and zooming into
the soft-start behavior
DSPs, ASICs, and/or FPGAs that (top) and output voltage
require multiple supply voltages. overshoot before reaching
steady state (bottom.)
To ensure reliable and repeatable
operation of these systems,
transient behaviors, such as
Power-up anomalies on the buck converter. Temporary output voltage dip (left) and permanent power-up and power-down timing,
failure to power-up (right.)
ramp rates, and the magnitude
of different supply voltages must be appropriately controlled. Voltage and current sizing, monitoring,
sequencing, and tracking are essential for characterizing the transient performance of power supplies.

Characterizing power supply transients poses challenges that include:

• The need to measure dynamic events, such as power-up and power-down transients, due to
inadequate accuracy for capture, triggering function, or speed for a transient event.
• Optimal speed to answer —
­ Need for deeper insight into the problem without having to be a
measurement expert.

The DMM7510 Graphical Sampling Multimeter combines accuracy, speed, and triggering
to accurately capture dynamic transient events with its ability to:
• Capture and visualize waveforms and transient signals
without adding other tools and/or instruments.
+
DC Load
–
• Offer more insight into measured data.
• Offer more measurement confidence for today’s
ultra-low power measurement needs. Power-up/power-down test connections. Characterizing Power-up and
Power-down Transients Using the
Application Note Model DMM7510 7½-Digit Graphical

• Significantly improve efficiency and minimize the learning curve.

Series Sampling Multimeter

Introduction Switch-Mode Power Supply

Most electronic systems contain analog circuits, microprocessors, A buck converter is a highly efficient switch mode DC-to-DC
DSPs, ASICs, and/or FPGAs, which require multiple supply voltage step-down converter. The following discussion is based

Characterizing Power-up
voltages. In order to ensure reliable and repeatable operation on Texas Instruments’ LM25088 DC-to-DC buck converter
of these systems, transient behaviors such as the power-up and evaluation board (EVM). It gives a steady 5V output from a 5.5V–
power-down timing, ramp rates, and the magnitude of different 36V on the input. A proper power-up/power-down inspection can
supply voltages need to be appropriately controlled. Voltage and ensure that the device turns on or off within a reasonable time
current sizing, monitoring, sequencing, and tracking are essential without any unexpected behaviors. These asynchronous transient

and Power-down Transients

in characterizing the transient performance of power supplies. events can be captured using the analog waveform triggering
capability on the Model DMM7510.
Digital multimeter (DMM) is a very common instrument used
to evaluate many specifications of power supplies. However, Making Connections from the Buck
traditional DMMs often lack the ability to measure dynamic
Converter to the Model DMM7510
events such as power-up and power-down transients. The

Using the Model DMM7510

new Keithley Model DMM7510 7½-Digit Graphical Sampling The buck converter can be connected to the Model DMM7510
Multimeter has a secondary 18-bit sampling A-to-D converter using a standard pair of test leads, as shown in Figure 1. Properly
dedicated to digitizing rapidly changing voltage and current at shielded test wires are recommended when measuring low-level
1Mega-sample per second. The digitizing functions employ the signals. To conduct the test, the buck converter is powered
same measurement ranges as the DMM’s traditional DC voltage by a programmable DC power supply. The output of the buck

7½-Digit Graphical
and current functions. In other words, the digitizer offers converter is connected to an 8Ω resistive load.
exceptional dynamic range—from 1µV to 1000V and 100pA to
10A—which is suitable for many applications. The advanced
waveform triggering mechanisms such as edge, pulse, and
window triggering, allow you to easily capture, view, and interact

Sampling Multimeter.
with these transient signals on the Model DMM7510’s multi- DC Load

touch display.

Background

Get the Application Note

Power-up and power-down transients are identified as step
Figure 1. Power-up/power-down test connections.
functions in the input voltage that result from a relay or switch
closure. Achieving a clean or monotonic, rise or fall from various
power supplies can be a major concern. You may encounter Setting Up the Power-up Test
a sag in the input voltage due to a large inrush current and from the Front Panel
finite power source impedance, which could cause catastrophic The power-up transient can be easily captured by the Model
problems with under-voltage lockout circuits, inrush current- DMM7510. With only a handful of keystrokes to establish the
limiting circuits, and even generic power supplies. For example, acquisition criteria, you can quickly view the waveform on the
FPGAs contain auxiliary analog circuitry such as a phase-lock DMM’s graphical display. We will utilize the built-in analog edge
loop (PLL) controlled by a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). triggering mechanism on the Graph user interface to set up the
The VCO would change frequencies and/or phase, causing the sampling rate, trigger span, trigger slope, trigger level, as well
PLL to lose synchronization when the supply voltage droops trigger position.
during power-up. You may also encounter a slow ramp rate that
could lead to anomalous, sometimes destructive, consequences. 1. Press the POWER button on the front panel to turn on the
instrument.
This application note illustrates how to capture, view, and
characterize power-up and power-down transients of a switch- 2. On the FUNCTIONS swipe screen, select Digi V to select the
mode power supply (SMPS) on the front panel of the Keithley Digitize Voltage function.
Model DMM7510. 3. Swipe to display the SETTINGS swipe screen.

T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s f o r M o r e E f f i c i e n t a n d P r o d u c t i v e D C I -V C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
8
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Rev. 0415

Copyright © 2015, Tektronix. All rights reserved. Tektronix products are

covered by U.S. and foreign patents, issued and pending. Information in this
publication supersedes that in all previously published material. Specification
and price change privileges reserved. TEKTRONIX and TEK are registered
trademarks of Tektronix, Inc. All other trade names referenced are the service
marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies.

06/15 KI 1KW-60130-0

Te s t i n g H i g h P o w e r S e m i c o n d u c to r D e v i c e s f r o m I n c e p t i o n to M a r k e t