Early Aryan settlements

In around 1500 bc the Aryans, a traveling people from Central Asia settled in the upper scopes of the
Indus, Yamuna, and Gangetic fields. They talked a language from the Indo-European family and
worshiped divine beings like those of later time Greeks and northern Europeans. The Aryans are
especially critical to Indian history since they began the soonest types of the sacred Vedas (orally
transmitted writings of psalms of dedication to the divine beings, manuals of giving up for their love, and
philosophical hypothesis). By 800 bc the Aryans governed in a large portion of northern India,
periodically battling among themselves or with the people groups of the land they were settling. There is
no proof of what happened to the general population dislodged by the Aryans. Actually, they might not
have been dislodged at everything except rather may have been consolidated in Aryan culture or left
alone in the slopes of northern India.

The Vedas, which are viewed as the center of Hinduism, give much data about the Aryans. The real
divine forces of the Vedic people groups stay in the pantheon of present-day Hindus; the center customs
encompassing birth, marriage, and demise hold their Vedic frame. The Vedas additionally contain the
seeds of awesome epic writing and philosophical conventions in India. One illustration is the
Mahabharata, an epic of the fight between two honorable families that dates from 400 bc however
likely draws on stories made substantially before. Another case is the Upanishads, philosophical
treatises that were created between the eighth and the fifth hundreds of years bc.

As the Aryans gradually subsided into agribusiness and moved southeast through the Gangetic Plain,
they surrendered their seminomadic style of living and changed their social and political structures.
Rather than a warrior driving a tribe, with a tribal get together as a keep an eye on his energy, an Aryan
chief governed over the region, with its general public partitioned into genetic gatherings. This structure
turned into the start of the standing structure, which has made due in India until the present day. The
four standings that rise up out of this time were the Brahmans (ministers), the Kshatriyas (warriors and
rulers), the Vaisyas (shippers, ranchers, and merchants), and the Sudras (craftsmen, workers, and
workers).

It is generally believed that the Aryan came to India in groups that settled in the areas of North-Western
Province in Pakistan and the Punjab which they had then named Sapta-Sindhu or the 'Land of Seven
Rivers', namely the Indus, the Sutlej, the Ravi, the Beas, the Chenab, the Jhelum and the Saraswati. Later
they called this area 'Brahmavarta' or the 'Land of Brahma'. The Aryans were found to have been
occupying the whole of the present region of Punjab from about 1500 BC
The Aryans pushed their way along the river Ganga and Yamuna from Sapta-Sindhu and occupied the
whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to Vindhayas. This area was called the 'Aryavartha' or 'The
Land of Aryans'. The period between 100 BC and 600 BC during which the Aryans settled in the Gangetic
Valley, was known as the 'Later Vedic Period'. During this period the Aryans occupied vast areas in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Bengal and other parts of Northern India.

SOCIAL, POLITICAL and ECONOMIC LIFE

The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus of the social life of
the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family and he was known as “Grihapati”. The
Aryans had joint families.

The Aryans ate both vegetable and animal foods. Rice, barley, bean and sesamum formed the
staple food. They also ate bread, cake, milk, ghee, butter, and curd together with fruits. Fish,
birds, goats, rams, bulls and horses were slaughtered for their food. Slaughter of cow was
prohibited. They also drank intoxicating liquor, known as Sura, a brandy made from corn and
barley and the juice of soma plant.

IV. Economic Life in Vedic Age

 The main occupation of the people was cattle rearing and their wealth was measured in
number of cattle.
 They practiced agriculture by clearing the forests.
 Metals used were copper, iron and bronze.
 Few people worked as goldsmith, potters, spinners and carpenters.
 The tax levied in the Vedic Period was Bali and Bhaga.
 Gold coins called Nishka were used for transaction.
 Rivers were used for transportation.
 They used Barter system.

V. Social Life in Vedic Age

 Society was tribal but egalitarian.

 Aryans were fair in colour and the one the inhabitants were dark in complexion. This
gave social distinction. The Dasas and Dasyus were treated as slaves and Shudras.
 The head of tribes were treated as superior. The society got divided into warriors, Priests,
People on same pattern with Iran and Shudras.
 Women slaves were involved in domestic purposes.
 Division according to the occupation is also known.
 Patriarchal Society: Rig Veda show a society where family was a basic unit headed by
Grahapati. 
 Both men and women used clothes made of cotton and a large number of ornaments.
 Food items: wheat, barley, milk and milk products.
 Cows were considered sacred hence eating its meat was prohibited.
 Entertainment: Dance, music, chariot racing, horse racing were the time pass activities.
 Upper class women shared equal rights as men.

VII. Administrative Setup

 Group of families or Kula forms a village or a Grama which is headed by Gramani.

 Group of villages is called Vis. The head of the Vis is Vishyapati.
 Jana or tribes were the highest in the political organisation. Few examples of Jana are
Bharatas, Yadus, Matsayas and Purus.
 The head of the Jana were Rajan or the king who were assisted by priest or commanders
of army.

Women
1.1 FEMALE INFANTICIDE

Female infanticide arose from the general Vedic attitude towards women. The large
dowries prescribed by the Vedas (see the section of dowries below) meant that a girl
was seen as a burden. The woman who gave birth to a daughter was ashamed, and
much stigma attached to a lady who only gae birth to daughters. Hence infanticide
arose as a convenient way of getting rid of the burden.

1.2 CHILD-MARRIAGE
Child marriage of daughters 5-6 y old was common due to the custom of dowry and to
avoid scandals

2.1.2 Bride-Burning

This is often related to dowry, when the bride's family cannot pay up to the amount
demanded by the in-laws. Often the in-laws make demands in excess of those made at
the time of marriage. When the deadline specified runs out, the bride is burned in often
gruesome fashions. At least 5000 women die each year for not bringing in enough
dowry. At least a dozen women die each day in `kitchen fires', which are often passed
off as accidents, because their in-laws are not satisfied with their dowries. Only a few of
the murderers are brought to justice.

2.1.2 Wife-Burning

An Aryan husband could at any time accuse his wife of infidelity. In case the wife
protests her innocence, the council of village elders would then order an ordeal by fire.
The accused wife would be required to pass through a blazing flame. Not just death, but
any signs of burns would be taken as a sign of guilt and the wife would then have to
undergo the penalty for infidelity [ EB 8:986 `ordeal' ]. Adultery carries the death
sentence in Aryan law, so either way she would have to pay with her life for her
husband's or elders' mere suspicions.

The ideal role model for this custom was Sita, Ram's wife. She was required by her
spouse, the `ideal husband' of the `Hindus', to pass through the fire ordeal after her
return from Sri Lanka.

Variant of Sati

Jauhar refers to the practice of the mass burning of all the wives and daughters in an
entire town/district to prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemies. Often the
husbands forced their unwilling spouses, sometimes the women practiced it
themselves, encouraged by the elders. It is merely a variant of sati, since it occurred in
anticipation of the womens' widowhood

2.1.4 Witch-Burning

The burning of witches during the Vedic Dark Ages of Indian History ( 1500 BC - 500
BC ) and the later Puranic Dark Ages ( 100 AD-1000 AD ) makes the European
Medieval ecclesiastical witch-hunts pale in comparison.

2.2 PUNISHMENT OF WOMEN

The wife could suffer corporal punishemnt for very minor offences.

2.2.1 Amputation of Ears and Noses

Aryan husbands cut off the ears and nose of their wives if they left the house without
their prior permission. The Pancatantra mentions one such story [ Pancatantra p.54,
I.7th story `The Weaver's Wife']. The weaver cut off his wife's nose because she did not
respond and he considered her infaithful. (actually he cut off the barber's wife's nose
who was there instead. ) The Ramayana and Lord Rama practiced the cutting off of
womens' noses for minor offences, thereby providing divine sanction for the custom.
Shurpanakha was a Dravidian lady ( referred to as `Rakshis' or demonesses by the
Aryans ) who fell in love with Rama. She proposed to him, but he directed her to his
brother Laxman. He cut off her ears and nose for this crime, and Ram condoned this
act. [ Alld Chmbrs 1036 ]

2.2.2 Death Penalty

The death penalty was prescribed for Aryan women guilty of infidelity. The Manu Smrti,
the most authoritative Indo-Aryan law-book, states

` When a woman, proud of her relations [or abilities] deceives her husband ( with
another man ), then the king should [ensure that] she be torn apart by dogs in place
much frequented by people ' [Manu Smrti 8:371] ` And the evil man should be burnt in a
bed of red-hot iron '

[Manu Smrti 8:371-2]

` VIII.371. If a wife, proud of the greatness of her relatives or (her own) excellence,
violates the duty which she owes to her lord, the king shall cause her to be devoured by
dogs in a place frequented by many. VIII.372. Let him cause the male offender to be
burnt on a red-hot iron bed; they shall put logs under it, (until) the sinner is burned (to
death).'

2.3 RESTRICTIONS ON WOMEN

2.3.1 No Property

Women and Sudras can, in the Aryan-Vaishnava system, have no property:

A wife, a son, and a slave, these three are declared to have no property; the wealth
which they earn is (acquired) for him to whom they belong.
A Brahmana may confidently seize the goods of (his) Sudra (slave); for, as that (slave)
can have no property, his master may take his possessions.
-- [ Manu VIII.416-417 ]

2.3.2 Dress and Veiling

Aryan women had to wear a face-veil when going out. As usual, several observers,
seeing Arab women veiled, assumed it must be due to Muslim `contamination'. They are
not aware that Arabs practice this due to the Judeo-Christian influence (cf. the Catholic
nuns and the Medieval tiara), and are ignorant of Indian scriptures. Sanskrit literature
mentions the
` The practice of using veils by women, particularly in well-to-do families, was in vogue.
Prabhakaravardhana's daughter Rajyasri put on a veil when she met her husband, the
Maukhari Grahavarman of Kanauj, for eh first time. It is known from Vacaspati Misra
(9C AD) that women in good families observed the purdah system and did not appear in
public without veils ... However, Dhoyi, the author of the 12 C poetical work the
Pavanaduta, relates that the women of Vijayapura (in Bengal) did not observe the
purdah system'
-- [CHI Vol II #37 p.595 # 37 `Some aspects of the position of women in Ancient India'
DCGanguly p.594 ff]
`Harsha's [1099-1101 ] [Lohara dynasty] coins [depict] a half cross-legged goddess [and
] a veil appears on the head '
-- [GuptaCoins p.39]
`Gangayadeva's [one of the Kalachuri rulers of Dahala, the country around Jabalpur in
MP] (1019-1042AD) coins ... the female is shown as having a veil on her head which
hangs down to the shoulders and upper arms'
-- [GuptaCoins p.39]
`Many of the female figures on the gold coins, like the sculpture and literature of the
[Gupta] age, do reflect a somewhat new idea of feminine beaty which we now call
classical [thinner and more slender]
-- [GuptaCoins 21]
It is now generally accepted that the purdah ( seclusion and veiling ) was existent in
India since ancient Aryan times. [ Altekar 167-70 ] [ Indra 73 ] [ Shamram 24 ] [ Ojha-
Cutlture 66-67] In fact, certain high-class women refused to entertain strangers [ Altekar
175 ] [ Nand 5-6 ] It seems that the bodice was imported by Muslims :
` In several parts of India ... bodices [are worn by ladies under the cloth] ... this, i am
told, is a modern innovation, and borrowed from the Mohamedans.'
-- [DuBois p.341]

2.3.3 Dowry

The Vedas prescribe that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom. The Rig
Veda states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter
accompanied the bride's procession [ Rg Ved X.85 ] [ Apte 12 ]. Kakshivat says he
became rich by the father-in-law giving him 10 chariots and maids and 1060 cows
during the marriage ceremony [ Rg Ved I.126 ] [ Apte 13 ]. The ancient custom of
kanyadan, where the father presented his daughter with jewelry and clothes at the time
of her marriage, and vardakshina where the father presented the groom iwth cahs and
kind are, in essence the dowry system.

2.3.4 Staying Alone

It may be thought that only the absence of the husband could temporarily alleviate the
condition of Aryan women. Alas, even then she ws under constant suspicion. To
prevent nightly intrigues, she cannot even sleep alone:
" whilst her husband is absent, she shall sleep with one of her female relatives and not
alone "
-- [ DuBois quoting from Vasishta's Padma Purana, DuBois p.349 ]
husbands are not supposed to have intercourse with a wife who bore only daughters
[ Jolly ]

2.3.5 Going Out and Education

Women and Sudras were declared to be unfit for study of the Vedas:
" And as women, Sudras and the inferior members of the twice-borne classes were
unfitted for hearing the Veda, and were infatuated in desiring the blessings, arising from
the ceremonies, the muni, with a vision to their felicity, in his kindness composed the
narrative called the Mahabharata."
-- [ Bhag.Pur. I.4.25 ] [ Muir III,p.42 ]
Also Madhava Acharya stated that " they [ women and Sudras ] are debarred ... from
being competent students of the Veda" [ Vedarthaprakasha of Madhava Acharyya on
the Taittriya Yajur Veda, quoted in Muir III,p.66 ]
2.3.6 No Divorce

Divorce was not permitted.

2.3.7 No Remarriage

Even if the wife ran away from the harsh husband, she could never get remarried

3.1 Sati (Widow-Burning)

The Aryans, upon their invasion of India ca. 1500 B.C. introduced the horrific custom of
sati, ie. the burning of a woman after the death of her husband. When performed singly
it is referred to as sati, when performed en masse by all the women and daughters of a
town in anticipation of their widowhood (eg. when the men were to fight a battle against
all odds), it is known as jauhar. It is sanctioned by their most sacred texts, and was
practiced from the fall of the Semito-Dravidian Indus Valley civilization to the modern
age.

3.1.1 Scriptural Sanction

The most sacred of Aryan scriptures are the Vedas, and the Rig Veda, the oldest veda,
first mentions the custom of sati. The following famous `Sati Hymn' of the Rig Veda was
(and still is) recited during the actual immolation of the widow [ Kane 199-200 ]: -
" Let these women, whose husbands are worthy and are living, enter the house with
ghee (applied) as corrylium ( to their eyes). Let these wives first step into the pyre,
tearless without any affliction and well adorned."
-- [ Rig Veda X.18.7 ] [ Kane 199-200 ]
In recent times some Aryan apologists have arisen who try to prove that this verse does
not sanction sati. This concept arises from a mistaken reading of the word agne or
agneh , which they believe is agre . This is a wrong interpretation, and other evidence
exists that the Aryans definitely practiced Sati from the earliest times. They distorted this
verse which directs the widow to enter the pyre (agneh) so as to mean that the wife was
to rise from her pyre and go to the front (agre). In addition to these examples, ancient
Aryan scripture encourages sati. The Garudapurana favourably mentions the
immolation of a widow on the funeral pyre, and states that women of all castes, even
the Candalla woman, must perform Sati. The only exceptions allowed by this
benevolent author is for pregnant women or those who have young children. If women
do not perform sati, then they will be reborn into the lowly body of a woman again and
again till they perform Sati. [ Garudapurana II.4.91-100 ] [ Kane 237 ] According to
Vasishta's Padma-Purana, a woman must, on the death of her husband, allow herself to
be burnt alive on the same funeral pyre [ Abbe DuBois 345 ]. The Vishnusmirti gives two
choices for the widow:
"If a woman's husband dies, let her lead a life of chastity, or else mount his pyre"
-- [ Vishnusmrti xxv.14 ] [ Clayton 13 ]
Brahma is one of the main Aryan gods, being the creator of the world ( later he was
identified as an incarnation of Vishnu ). One of the Puranas is named after him, the
Brahma Purana. Like other Puranas, it was composed after the Vedas ( Pandits hold
4000 B.C., Indologists 700 B.C.)

Religion 
The religion of the early Aryans was a form of nature-worship. They worshipped numerous
Gods, like Sky, Surya (Sun), Indra, Varuna, Prithvi (earth), Agni (sacrificial fire), Vayu (Wind),
Usha (dawn) and Aditi (mother of Gods or sometimes cow) etc. The rivers like Ganga and
Saraswati were also considered to be goddesses.

The Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of yoga and vedanta. Divinities of the early
Aryans can be divided into three categories viz.- Celestial Gods, Atmospheric Gods and
Terrestrial Gods. This illustrates that the Aryans had faith in a great number of Gods. But there is
also mention in the Rigveda that the unity of the God-head was also recognised by the Aryans.
The various deities worshipped, were considered by them to be the manifestation of the Supreme
Being.

The Aryans offered sacrifices to the Gods to appease them. This was generally accomplished by
chanting verses, which was done by calling a priest who helped common man perform these
rituals. The common man performed simple sacrifices, offering milk, ghee, grain etc. But
majestic sacrifices, such as the Ashvamedha were made by kings.

Moreover the Aryans envisioned the human spirit of the Gods and therefore, each God had a
human form. No reference of idol worship is found. It appears that they despised image-worship.
The Aryans were broadly optimists and hence sorrier facets of life have not been underlined in
their religion. They were full of heartiness and their mindset towards life was full of optimism
and aspiration.

Hindus claim that the Hindu scripture was composed sometime around 3000 BCE by several
sages in direct contact with their god, Krishna. They claim that there is no evidence that outsiders
– Aryans – invaded the Indus Valley and brought Hindu scripture with them. They blame the
notion of this invasion on Christian scholars from the 19th century.

It is not clear as to when writing was learnt by the Aryans. But after it became widespread, some
Brahmins (priests) considered it a sacrilege to change from communicating their religion orally.
Some other Brahmins supported the innovation, and they put traditional Aryan stories into
writing, in what became known as the Vedas – Veda meaning wisdom.

The Vedas have been described as reflecting a rural lifestyle of the Aryans as opposed to the
more urban culture of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilization.

The Vedas implied that humanity is basically good, and, in contrast to the view of sin in West
Asia, sin among the Hindus was viewed as a force from outside oneself – an invader. Hinduism’s
Vedas saw evil as the work of demons that might take the form of a human or some other
creature, which could be removed by the prayers and rituals of priests.
Economic Condition of the Aryans
 Agriculture

The Aryans were pastoral people and agriculture was their chief livelihood. Lands raised for
cultivation were called ‘Urvara’ or ‘Kshetra’. The normal method for ploughing fields was by a
means of a pair of oxen tied to the yoke.

The primary crops were wheat and barley. Every member of the family normally worked at the
fields and agricultural processes, like filling the soil, cutting of grooves, sowing the seeds,
cutting of corn with sickle were known to them.

They were also familiar with utilisation of manures.

Taming of Animals

Cattle and cow were held in high esteem and were seen as goddesses. There was nothing like
money to buy things- one had to exchange their cattle or any other valuable. Cows were
considered holy by the Aryans. Cows and oxen were functional for agriculture also.

Milk was one of the fundamental drinks of the Aryans and hence they gave a lot of importance to
the cows. Cows were also used as unit of value in the batter system, predominant during that
time.

Besides cows, goat, sheep, buffalo were also domesticated by the Aryans.

Trade and profession

The professions of goldsmith, carpenter, blacksmith, weavers etc., were rather widespread. The
barter system was prevalent during the Rigvedic period.

The reference of ‘Niska’, a type of coin is also found.

Roads were constructed for trade and commerce. The Aryans also utilised ships and boats for
shipping of goods.

Spread of the Aryans later vedic

The spread of Aryans over the whole of India completed before 400 B.C. Of the new kingdoms
in the east, the most important were Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Kosalas and Videhas.

Gradually, the Aryans moved towards South India. It is believed that their southern movement
began during the period of Brahmana literature, about 1000 B.C.; and went on steadily till they
reached the southernmost extremity of the Peninsula in or sometime before the fourth century
B.C.

But the Aryan colonization in the South was not as complete as in the north. With the progress of
the Aryans in Northern India, their centre of civilization was shifted towards the East. The
territory between the Saraswati and Ganga Rivers was the seat of Aryan civilization.

Political Organisation

Rise of Big States

With the progress of Aryan settlements in the eastern and southern parts of India, the small tribal
states of the Rig Vedic period were replaced by powerful states.

Many famous tribes of the Rig Vedic period like the Bharatas, Parus, Tritsus and Turvasas
passed into oblivion and new tribes like the Kurus and Panchalas rose into prominence. The land
of the Yamuna and Ganga in the east became the new home of the Aryans and rose into
prominence.

Growth of Imperialism

With the emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age, the struggle for supremacy among
different states was of frequent occurrence. The ideal of “Sarbabhauma” or universal empire
loomed large in the political horizon of ancient India. Sacrifices like Rajasuya and Asvamedha
were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs over the rivals. These rituals impressed
the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The Rig Vedic title of “Rajan” was
replaced by impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoja, etc. These titles marked the growth
of imperialism and feudal ideas.

Origin of Kingship

There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship. The Aitareya Brahmana explained the
rational theory of election by common consent of origin of kingship.

And the Taittiniya Brahman explained the divine origin of kingship. It explained how Indra,
“though occupying a low rank among the gods, was created their king by Prajapati.”

Growth of Royal Power

The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. He realized taxes like “bali”,
“sulka” and “bhaga”.

The Satapatha Brahmana described the king to be infallible and immune from all punishment.
The “Sabha” of the Rig Vedic Period died. The king sought the aid and support of the Samiti on
matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. There are references to the Samiti sometimes, in the
context of electing or re-electing a king.

The authority of the government in the later Vedic period was perhaps more democratic in the
sense that the authority of the leaders of the Aryan tribes was recognized by the king. However
in spite of the existence of the popular assemblies, the powers of the King went on increasing,
due to the growth of large territorial states.

The growth of royal power was largely reflected in the enlarged outrage of the king. In the work
of administration the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as Ratnins
(Jewels). They included the Bhagadugha (collector of taxes), the Suta (charioteer), the
Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), the kshattri (chamberlain), the Govikartana (king’s
companion in the chase), the Palogala (courtier) the Takshan (Carpenter), the Rathakara (Chariot
marker) in addition to the ecclesiastical and military officials like the Purohita (chaplain) the
senani (general), and the Gramani (leader of host or of the village).

In the Later Vedic Period, the Gramani was both a civil and military officer. Gramanis weres the
medium through which the royal power was exercised in the village. Adhikritas were the village
officers, and were lowest in the rank.

The king administered justice. Occasionally, he delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In
the villages, Gramyavadins (Village judges) and Sabhas (courts) decided the cases. Punishments
for crimes were severe.

The father was the head of the property of the family. In case of inheritance of property, the law
of primogeniture was applied. By this rule the eldest son would inherit the property of the
deceased father. Neither the women nor the sudras had any right to property.

Social Organisation

The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas,
Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras.

Origin
Our knowledge about the original home of the Aryans is still in a speculative stage.
There has been a great divergence of opinion in the matter of identification of the place
wherefrom the Aryans came into India. No firm conclusion is, therefore, possible in this regard.

Arts and Sciences of the Aryans:

It is generally supposed that the Aryans did not know the art -of writing. It was because of this
that they used to memorise the Vedic texts and hand them down from generation to generation.
Yet, that the Aryans were adept in composing poetry goes without saying. The Rik Samhita was
the finest expression of the art of poetry of the Aryans.

The Aryans were highly developed in the art of house building. Reference to large palace with a
thousand pillars and doors testifies to the highly developed knowledge of architecture on the part
of the Aryans. They were also expert in the science and medicine. The medical men used to rely
on mantras, besides medicines, for the cure of diseases. Reference to iron leg pre-supposes the
knowledge of science of surgery among the Aryans.

The Aryans were also expert astronomers. The Science of Astronomy had been very much
developed at that time. This can be realised from the naming of some of the stars and planets by
the Aryans.

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