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Summary 21

electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Whether or not you work in the space
program, as a control systems engineer you will apply broad-based knowledge to the
solution of engineering control problems. You will have the opportunity to expand your
engineering horizons beyond your university curriculum.
You are now aware of future opportunities. But for now, what advantages does this
course offer to a student of control systems (other than the fact that you need it to graduate)?
Engineering curricula tend to emphasize bottom-up design. That is, you start from the
components, develop circuits, and then assemble a product. In top-down design, a high-level
picture of the requirements is first formulated; then the functions and hardware required to
implement the system are determined. You will be able to take a top-down systems approach
as a result of this course.
A major reason for not teaching top-down design throughout the curriculum is the
high level of mathematics initially required for the systems approach. For example, control
systems theory, which requires differential equations, could not be taught as a lower-division
course. However, while progressing through bottom-up design courses, it is difficult to see
how such design fits logically into the large picture of the product development cycle.
After completing this control systems course, you will be able to stand back and see
how your previous studies fit into the large picture. Your amplifier course or vibrations
course will take on new meaning as you begin to see the role design work plays as part of
product development. For example, as engineers, we want to describe the physical world
mathematically so that we can create systems that will benefit humanity. You will find that
you have indeed acquired, through your previous courses, the ability to model physical
systems mathematically, although at the time you might not have understood where in the
product development cycle the modeling fits. This course will clarify the analysis and design
procedures and show you how the knowledge you acquired fits into the total picture of
system design.
Understanding control systems enables students from all branches of engineering to
speak a common language and develop an appreciation and working knowledge of the other
branches. You will find that there really is not much difference among the branches of
engineering as far as the goals and applications are concerned. As you study control
systems, you will see this commonality.

Summary
Control systems contribute to every aspect of modern society. In our homes we find them in
everything from toasters to heating systems to DVD players. Control systems also have
widespread applications in science and industry, from steering ships and planes to guiding
missiles. Control systems also exist naturally; our bodies contain numerous control systems.
Even economic and psychological system representations have been proposed based on
control system theory. Control systems are used where power gain, remote control, or
conversion of the form of the input is required.
A control system has an input, a process, and an output. Control systems can be
open loop or closed loop. Open-loop systems do not monitor or correct the output for
disturbances; however, they are simpler and less expensive than closed-loop systems.
Closed-loop systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error is detected,
the system corrects the output and hence corrects the effects of disturbances.
Control systems analysis and design focuses on three primary objectives:

1. Producing the desired transient response

2. Reducing steady-state errors
3. Achieving stability
22 Chapter 1 Introduction

A system must be stable in order to produce the proper transient and steady-state
response. Transient response is important because it affects the speed of the system and
influences human patience and comfort, not to mention mechanical stress. Steady-state
response determines the accuracy of the control system; it governs how closely the output
matches the desired response.
The design of a control system follows these steps:
Step 1 Determine a physical system and specifications from requirements.
Step 2 Draw a functional block diagram.
Step 3 Represent the physical system as a schematic.
Step 4 Use the schematic to obtain a mathematical model, such as a block diagram.
Step 5 Reduce the block diagram.
Step 6 Analyze and design the system to meet specified requirements and specifica-
tions that include stability, transient response, and steady-state performance.
In the next chapter we continue through the analysis and design sequence and learn how to
use the schematic to obtain a mathematical model.

Review Questions
1. Name three applications for feedback control systems.
2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not
using them.
3. Give three examples of open-loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed-loop systems differ from open-loop systems?
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system would
not be the difference between the input and the output.
6. If the error signal is not the difference between input and output, by what general name
can we describe the error signal?
7. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop.
8. Name the three major design criteria for control systems.
9. Name the two parts of a system’s response.
10. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
11. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response?
12. Describe a typical control system analysis task.
13. Describe a typical control system design task.
14. Adjustments of the forward path gain can cause changes in the transient response.
True or false?
15. Name three approaches to the mathematical modeling of control systems.
16. Briefly describe each of your answers to Question 15.

Problems
1. A variable resistor, called a potentiometer, is shown variable, the output variable, and (inside the block)
in Figure P1.1. The resistance is varied by moving a the gain, which is a constant and is the amount
wiper arm along a fixed resistance. The resistance by which the input is multiplied to obtain the output.
from A to C is fixed, but the resistance from B to C An animation PowerPoint presentation (PPT)
varies with the position of the wiper arm. If it takes 10 demonstrating this system is available for instructors
turns to move the wiper arm from A to C, draw a at www.wiley.com/college/nise. See Potentiometer.
block diagram of the potentiometer showing the input [Section 1.4: Introduction to a Case Study]
Problems 23

generated by the speedometer cable, and the volume of

Input angle, θi(t) + 50 volts the radio is controlled by a dc voltage (Hogan, 1988). If
A
the dc voltage represents the desired volume disturbed by
B C the motorcycle noise, draw the functional block diagram
– 50 volts of the automatic volume control system, showing the
input transducer, the volume control circuit, and the
Output
voltage, vo(t)
speed transducer as blocks. Also, show the following
signals: the desired volume as an input, the actual volume
as an output, and voltages representing speed, desired
volume, and actual volume. An animation PowerPoint
FIGURE P1.1 Potentiometer presentation (PPT) demonstrating this system is available
for instructors at www.wiley.com/college/nise. See
2. A temperature control system operates by sensing the Motorcycle. [Section 1.4: Introduction to a Case Study]
difference between the thermostat setting and the actual 5. A dynamometer is a device used to measure torque and
temperature and then opening a fuel valve an amount speed and to vary the load on rotating devices. The
proportional to this difference. Draw a functional closed- dynamometer operates as follows to control the amount
loop block diagram similar to Figure 1.8(d) identifying of torque: A hydraulic actuator attached to the axle presses
the input and output transducers, the controller, and the a tire against a rotating flywheel. The greater the displace-
plant. Further, identify the input and output signals of all ment of the actuator, the greater the force that is applied to
subsystems previously described. [Section 1.4: Introduc- the rotating flywheel. A strain gage load cell senses the
tion to a Case Study] force. The displacement of the actuator is controlled by an
3. An aircraft’s attitude varies in roll, pitch, and yaw as electrically operated valve whose displacement regulates
defined in Figure P1.2. Draw a functional block diagram fluid flowing into the actuator (D’Souza, 1988). Draw a
for a closed-loop system that stabilizes the roll as follows: functional block diagram of a closed-loop system that
The system measures the actual roll angle with a gyro and uses the described dynamometer to regulate the force
compares the actual roll angle with the desired roll angle. against the tire during testing. Show all signals and
The ailerons respond to the roll-angle error by undergoing systems. Include amplifiers that power the valve, the
an angulardeflection. The aircraft respondsto this angular valve, the actuator and load, and the tire. [Section 1.4:
deflection, producing a roll angle rate. Identify the input Introduction to a Case Study]
and output transducers, the controller, and the plant. 6. During a medical operation an anesthesiologist controls
Further, identify the nature of each signal. [Section 1.4: the depth of unconsciousness by controlling the concen-
Introduction to a Case Study] tration of isoflurane in a vaporized mixture with oxygen
and nitrous oxide. The depth of anesthesia is measured by
the patient’s blood pressure. The anesthesiologist also
y Pitch angle
regulates ventilation, fluid balance, and the administra-
Aileron tion of other drugs. In order to free the anesthesiologist to
deflection up
devote more time to the latter tasks, and in the interest of
Aileron the patient’s safety, we wish to automate the depth of
deflection down anesthesia by automating the control of isoflurane con-
Roll angle
centration. Draw a functional block diagram of the system
x showing pertinent signals and subsystems (Meier, 1992).
Yaw angle [Section 1.4: Introduction to a Case Study]
7. The vertical position, x(t), of a grinding wheel is controlled
z
by a closed-loop system. The input to the system is the
FIGURE P1.2 Aircraft attitude defined desired depth of grind, and the output is the actual depth of
grind. The difference between the desired depth and the
4. We can build a control system that will automatically actual depth drives the motor, resulting in a force applied
adjust a motorcycle’s radio volume as the noise generated to the work. This force results in a feed velocity for the
by the motorcycle changes. The noise generated by the grinding wheel (Jenkins, 1997). Draw a closed-loop
motorcycle increases with speed. As the noise increases, functional block diagram for the grinding process,
the system increases the volume of the radio. Assume that showing the input, output, force, and grinder feed rate.
the amount of noise can be represented by a voltage [Section 1.4: Introduction to a Case Study]
24 Chapter 1 Introduction

8. You are given a high-speed proportional solenoid valve. the system in a vertical position. Indicate the input and
A voltage proportional to the desired position of the spool output signals, intermediate signals, and main subsys-
is applied to the coil. The resulting magnetic field pro- tems. (http://segway.com)
duced by the current in the coil causes the armature to
move. A push pin connected to the armature moves the
spool. A linear voltage differential transformer (LVDT)
that outputs a voltage proportional to displacement senses
the spool’s position. This voltage can be used in a feed-

D.A. Winstein/Custom Medial Stock photo

back path to implement closed-loop operation (Vaughan,
1996). Draw a functional block diagram of the valve,
showing input and output positions, coil voltage, coil
current, and spool force. [Section 1.4: Introduction to a
Case Study]
9. The human eye has a biological control system that varies
the pupil diameter to maintain constant light intensity to
the retina. As the light intensity increases, the optical nerve
sends a signal to the brain, which commands internal eye
muscles to decrease the pupil’s eye diameter. When the
light intensity decreases, the pupil diameter increases.
FIGURE P1.3 The Segway Personal Transporter (PT)
a. Draw a functional block diagram of the light-pupil
system indicating the input, output, and intermediate 11. In humans, hormone levels, alertness, and core body
signals; the sensor; the controller; and the actuator. temperature are synchronized through a 24-hour
[Section 1.4: Introduction to a Case Study] circadian cycle. Daytime alertness is at its best when
b. Under normal conditions the incident light will be sleep/wake cycles are in sync with the circadian cycle.
larger than the pupil. If the incident light is smaller Thus alertness can be easily affected with a distributed
than the diameter of the pupil, the feedback path is work schedule, such as the one to which astronauts are
broken (Bechhoefer, 2005). Modify your block diagram subjected. It has been shown that the human circadian
from Part a. to show where the loop is broken. What will cycle can be delayed or advanced through light stimulus.
happen if the narrow beam of light varies in intensity, To ensure optimal alertness, a system is designed to track
such as in a sinusoidal fashion? astronauts’ circadian cycles and increase the quality of
c. It has been found (Bechhoefer, 2005) that it takes the sleep during missions. Core body temperature can be used
pupil about 300 milliseconds to react to a change in the as an indicator of the circadian cycle. A computer model
incident light. If light shines off center to the retina, with optimum circadian body temperature variations can
describe the response of the pupil with delay present be compared to an astronaut’s body temperatures.
and then without delay present. Whenever a difference is detected, the astronaut is sub-
10. A Segway 5 Personal Transporter (PT) (Figure P1.3) is a jected to a light stimulus to advance or delay the astro-
two-wheeled vehicle in which the human operator stands naut’s circadian cycle (Mott, 2003). Draw a functional
vertically on a platform. As the driver leans left, right, block diagram of the system. Indicate the input and output
forward, or backward, a set of sensitive gyroscopic signals, intermediate signals, and main subsystems.
sensors sense the desired input. These signals are fed to 12. Tactile feedback is an important component in the
a computer that amplifies them and commands motors to learning of motor skills such as dancing, sports, and
propel the vehicle in the desired direction. One very physical rehabilitation. A suit with white dots recognized
important feature of the PT is its safety: The system by a vision system to determine arm joint positions with
will maintain its vertical position within a specified angle millimetric precision was developed. This suit is worn by
despite road disturbances, such as uphills and downhills both teacher and student to provide position information.
or even if the operator over-leans in any direction. Draw a (Lieberman, 2007). If there is a difference between the
functional block diagram of the PT system that keeps teacher’s positions and that of the student, vibrational
feedback is provided to the student through eight
strategically placed vibrotactile actuators in the wrist
and arm. This placement takes advantage of a sensory
5
Segway is a registered trademark of Segway, Inc. in the United States and/ effect known as cutaneous rabbit that tricks the subject
or other countries. to feel uniformly spaced stimuli in places where the
WEBC01 10/28/2014 14:10:34 Page 25

Problems 25

actuators are not present. These stimuli help the student system is to be designed in which the objective is to
adjust to correct the motion. In summary, the system minimize the drift, Y, and an angular deviation from
consists of an instructor and a student having their the vertical axes, ϕ (not shown). The disturbances
movements followed by the vision system. Their move- acting on the system’s outputs are the force, F, and the
ments are fed into a computer that finds the differences torque, M, caused by the external environment. In this
between their joint positions and provides proportional problem, the plant will have one input, the force
vibrational strength feedback to the student. Draw a block delivered by the thrusters (Fu) and two outputs, Y
diagram describing the system design. and ϕ. Note also that this is a disturbance attenuation
13. Some skillful drivers can drive and balance a four- problem, so there is no command input. Draw a block
wheeled vehicle on two wheels. To verify that a control diagram of the system indicating the disturbances F
system can also drive a car in this fashion, a prototype and M, the control signal Fu, and the outputs Y and ϕ.
using an RC (remote-controlled) car is equipped with a Your diagram should also have blocks for a controller,
feedback control system (Arndt, 2011). In a simplified the one-input two-output plant, and a block indicating
system model, the roll angle at which the car balances was how the disturbances affect each of the outputs.
calculated a priori and found to be 52.3°. This value was 15. In the Case Study of Section 1.4, an antenna azimuth angle
used as the desired input. The desired input is compared is controlled, and its corresponding block diagram is shown
with the actual roll angle and the difference is fed to a in Figure 1.8(d) in the text. There, the sensor used to
controller that feeds a servomotor indicating the desired measure the antenna’s azimuth angle is a potentiometer.
wheel steering angle that controls the vehicle’s roll angle a. Modify the block diagram if the sensor used tomeasure
on two wheels. The car’s actual roll angle is measured the antenna’s angle is an accelerometer.
using a hinged linkage that rolls along the ground next to b. Modify the block diagram if the sensor used tomeasure
the vehicle and is connected to a potentiometer. Draw a the antenna’s angle is a gyroscope.
block diagram indicating the system functions. Draw
blocks for the system controller, the steering servo, and 16. Figure P1.5 shows the topology of a photo-voltaic (PV)
system that uses solar cells to supply electrical power to a
the car dynamics. Indicate in the diagram the following
residence with hybrid electric vehicle loads (Gurkavnak,
signals: the desired roll angle, the steering wheel angle,
2009). The system consists of a PV array to collect the sun’s
and the actual car roll angle.
rays, a battery pack to store energy during the day, a dc/ac
14. Moored floating platforms are subject to external inverter to supply ac power to the load, and a bidirectional
disturbances such as waves, wind, and currents that dc/dc converter to control the terminal voltage of the solar
cause them to drift. There are certain applications, array according to a maximum power point tracking
such as diving support, drilling pipe-laying, and tank- (MPPT) algorithm. In case of sufficient solar power (solar
ing between ships in which precise positioning of insolation), the dc/dc converter charges the battery and the
moored platforms is very important (Muñoz-Mansilla, solar array supplies power to the load through the dc/ac
2011). Figure P1.4 illustrates a tethered platform in inverter. With less or no solar energy (solar non-insolation),
which side thrusters are used for positioning. A control power is supplied from the battery to the load through the
dc/dc converter and the dc/ac inverter. Thus, the dc/dc
converter must be bidirectional to be able to charge and
Y
discharge the battery. With the MPPT controller providing
the reference voltage, the converter operates as a step-up
F converter (boost) to discharge the battery if the battery is
sea level
full or a step-down (buck) converter, which charges the
battery if it is not full.7
In Figure P1.5, the Inverter is controlled by the
thrusters
Power Manager and Controller through the Current
sea floor
Controller. The Power Manager and Controller directs
the Inverter to take power either from the battery,
FIGURE P1.4 Tethered platform using side thrusters for via the Bidirectional Converter, or the solar array,
positioning6 depending upon the time of day and the battery state
6
Muñoz-Mansilla, R., Aranda, J., Diaz, J. M., Chaos, D., and Reinoso, A. J.,
Applications of QFT Robust Control Techniques to Marine Systems. 9th
7
IEEE International Conference on Control and Automation. December For a description of all other operational scenarios, refer to the above-listed
19–21, 2011, pp. 378–385. (Figure 3, p. 382). reference.