UNIT 3

HISTORY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Warm-up. Answer and discuss the following:

• What do you know about the history of electrical engineering? Do you know:
• when it was born as a field?
• who the main contributors to the field have been?
• what the main discoveries and inventions in the field have been?
• Which inventions and discoveries do you think are the most important, and why?
• Which electrical engineer has contributed the most to the field? Why do think that?

I READING. Part 1. Read about the early developments in electrical engineering and how the
field was born8, and answer the questions below.

Early developments in electrical engineering

Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the 17th century, but it was not until
the 19th century that research into the subject began to intensify. Notable developments of that period
include the work of Georg Ohm, Michael Faraday, and James Clerk Maxwell. In 1827, Ohm quantified
the relationship between the electric current and potential difference in a conductor. In 1831, Faraday
discovered electromagnetic induction. In 1873, Maxwell published a unified theory of electricity and
magnetism in his treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.
During these years, the study of electricity was largely considered a subfield of physics. It was not
until the late 19th century that universities started to offer academic degrees in electrical engineering.
The Darmstadt University of Technology founded the first chair and the first faculty of electrical
engineering worldwide in 1882. In 1883, this institution and Cornell University introduced the world's
first courses of study in electrical engineering, and in 1885, the University College London founded
the first chair of electrical engineering in the United Kingdom. The University of Missouri subsequently
established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States in 1886.

1. Who are the most important early contributors to the field of electrical engineering? How did they
contribute?
2. From what scientific field did electrical engineering emerge?
3. Which was the world’s first faculty of electrical engineering? When was it founded?

8
Taken from (CC licence): https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Electrical_engineering#History
Part 2. Now read text about some of the most important contributors, discoveries and inventions
in the history of electrical engineering9 and complete the exercises below:

The Electrical Age

The Electrical Age could be said to have begun with Michael Faraday (1791-1867), the friend of Ada
Byron, whose discoveries helped pave the way for the electric motor.

Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) developed alternating current and invented the induction motor in 1887 and
1888, then engaged in a famous “war of the
currents” with Thomas Edison, who had bet on
direct current. Tesla won that war when he
partnered with George Westinghouse in 1893 to
generate power at Niagara Falls and to light the
Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Tesla was
awarded 278 patents in 26 countries, and
experimented with wireless power transmission, X-
rays, robotics, and lasers. Edison accumulated
1,093 US patents for devices like the phonograph,
the incandescent light bulb, improvements to the
telegraph, batteries, and
the carbon microphone
used in telephones.

Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) was an Italian electrical engineer and

winner of the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics. At the age of twenty he designed a
radio-telegraph machine, which he demonstrated in England over the next
couple of years. By the end of the 1890s, he was sending wireless morse code
signals to ships at sea, and at the beginning of the 20th century Marconi sent
and received radio transmissions across the Atlantic.

John Logie Baird (1888-1946) was a Scottish engineer who in 1928 achieved
the first transatlantic television transmission. In the same year Baird also
demonstrated colour TV and stereoscopic 3D TV.

Robert H. Goddard (1882-1945) was an American physicist who is credited

with inventing the liquid-fuelled rocket in 1914. Goddard first successfully
launched a rocket in 1926, and over the next fifteen years he launched 34
rockets, reaching altitudes of 1.6 miles and speeds of over 500 mph.
Americans took little notice of Goddard’s work, although Charles Lindbergh
was impressed. In 1923 Goddard warned that the Germans were pursuing
rocketry, but serious American engineers were not interested.

Karel Capek (1890-1938) was a Czech writer of what we now recognize as

early science fiction. Capek coined the term robot in a 1920 play called
R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots) about a dystopian factory whose
workers were sentient androids. Robota means serf
labour in Czech. Capek’s stories discussed the ethical
problems of mass production, dictatorship, nuclear
weapons (yet to be produced), and the greed and
power of corporations.

Alan Turing (1912-54) was an English mathematician

and early computer scientist. He worked with British
code-breakers at Bletchley Park and devised an
electromechanical machine that could decipher the
settings of the German Enigma machine.

9
Taken from the book History of High Tech by Dan Allosso, available at (CC licence): https://mlpp.pressbooks.pub/historyofhightech/chapter/the-electrical-age/
Turing invented the Turing Machine in 1936 as a mathematical model of computation. It is an abstract
concept rather than a physical assembly of parts, so Turing’s work in a sense follows in the tradition of
Ada Byron. In the conceptual model, the “a-machine” (automatic machine)
manipulates a potentially infinite-length “memory tape” divided into discrete cells.
The machine scans a cell and reads the symbol located there that stands for the
desired function. The machine follows the instruction, writes its output in the cell,
and moves to the next cell.
One of the first things Turing discovered about this model of computing is that it
does not provide a solution to the Entscheidungsproblem or “decision problem”
of logic first outlined by German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century
and later elaborated by David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928 and Kurt
Gödel in 1933. The gist of the problem is completeness: can an algorithm be
created that could decide whether a given statement is provable using the rules
of formal logic? Turing and Alonzo Church concluded in 1936 that the answer was no. This led to the
Turing-Church thesis on the nature of computable functions, and ultimately to Turing’s definition of the
“Universal Turing Machine”. The UTM is a Turing machine that can simulate the operations of any other
Turing machine and run them as programs. John von Neumann used Turing’s idea to develop his
concept of the stored-program computer in 1946, now known as von Neumann architecture.

John von Neumann (1903-57) was a Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist. After a youth
distinguished by several recognitions of his genius, von Neumann was offered a lifetime professorship
at the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton. He worked on the Manhattan Project during WWII, and
is credited with developing the concept of mutual assured destruction (MAD) during the Cold War.
The architecture specifies an input device connected to a central processing unit that contains a process
controller and an arithmetic/logic unit connected to a memory unit that stores data and instructions. The
program instructions and data are both kept in read-write random-access memory (RAM). This was an
advance over the program-controlled computers of the 1940s, which were programmed by setting
switches and inserting patch cables. While program-controlled computers could also be considered
UTMs, they required physical manipulation of operators to alter their programming. Von Neumann
architecture shifted that manipulation into code.
The first Turing-complete computer ever built (Turing completeness = UTM, and the Babbage Analytical
Engine would have been Turing complete but was never built) was the Z3, designed by Konrad Zuse
and built in Berlin in 1941. The Z3 was the world’s first
programmable, digital computer, but it was program-
controlled. The Z3 had 2,600 relays and ran at 5.3 Hz. It
was not used for war-related computing but was
destroyed in December 1943 during allied bombing of
Berlin. Other German computers were used to calculate
and simulate V2 rocket trajectories.
In 1946 Turing was awarded the Order of the British
Empire (OBE) for his work, much of which was unknown
to the public due to the Official Secrets Act. After WWII,
Turing designed the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)
between 1946 and 1948. It was one of the first stored-
program computers, but a full version of the machine was
not completed until after his death in 1954.
In 1950, Turing wrote an article called “Computing
Machinery and Intelligence” for the journal Mind. In it
he proposed what has become known as the Turing
Test in which a human tries to judge whether the
responses he receives to questions asked via a blind
test are coming from another human or from a
computer emulating a human. The ability to pass for
human, according to the logic of the test, is the same
as being human. Turing doesn’t really address
whether the computer is using identical processes as
the human to understand and respond to questions,
and this has become a central problem in the
formulation of questions and claims in not only artificial intelligence but in the science of human thought.
a) Decide whether the following are true or false.
1. The electrical age started with Ada Byron.
2. Thomas Edison was right to bet on direct current.
3. Both Edison and Tesla came up with significant inventions.
4. Marconi was the inventor of a successful wireless telegraph.
5. Baird demonstrated a working television.
7. Goddard’s warnings about Germany’s pursuing rocketry were largely ignored.
8. Robot is a word of Slavic origin.
9. Turing may be regarded as the father of theoretical computer science as well as artificial intelligence.
10. Zuse created the first programmable computer.
11. Turing’s work was immediately recognised by the public.
12. Turing claimed that the computer uses the same processes as a human to arrive at conclusions.

b) Match the words in the italics with their synonyms or definitions.

current light bulb credit with altitude decipher ultimately
distinguish infinite trajectory allied shift conductor
sentient devise outline emulate random found
assembly mutual assured gist carbon switch

1. a chemical element whose symbol is C ………………………..

2. establish, start something (esp. an institution, a company) ………………………..
3. height ………………………..
4. endless, limitless ………………………..
5. recognise that someone is different in a good way ………………………..
6. an object which produces light ………………………..
7. change ………………………..
8. a flow of electricity ………………………..
9. finally, at the end ………………………..
10. a high curving path ………………………..
11. describe the main details of something ………………………..
12. a button which controls the electrical supply ………………………..
13. related to countries which united fought against Germany ………………………..
14. certain, confident ………………………..
15. the main idea ………………………..
16. an object or material allowing the flow of electrical current ………………………..
17. try to be like someone else, to imitate ………………………..
18. say that someone is responsible for a certain achievement ………………………..
19. succeed in understanding something confusing or mysterious………………………..
20. capable of feeling ………………………..
21. invent something ………………………..
22. chosen without following any pattern ………………………..
23. a group of something or people ………………………..
24. done by each of the two people ………………………..

c) Which words were used together with these in the text? The first letter of the
missing words is provided.
g………………… power s………………… for something
p………………… for p………………… the way for
c………………… with take little n…………………
c………………… a term e………………… in a war
follow in a t………………… of artificial i…………………

d) Complete with the missing word forms.

Verb Noun Adjective
instruction
store
alternating
wired, wireless
complete
device
programme

e) Match the sentences’ halves. Try not to look back at the text.
A Much about Turing’s work was unknown to 1 a rocket in 1926.
the public
B Von Neumann is credited 2 the German Enigma.
C Faraday’s discoveries paved 3 with developing the concept of mutual
assured destruction.
D Goddard launched 4 by Leibniz.
E His rocket 5 the way for the electric motor.
F His machine could decipher 6 as a human would.
G The decision problem was first outlined 7 due to the Official Secrets Act.
H Turing does not address the issue of 8 reached an altitude of 1.6 miles.
whether the computer is using the same
process

f) Answer and discuss the following:

1. What was the “war of the currents” all about? Who won it and why?
2. What are Marconi’s and Baird’s major achievements, respectively?
3. What did Goddard warn against? How did people react to his warning?
4. Which langauge does the word “robot” come from?
5. What is Turing’s legacy? Why wasn’t he recognised by the public during his lifetime?
6. How did von Neumann contribute to the development of computers?
7. What is Zuse’s contribution to the development of computers?
8. What did Turing argue in his paper published in the journal Mind?
II SPEAKING. Discuss the questions below10:
a) Do you think that a machine could really pass for a human?
Are there some tests that you think a machine could not pass?
Do you think that artificial intelligence will ever reach the human
level of processing and perhaps become conscious, as some
science fiction writers gloomily predict?
Have you read any books or watched any films based on this
premise?
Tell your friends what they were about and how plausible do you
think their plot was.
Are you a fan of the science fiction genre?

b) Choose three most important discoveries or inventions that have to do with electricity. Present your
choices to your peers and provide arguments.

c) Choose a major electrical engineer from the past. Prepare a short presentation about his life and
work, and present it to your peers. Make sure you all choose different engineers. The guidelines for
presenting are given in the Appendix.

III LISTENING. Listen about the history of the multimeter – a measuring

instrument11. Then answer the question below.

• What is a multimeter?
• What do simple multimeters measure?
• What do complex multimeters measure?
• In which situations can they be used?
• Which device was the ancestor of
multimeters?
• To whom is the invention of a multimeter
credited? Why did he develop it?
• What was the name of the first multimeter?
• What type of a multimeter is used the most
widely today?
• What can modern high-end multimeters do?

IV WRITING. Writing a student motivation letter in order to apply for a mobility,

scholarship or further education programme.
Study the sample student motivation letter below.

10
Image credit (CC): https://live.staticflickr.com/1816/30212411048_2a1d7200e2_b.jpg.
11
Taken from (CC): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cr4JMYR7ghU
Image credit (CC): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimeter#/media/File:1920s_multimeter_3738-6b.jpg
Marija Jović
Bulevar Sv. Petra Cetinjskog 2
Podgorica
+38267222222
[email protected]

MOTIVATION LETTER
FOR TAKING PART IN THE ERASMUS+ EXCHANGE PROGRAMME

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am aware that the University of Heidelberg and the University of Montenegro have signed an
agreement within the Erasmus+ programme, which allows for a number of student mobilities between
the two institutions, as well as scholarships to cover the expenses of such mobilities. I would like to
take this excellent opportunity and apply for this exchange programme, which I saw advertised on
the Faculty’s website.
I am currently in my second year of the degree in Electrical Engineering at the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering. Bearing this in mind, I believe that this is a great opportunity for me to grow both
professionally and personally.
Taking into account the professional considerations, participating in this exchange programme will
allow me to understand different ways of studying and learning, as well as to improve and perfect my
knowledge of English, which currently stands at the B2 level. In this way, I will be able to improve my
skills and later apply for more qualified and responsible jobs.
From a personal point of view, visiting the University of Heidelberg will allow me to grow and develop
as a person, as I will obtain a greater sense of responsibility and achieve a higher degree of
confidence and maturity than it is the case at the moment.
My chosen host country, Germany, is renowned for its esteemed universities, and attending lectures
at one of the most respected ones, the University of Heidelberg, will help me to develop skills and
abilities in a pleasant university environment which boasts a good educational system. Additionally,
I will have the opportunity to interact with German and international students, which will broaden my
cultural horizons.
Finally, I am certain that taking part in the Erasmus+ programme will give me a stronger and clearer
sense of what the European Union stands for and what it means to be an EU citizen.
I hope you will find me a good candidate. I thank you for your consideration and look forward to
receiving your reply.

Yours truly,
Marija Jović

Some tips to follow when writing a motivation letter for a mobility or a scholarship:
• Show that you have done your homework regarding the different programmes available
and give good reasons why the Erasmus+ programme was chosen among them. Show that
you know what the Erasmus+ programme is about.
• Show that you know something about the host university and country. It demonstrates
that you have prepared well and tailored your letter of motivation for this specific
call/advertisement.
• Show that you are ready for an English-speaking environment.

The motivation letter has the following components:

• Contact details and a formal salutation.
• The first paragraph will explain what you are applying for, where you got the information
about the call, and who you are.
• The next several paragraphs explain your motivations – you should state both those
professional and personal ones.
• In the final paragraphs you can express your hopes and expectations.
• End with a complimentary close and sign the letter.
Most of the vocabulary suggested for job application letters can be used here as well. Here are some
additional, more specific phrases and sentences you can use (remember to adapt them to your own
application):

I would like to express a strong interest in taking part in your… programme.

My name is XX and I would hereby like to apply for…
Let me briefly introduce myself – I am XX and I am in my second year of studies at the…
I am eager to apply/improve/develop/consolidate my skills in… in a new university
environment/setting…
It will be my pleasure to exchange ideas with/interact with my student colleagues from…
It will be my pleasure to learn from/gain insights from the professors from…
I would like to take advantage of the opportunity to…
I would like to explore/develop/expand/cultivate my interests in...
I gladly welcome the opportunity to...
I look forward to...
I am confident/certain I will have no problem blending in/attending lectures at your university…
I will gain/learn/benefit/profit from ...
What draws me most to your institution is...
I will gain an appreciation of/a new insight into...
This programme presents me with a valuable/unique opportunity to...
I am excited about...
This programme would challenge me to...
Taking part in this programme will deepen my appreciation for/understanding of…
I wish to develop a firm/strong foundation in...
The exchange programme appeals to me/attracts me/intrigues me as I...
I hope to contribute to/offer/share...
I hope you will find me a good candidate taking into consideration my academic
record/achievements/extracurricular activities/keen interest that I have in…
I would like to meet new people/people of different backgrounds and cultures… and make contacts
with them.
I will do my best to adapt/adjust to your courses and requirements.
I thank you for your consideration and look forward to receiving your reply.
Thank you in advance for this opportunity and for considering my application.
I hope to take part in the further stages of the selection process.

Now go to your university’s website and find calls for taking part in an exchange
programme. Choose one and write a motivation letter for it. Take into account
the structure, phrases and tips suggested above.
V LANGUAGE IN USE: GRAMMAR. Sequencing the past tenses.
Before we discuss the matter of sequencing the past tenses, let us first briefly revise the past
tenses. Study the table below.

Simple A: He came. § action in the past happening once, never, or yesterday, last, ago, in
Past N: He did not come. several times 1990, the other day
Q: Did he come? § actions happening one after another
in the second conditional
§ action happening in the middle of another (If I came, …)
action, typically suddenly
Past A: He was running. § ongoing action happening at a definite time in while, as long as
Continuous N: He was not running. the past
Q: Was he running? § two actions happening at the same time
§ (the longer) action in the past which is
interrupted by another action
Past A: He had done it. § action happening before a certain time in the already, just, never,
Perfect N: He had not done it. past ever, yet, after
Simple Q: Had he done it? § sometimes interchangeable with past perfect
progressive in the third conditional
(If I had done it…)
§ putting emphasis only on the fact (not the
duration)
Past A: He had been § action happening before a certain time in the for, since, all day, the
Perfect running. past. Emphasis is on the duration or course of an whole day
Continuous N: He had not been action.
running. § sometimes interchangeable with past perfect
Q: Had he been simple
running?
Now study the grammar box below.

Sequencing the past tenses

A past tense in the main clause is typically followed by another past tense in the subordinate clause:

Mary found out that John was not at home.

She said she loved the book.
We asked them where they were going.
In the past, people thought that the Sun revolved around the Earth.

Still, the subordinate clause may be in the present tense if its content refers to a universal truth:

I was taught that honesty is the best policy. (OR: was)

Copernicus discovered that the Earth revolves around the Sun. (OR: revolved)

He said that he was sick. (OR: He said that he is sick.)

Note: The second sentence is possible as long as the fact that “he is sick” is still
true. The first is possible in any case.

In case a subordinate clause expresses place, reason or comparison (it starts with: such as, than,
as well as, where, because…) or is an adjective clause, a past tense in the main clause may be
followed by any tense in the subordinate clause:

Tom loved me more than he loves you.

Tom loved me more than he will ever love you.
Tom loved me more than he loved you.
I saw the hotel where I will stay.
He visited the village where Mary lives. (OR: lived)
She didn’t get the job because her English isn’t good. (OR: wasn’t)
Yesterday I saw a man who sells fruit. (OR: sold)

a) Complete the sentences. Indicate if more than one tense is possible.

1. I was aware of the fact that she …………………… (be) ill.

2. The teacher explained that the Earth ……………………. (not be) flat.
3. He trusted me more than he ……………………. (trust) you.
4. The cat was bathing because its feet ………………… (be) dirty.
5. The early doctors knew that washing hands ………………… (prevent) infection.
6. He arrived at 5 p.m. but the store ……………………… (close, already).
7. After she …………………….. (learn) to drive, she felt much more confident.
8. When the captain saw the land, he …………………. (cheer).
9. I know the man who …………………….... (work) for this corporation but left it before I met him.
10. I found out he …………………… (not tell) the truth about the accident.
11. While I ……………………….. (listen) to the lecture on electrical circuits, my phone
……………………… (ring).
12. When they came, Sarah ……………………… (wait) for an hour. They saw that she was extremely
nervous.
13. I ………………….. (work) at the company for five years when I …………………… (be) promoted.
14. Copernicus proved that the sun ……………………… (be) the centre of the universe.
V LANGUAGE IN USE: VOCABULARY. Electric, electrical, electronic. Basic
electrical engineering vocabulary: components.

Electric, electrical, electronic

Electrical, electric, and electronic come from the same root and in some contexts are even
interchangeable. However, we may explain some rough differences among them as follows:

Electrical – of or relating to electricity; used for things that produce or process electricity, a
general term for anything that uses electricity.

Electric – devices and appliances that run on electricity are electric.

– full of energy or exciting. This second meaning is metaphorical (it is used to describe feelings,
performances, etc.)

Electronic – refers to devices that work through the use of many small electrical parts (e.g.
microchips). It is often reduced to just the letter e.

Electronic is fairly easy to use, while sometimes there may be doubts between electrical and electric.
Below is a table with common collocations of the three adjectives

Electrical Electric Electronic (e-)

electrical engineering, electric fence, electric car, electronic payment, electronic
electrical engineer, electrical electric motor, electric guitar, store, electronic book (e-
worker, electrical consultant, electric iron, electric oven, book), electronic equipment,
electrical generator, electrical electric kettle, electric drill, electronic component,
outlet, electrical equipment, electric razor, electric electronic mail (e-mail, email),
electrical system, electrical toothbrush… electronic media, electronic
fault, electrical wiring, electric performance, electric government (e-government),
electrical company, electrical evening, electric atmosphere, electronic music, electronic
degree… electric effect on the device, electronic surveillance
audience… system…

Sometimes they can be used interchangeably:

“electrical current” and “electric current”
“electrical power” and “electric power”
“electrical energy” and “electric energy”
“electrical light” and “electric light”
“electrical shock” and “electric shock”
“electrical circuit” and “electric circuit”
“electrical appliance” and “electric appliance”
“electrical device” and “electric device” (also “electronic device” but this is slightly different, see
the explanation below)

Sometimes two options are possible but there is a difference in meaning, in line with what was
explained above:
An “electrical device” is a device using electricity, while an “electronic device”, although it also
uses electricity, is more complex (e.g. smart phones, tablets, computers…)
An “electric chair” is a chair for killing prisoners with electricity. “Electronic chairs” can be chairs
which have electronic equipment, like a chair that massages a person, has a keypad, etc.
An “electric toaster” is a common toaster. An “electronic toaster” has a touchscreen and you
can customise the settings and preferences.

a) Complete the gaps with electrical, electric or electronic.

…………………… blanket …………………… mail
…………………… hairdrier …………………… equipment
…………………… wire …………………… payment
…………………… mandolin …………………… car

Basic electrical engineering vocabulary: components

AFCI (Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter) – a special type of receptacle/circuit breaker which opens the
circuit when it detects a dangerous electrical arc (to prevent electrical fires).

Capacitor /kəˈpæsɪtə(r)/ – a device used for storing electric charge.

Circuit breaker – an automatic device which is used for stopping the flow of current in an electric
circuit for safety reasons.

Conductor /kənˈdʌktə(r)/ – any material through which electric current can flow freely. Conductive
materials are metals, for instance.

Diode /ˈdaɪəʊd/ – a semiconductor device which has two terminals.

Generator – a device converting mechanical energy to electrical energy to be used in an external

circuit.

GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) – a fast-acting circuit breaker which is designed to shut
off electric power in case there is a ground-fault.

Inverter – an apparatus /ˌæpəˈreɪtəs/ converting direct current into alternating current.

Insulator /ˈɪnsjʊˌleɪtə(r)/ – any material through which an electric current does not flow freely.
Insulating materials, like glass, rubber, air, and many plastics, have relatively high resistance.

Service – the conductors & equipment which are used to deliver energy from the electrical supply
system to the system which is served.

Service Lateral – underground service conductors extending from the street main all the way to
the first point of connection with the entrance conductors.

Semiconductor – any material with an electrical conductivity value which is between that of a
conductor and an insulator. Devices made of semiconductors, such as silicon, are essential
components in most electronic circuits.

SCR (Solid State Relay) – an electronic switching device which switches on/off when a small
external voltage is applied across its control terminals.

Solenoid /ˈso(ʊ)lənɔɪd/ – the generic term for a coil of wire which is used as an electromagnet.

Switch – a device for making/breaking/changing the connections in an electric current.

Switchgear /ˈswɪʧgɪə/ – it includes electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers, which
are used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.

Transistor /trænˈzɪstə(r)/ – a semiconductor device with three connections, which is capable of

amplification in addition to rectification.

a) Now use the words from the box above in the sentences below.

1. ……………………….. is a coil of wire, typically cylindrical in shape, in which a magnetic field is

established by passing a current through it.
2. He put some detergent into the dishwasher, shut its door and pressed the …………………... to turn
it on.
3. …………………….. refers to any of several devices which are used to open and close electric circuits,
particularly those which pass high currents.
4. A device for accumulating electric charge is called a ……………………..
5. Wool is nature's best ……………………….
6. There is an internal ……………………. ……………………… to protect the instrument from overload.
7. …………………….. is a machine which converts one form of energy into another, especially
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
8. ……………………. ………………………. is an underground facility which is used to transmit,
distribute, or furnish electricity from a common source to the end-user.
9. A ……………………. is a substance used in electronics – its ability to conduct electricity increases
at greater heats.
10. An electronic device with two electrodes or terminals, especially used as a rectifier, is a
………………………….

b) Translate the sentences into English.

1. Generator je uređaj koji pretvara mehaničku energiju u električnu.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Poluprovodnik je materijal koji ima neka svojstva provodnika i neka svojstva izolatora.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Najbolji provodnici su metali kao što su bakar, aluminijum i srebro.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Znala sam da mi nije rekao istinu.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Siguran sam da bih vašoj kompaniji mogao da doprinesem svojim znanjem i iskustvom.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
* Fun facts

Ancient Developments in Electrical Engineering12

Long before any knowledge of electricity existed, people were aware of shocks from electric fish.
Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the "Thunderer of the Nile",
and described them as the "protectors" of all other
fish. Electric fish were again reported millennia later
by ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic naturalists
and physicians. Several ancient writers, such as
Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to
the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by
electric catfish and electric rays, and knew that such
shocks could travel along conducting objects.
Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or
headache were directed to touch electric fish in the
hope that the powerful jolt might cure them.

Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the

identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be
attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic
word for lightning ra‘ad applied to the electric ray.

Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects,

such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with fur to attract light objects
like feathers. Thales of Miletus, an ancient Greek philosopher, writing
at around 600 BCE, described a form of static electricity, noting that
rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber, would cause a
particular attraction between the two. He noted that the amber
buttons could attract light objects such as hair and that if they rubbed
the amber for long enough they could even get a spark to jump.

At around 450 BCE Democritus, a later Greek philosopher, developed an

atomic theory that was similar to modern atomic theory. His mentor,
Leucippus, is credited with this same theory. The hypothesis of Leucippus
and Democritus held everything to be composed of atoms. But these
atoms, called "atomos", were indivisible, and indestructible. He stated that
between atoms lies empty space, and that atoms are constantly in motion.
He was incorrect only in stating that atoms come in different sizes and
shapes, and that each object had its own shaped and sized atom.

An object found in Iraq in 1938, dated to about 250 BCE and called the
Baghdad Battery, resembles a galvanic cell and is claimed by some to
have been used for electroplating in Mesopotamia, although there is no
evidence for this.

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Taken from (CC): https://callipedia.miraheze.org/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering
Image credit (CC): https://batteryindustry.tech/dictionary/baghdad-battery/; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_catfish#/media/File:Malapterurus_electricus_1.jpg;
https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Талес_из_Милета