i

GENERAL BIOLOGY

JARIET S. ADRIATICO
CRIS ANTHONY Q. EMPEYNADO

ii
General Biology

by Jariet S. Adriatico, Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado

and

Jose Rizal Memorial State University

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof

may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever
without the express written permission of the authors
except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Page and Cover designed: Jariet S. Adriatico and Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado
ISBN _________________
First Edition. _____________

Published by: JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

Gov. Guading Adaza St. Sta Cruz, Dapitan City, 7101
Tel. No. (065) 908-8294
[email protected]

iii
PREFACE
This module is created for Bachelor in Secondary Education major in Science students
to provide them an understanding of the basic fundamental knowledge and skills in biology
that would guide them in pursuing their course. This module covers exciting yet challenging
activities the topics specified in the course content. There are five units in this module. Unit I
tackles on the inquiry of life specifically on the nature and scope of biology, the scientific
method, history of biology, the theories on the origin of life and the characteristics of life, Unit
II tackles on the biomolecules and cellular basis of life, Unit III tackles on cell types and tissues,
Unit IV on plant form and function and Unit V on animal form and function.
All these topics are essential in understanding how biological processes are creating,
maintaining, and developing organisms. Formative assessments will be given to students
every after the topic or activity.
Summative assessments will be given at the end of every unit in this module. Rubrics
are provided to guide the students on how to make their projects which also serve as a guide
to the instructor to grade the outputs of the students.
Teaching and learning science is a way of life, it is the main reason why every living organism
here on Earth exists and co-exists. It provides answers to questions on the processes
happening in the natural and physical world.
Knowing and understanding the fundamentals of science at this time of the pandemic
is essential because it would lessen our chances of being victims from fake scientific news
that is circulating in social media and elsewhere.
At times like this, we should remember a quote from the famous scientist Charles
Darwin, “It is not the strongest of species that survive, nor the most intelligent that survives. It
is the one that is the most adaptable to change that lives within the means available and works
cooperatively against common threats”. We should always be resilient and adaptable to
changes that may come to our way of life in order to save us from the risk of any mental
disorders and it would be easy for us to accept facts, no matter how unacceptable it would be.

-The Authors

iv
Table of Contents

Content Page

Cover Page i
Title Page ii
Copyright Page iii
Preface iv
Table of contents v
Syllabus vi
Learning Guide xxxii
Learning Agreement xxxiv
Form 11: Program Outcomes xxxv
Form 12: Course Outcomes xxxvii
Form 14: Formative Assessments xxxix
Form 15: Quality Indicators of Formative Assessment xlii
Form 16: Summative Assessment Plan xlv
Form 17: Summative Assessment Instruction to Learners xlvi
Form 18: Quality Indicators of Summative Assessment xlvii
Acknowledgement xlviii
Unit I: The Inquiry About Life 1
Unit II: Biomolecules and Cellular Basis of Life 28
Unit III: Plant Form and Function 98
Unit IV: Invertebrates 157
Unit V: Vertebrates 162
Unit VI: Human Anatomy and Body Systems 167
Glossary 186
Rubrics 201
References 206
User’s Evaluation Form 216
About the Authors 217

v
Republic of the Philippines
JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
The Premier University in Zamboanga del Norte
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Program: BSED- Science

College: College of Education
Instructor/Professor: Jariet S. Adriatico and Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado
COURSE SYLLABUS Syllabus Code
Pre-Requisites: Course Day & Time:
SPEC ELEC 1
Unit of Credit: 3 (Lec) Code Room:
No. of Hours: Course Title GENERAL BIOLOGY Consultation Hours:

Jose Rizal Memorial State University adheres to the principle of dynamism and cultural diversity in building a just and
PHILOSOPHY
humane society.
VISION A dynamic and diverse internationally recognized University
Jose Rizal Memorial State University pledges to deliver effective and efficient services along research, instruction,
production and extension.
MISSION
It commits to provide advanced professional, technical and technopreneurial training with the aim of producing highly
competent, innovative and self-renewed individuals.
Jose Rizal Memorial State University focuses on developing graduates who are exemplars of Rizal’s ideals that can:
E - xhibit relevant and responsive competencies across disciplines towards
X - enial delivery of services;
C - ommunicate ideas proficiently in both written and spoken forms;
E - ngage in lifelong learning;
GOALS L - ead effectively and efficiently amidst socio-cultural diversity;
L - ive up the challenges of the global community;
E - mbody professional, social and ethical responsibilities;
N - urture a harmonious environment;
C - onserve and promote Filipino cultural heritage; and
E - valuate their contribution to the local and global communities.

vi
1. Globally Competitive
2. Industry Relevant
Graduate 3. Effective Communicator
Attributes 4. Innovative
5. Service Driven
6. Life-Long Learner
1. Exhibit in-depth understanding and adaptation in all learning areas sensitive to the diversity of learners in a rapidly
changing, interconnected world, where sense making and collaboration exist.
Program 2. Demonstrate value-based attributes of a teacher in an industry-focused education that concentrates on both academic
Outcome/s and practical skills.
3. Manifest effective communication skills in appropriate situations, demonstrate higher order thinking skills and use
appropriate technologies to facilitate learning & teaching
Biology is the study of life. It deals with the study of complex energy metabolism processes involving photosynthesis
Course
and cellular respiration. It entails the science in understanding the manner by how an organism reproduce, develops,
Description
and inherit specific traits from their donor parents.

Course Learning Learning Learning Formative Summative

Topics References
Outcomes Outcomes Activities Materials Assessment Assessment
Demonstrate in- Describe the Nature Bagley, M. Matching type, Pictures with Multiple Create a cell
depth relevant fields of and Scope (2017) Enumeration, and labels, choices model
understanding biology and the of Biology Bengtson, M., & identification research/ True or false Create a model
on the basic significant Brief Edstrom, E. capstone Identification representing
biological contributions of History of (1999). papers, Enumeration meiosis and
concepts and various Biology Biology videos Puzzles mitosis,
principles across scientists to the Libretext.
the three development of (2019)
domains of life, Biology. Mandal, A.
its importance (2019)
and the related Olby, R. (2020)
careers Raven, P. and
applicable in Johnson, G.

vii
studying the (2002)
science of life. Scientific
Method (2016)
The Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2020)
Underwood, E.
A. (2019)

Apply the Assess the Scientific Comparative Pictures with Research

scientific method complexity and Method analysis, labels, reading,
in testing diversity of application, and research/ Compare
hypothesis and organisms in analysis capstone and contrast
in designing and your surrounding papers, strategy
conducting using the videos
experimental Scientific
studies in the Process of
laboratory or inquiry.
field
investigations.

Explore the Concepts Analysis and Pictures with Digital and

nature and of Life synthesis labels, Audio- visual
scope of biology Theories research/ technology
and the on the capstone
importance of origin of papers,
science in life videos
understanding Characteri
the concepts of stics of
life: its origin, the Life
domain, and the
properties of life.

viii
Effectively Describe how Structure A- Level Pictures with Supplementa
communicate these and Biology. (n.d.). labels, l Research
Analysis and
the relationship biomolecules function of Ahem, K., research/ reading,
identification
between (carbohydrates, biological Rajagopal, I., & capstone
structure and lipids, proteins, molecules Taralyn, T. papers,
function at all and nucleic (2019) videos
levels: acids are built A-Level
molecular, specifically the Biology. (2020).
cellular, tissue to differences in Augustyn, A.,
organismal level structure, and its Gaur, A., &
of biological biological Rogers, K.
organization. functions (2020)
Augustyn, A.,
Australian
Government-
Department of
Health. (2013)
Bailey, R.
(2019)
BBC. (2020).
B.D. Editors.
(2017)
BD Editors.
(2019)
Biology
Dictionary
Editors. (2019)
Bowen, R.
(n.d.).
BYJU’s
Learning App.
(n.d.).
Christensen, S.
(n.d.).
Das, D. (2011)

ix
Diabetes.co.uk.
(2019)
Frank, J. (2014)
Gaur, A., Das,
D., & Shukla, G.
(2018)
Gunaratne, A.,
& Corke, H.
(2004)
HealthlinkBC.
(2019)
Healtwise Staff.
(2019)
HELPGUIDEO
RG
INTERNATION
AL. (n.d.).
KHAN
Academy.
(n.d.).
Khan Academy.
(2020).
Khowala, S., et
al., (2014)
Lee, D. H., &
Blajchman, M.
A. (2007).
Library Texts.
(2019)
Link, R. (2017)
Moran, A. P.
(2009).
Nature
Education.
(2014).

x
Ouellette, R. J.,
& Rawn, J. D.
(2019).
Reddy, M. K.
(2019)
Rettner, R.
(2017)
Roberts, R. J.
(2020)
Rodriguez, E.,
et. al., (2020)
ROUXBE.
(n.d.).
Shiel, W. C. J.
(n.d.).
The Albert
Team. (2020)
The Regents of
the University of
California and
Monterey
Institute for
Technology and
Education.
(2006).
Thomas, B., et.
al., (2016).
Wan, Y. (2018)
Williams, C. A.
(2008).
Yolanda, S.
(2018)

xi
Explore the Cellular Bergtrom, Creation and Pictures with
different types of structure Gerald, analysis labels,
cells, structure, and Bhutia, T. K., research/
and the function function Augustyn, A., capstone
of its Rogers, K., & papers,
components, Mahajan, D. videos
especially the (2020)
organelles for Bailey, R.
eukaryotic cells. (2019)
Create a 3D Cell cycle Gelana et al., Pictures with
model of how and (2019) Creation and labels,
the cells division analysis research/
reproduce from capstone
previously papers,
existing cells videos
through mitosis
(somatic/body
cells) and
meiosis
(reproductive/se
x cells).
Identify Roots,
the Alviola, G. Analysis Pictures with Plant
stems, (2008) labels, book observation,
different parts
leaves, Arshad, A. references identification
and functions of fruits, (2019) and
flowers askIITians. illustration
the plant
(n.d.).
B. D. Editors.
Discuss the (2017),
internal and B. D. Editors.
(2019a),
external B. D. Editors.
(2019b)

xii
structure of the Baessler, L.
(2018),
plants
Bailey, R. (2018
B.D. Editors.
(2018)
Berry, P. E., &
Zimmermann,
Understand the Roots, M. H. (2019)
leaves, Bhatnagar, S.
different
stems, (2015)
modifications of fruits, and Biology Online.
flowers (n.d.)
plant parts.
modificaito Boundless.
ns (2020a)
Boundless.
(2020b)
Brainkart.
(2016)
Bryce, S., Robb,
A., & Cena, C.
(2015)
Buckley, G.
(2020)
Caballero, A., &
Roca, E. (2018)
Carlan, F. A., et
al., (2014)
Clark, E. (2018),
Costa, J.
(2016),
Cotyledon:
Definition &
Function.
(2015),
Cronquist, A., &

xiii
Dilcher, D. L.
(2019)
Dickison, W. C.,
& Rothwell, G.
W. (2020)
Differences
Between
Cotyledon and
Endosperm.
(2018), Fatima,
S. (2017).
Flournoy, B.
(2019), Flower.
(2012), Fosket,
D. E. (1994),
Gaur, A., et al.,
(2020),
Gupta, H. (n.d.),
xvi
Hancock, B. G.,
et al., (n.d.),
Kumar, S. (n.d.).
Kwak, J. M et
al., (n.d.), Leaf.
(n.d.)., Leaves.
(n.d.)., Lotha, G
(2019), Lotha,
G., & Tikkanen,
A (2018),
McLaughlin, K.
(2020), Parul
University.
(2017), Pearson
Education.
(n.d.). Rachna,
C. (2018),

xiv
Rahman, H.
(2013), Ramani,
M. (2013),
Salinas, C.
(2012), Smith,
H., & Morgan,
D. C. (1983),
Stevens, P., &
Dilcher, D. L.
(2019),
Stevenson, D.
W., & Dilcher, D.
L. (2019),
Stevenson, D.
W., & Stevens,
P. (2019),
Sunset. (2019),
The Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2016), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2018a), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2018b), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2019), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia

xv
Britannica.
(2020a), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2020b), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2020d), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2020e), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2020f), The
Editors of
Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
(2019), Toppr.
(n.d.), Umhaw,
R., University of
Florida,
University of
Kentucky, &
Texas A&M
University.
(2020),
Vanderlinden,
C. (2019),
Yadav, S.
(2018), Your

xvi
dictionary.
(2018).

Recognize the Invertebrat Www.Bisdtx.Or Analysis Pictures with Multiple

es g, n.d. labels, book Choice and
different
references Essay
phylums under
invertebrates;
and
Understand the
characteristics of
the different
phylums.
Recognize the Vertebrate Www.Bisdtx.Or Analysis Pictures with Multiple
s g, n.d. labels, book Choice and
different
references Essay
phylums under
vertebrates; and
Understand the
characteristics of
the different
phylums.

xvii
Describe the 11 Human Clark et al., Pictures with Multiple
Analysis
body and 2018 labels, book Choice and
systems that
Body references Essay
comprises the systems
human body;
Understand the
different roles
and functions of
each system;
and
Determine the
factors that
affects the
body’s
homeostasis.

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GRADING PLAN

The term grade is computed using the formula:

40% - Performance (synthesis reports, memos, research article)

30% - Major exam grade (written performance, oral research presenttaion)
30% - Attendance/recitation/quizzes

Midterm Grade = 100% of the Midterm Grade

Final Grade = 50% of the Midterm Grade + 50% of the Final Term Grade

CLASSROOM RULES OF CONDUCT

1. Attendance:
a. Students who are absent for more than 20% of the total number of class hours (54 in a 3 unit course) may be dropped from the
course /subject.
b. Any student who finds it necessary to be absent from class must present a letter of excuse to his/her instructor.
c. If a student’s absences reach ten (10) times, the instructor/professor may recommend to the Dean that the said student be dropped
from the course or be given a grade of 5.0.
2. Course requirements must be submitted on time.
3. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Be aware that plagiarism in this course would include not only using another’s words, but another’s
specific intellectual posts in social media. Assignments must be done independently and without reference to another student’s work.
Any outside sources used in completing an assignment, including internet references must be fully cited on any homework assignment
or exercise.
4. All students should feel free to talk to the instructor face-to-face or through media during office hours.
5. Academic accommodations are available for students with special needs. Students with special needs should schedule an appointment
with the instructor early in the semester to discuss any accommodations for this course.

xxx
Prepared: Noted: Noted: Noted: Approved/Disapproved:

JARIET S. ADRIATICO _________________ ___________________ NARCISA S. BUREROS, Ed. D. ALICE MAE M. ARBON, PhD
Associate Professor Program Chair, BSED Associate Dean, CED College Dean OIC, Office of the VPAA
Science

Date: Date: Date: Date: Date:

Date Revised: _____________

xxxi
Learning Guide
The key to successfully finish this material lies in your perseverance to sincerely and
honestly perform the learning activities and accomplish the assessments. This flexible learning
package is developed with the aim to aid your learning for this course. Aside from meeting the
content and performance standards of this course in performing all the learning activities and
assessments, you will be able to learn the skills and values which are needed in achieving the
future skills and the graduate attributes to become globally competitive individuals.
Classroom Rules and Conduct
The following are the house rules which will help you to be on track and successfully finish
this course:
1. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every component of this
learning package.
2. Study on how you can manage to perform all the learning activities in consideration
with your resources and accessibility to technology. Do not ask questions that are already
answered in the guide.
3. If you did not understand the readings and the other tasks, read again. If there are
still clarifications and questions, feel free to reach me through the contact information indicated
in this guide.
4. Do not procrastinate. As much as possible, follow the time table.
5. Read and understand the assessment and technology tools as indicated in the
directions in every assessment or activity.
6. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back the material through
the pigeon boxes in your department.
7. Most importantly, you are the learner; thus, you do all the tasks in your own. You
may ask assistance and guidance from your parents, siblings or friends, but all the activities
shall be performed by you alone.
8. Course requirements must be submitted as to schedule.
9. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Be aware that plagiarism in this course would include
not only using another’s words, but another’s specific intellectual posts in social media.
Assignments must be done independently and without reference to another student’s work.
Any outside sources used in completing an assignment, including internet references must be
fully cited on any homework assignment or exercise.
10. All students should feel free to talk to the instructor face-to-face or through media
during office hours.
11. Academic accommodations are available for students with special needs. Students
with special needs should schedule an appointment with the instructor early in the semester
to discuss any accommodations for this course.

xxxii
Evaluation

To pass the course, you must observe the following:

1. Read the course module and answer the pretest, quizzes, self-assessment
activities.
2. Write your thoughts and suggestions in the comment boxes.
3. Perform all the learning activities.
4. Accomplish the assessments.
5. Submit the course requirements.
6. Perform the Midterm and Final Assessments Technology Tools

Feedback Modality and Communication Mechanisms

Feedback system will be facilitated through text messaging. If you need to call, send me a
message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give my CP number to anybody. I will not
entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not registered. You may send your
clarifications and questions through the google classroom.

Grading Plan

The term grade is computed using the formula:

40% - Performance
30% - Major Requirements
30% - Formative Assessment

Grade = 100% of the Midterm Grade (if applicable)

Final Grade = 50% of the Midterm Grade + 50% of the Final Term Grade

xxxiii
JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY LEARNING AGREEMENT

By signing this learning agreement, I commit to the following terms and conditions of Jose
Rizal
Memorial State University in the implementation of Flexible Learning System. Specifically, I
commit to observe the following:
1. That I must observe all guidelines of the state pertaining to the prevention of COVID,
specifically to stay home, to observe physical distancing and the use of face masks when
interacting with others.
2. That I shall prioritize my health and safety while I comply with all the necessary learning
activities and assessments needed in my enrolled courses.
3. That I will exhaust all means of complying the requirements at home or in a less risky place
and location that will not allow me to be exposed to other people.
4. That I have already read and understood all instructions pertaining to my enrolled courses.
5. That I commit to do all the learning activities diligently, following deadlines and the learning
guide enabling me to deliver the course requirements.
6. That I commit to answer all forms of assessment in the learning package honestly.
7. That I shall initiate in giving feedback to my instructor at least once every two weeks.
8. That I shall not reproduce or publish any part of the learning package content without the
written consent of the University and the author/s.
9. That I shall not commit any form of plagiarism in all course requirements.

Conformed:
_______________________________ ___________________
Name and signature of student Date signed
_______________________________ ___________________
Name and signature of parent/guardian Date signed
_______________________________
Contact Number of Parent/Guardian
**Please email the signed copy of this learning agreement to your instructor as soon as you
have received the learning package.

xxxiv
JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
Form No. F11: Program Outcomes
Background
This form aims to document how JRMSU translates the state-prescribed Program Outcomes
into localized standards. Note that while CHED prescribes the learning outcomes in specific
program CMOs, it also underscores that these learning outcomes are the ones common
across all HEIs in the country. This implies that these learning outcomes are the minimum
prescribed standards and that an HEI may need to reformulate them to suit its specific vision,
mission, and goals.

Program Information
Name of Program: Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Science
CMO No. and Series: CMO No. 75, s. 2017
No. 1. Graduate 2. Relevant Program 3. Relevant Future 4. Modified
Attributes Outcomes (As Stated Skills (Ehlers, Program
in the CMO) 2020) Outcomes

1. Globally Demonstrate in-depth Learning literacy; Exhibit in-depth

Competitive understanding of the sense making; understanding and
diversity of learners in cooperation adaptation in all
various learning areas. competence learning areas
sensitive to the
diversity of
learners in a
rapidly changing,
interconnected
world, where
sense making and
collaboration exist.
2. Industry Demonstrate positive Self-competence; Demonstrate
Relevant attributes of a model ethical value-based
teacher, both as an competence; attributes of a
individual and as a initiative and teacher in an
professional. performance industry-focused
competence education that
concentrates on
both academic and
practical skills.

3. Effective Manifest skills in Digital literacy; Manifest effective

Communicator communication, higher communication communication
order thinking skills and competence skills in appropriate

xxxv
use of tools and situations,
technology to accelerate demonstrate
learning and teaching. higher order
thinking skills and
use appropriate
technologies to
facilitate learning &
teaching.
4. Innovative Utilize appropriate Innovation Design and utilize
assessment and competence; appropriate and
evaluation tools to systems effective
measure learning competence assessment and
outcomes. evaluation tools
relevant to specific
learning
competencies and
outcomes.
5. Service- Manifest meaningful Self-efficacy; Exhibit
Driven and comprehensive reflective comprehensive
pedagogical content competence pedagogical
knowledge of the content knowledge
different subject areas. in all learning areas
established in a
pattern of reflective
learning and self-
efficacy.
6. Life-long Manifest a desire to Self-determination; Manifest a desire
Learner continuously pursue future and design to continuously
personal and competence acquire personal
professional growth and
development. improved
professional
performance
responding to the
rapidly changing
professional
practices.

Prepared by (Name): DARYL ANN CUIVILLAS & CRESAQUEL HALEMENIA S. OMISOL

College/Department: COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, DIPOLOG CAMPUS & MAIN CAMPUS

xxxvi
Jose Rizal Memorial State University

Form No. F12: Course Outcomes

Background:
This form aims to document how JRMSU translates the state-prescribed Course Outcomes
(COs) into localized standards. Note that while CHED prescribes the course outcomes in
specific course CMOs, it also underscores that these COs are the ones common across all
HEIs in the country. This implies that these COs are the minimum prescribed standards and
that teachers may need to reformulate them to suit the specific vision, mission, and goals of
their HEIs. Course outcomes are the learning standards that learners are expected to attain
after completing the course. These are stipulated in the program CMO.

Course Information
Course Code and Title: SPEC ELEC 1 (General Biology)
CMO No. and Series: CMO No. 75 Series 2017
No. 1. Modified Program 2. Prescribed Course 3. Modified Course
Outcomes (As formulated in Outcomes Outcomes (As
Form F11) formulated by the
(As Stated in the
Teacher)
Course CMO)

1. Exhibit in-depth understanding Develop an in-depth Demonstrate in-depth

and adaptation in all learning understanding of the understanding on the
areas sensitive to the diversity basic principles basic biological concepts
of learners in a rapidly governing the science and principles across the
changing, interconnected world, of life. three domains of life, its
where sense making and importance and the
Discuss the
collaboration exist. related careers
fundamental concepts
applicable in studying
and grasp the diversity
the science of life.
of life across the three
living domains and the
viruses.
2. Demonstrate value-based Utilize Apply the scientific
attributes of a teacher in an techniques/procedures method in testing
industry-focused education that relevant to laboratory or hypothesis and in
concentrates on both academic field work research designing and
and practical skills. settings. conducting experimental
studies in the laboratory
Interpret scientific data
or field investigations.
and reflect on relevant
scientific and ethical
issues.

xxxvii
3. Manifest effective Effectively Effectively communicate
communication skills in communicate orally and the relationship between
appropriate situations, in writing using both structure and function at
demonstrate higher order English and Filipino all levels: molecular,
thinking skills and use languages. cellular, tissue to
appropriate technologies to organismal level of
Communicate
facilitate learning & teaching. biological organization.
information, ideas
problems and solutions
both, orally and in
writing, to other
scientists, decision
makers and the public.
4. Design and utilize appropriate Design and perform Produce scholarly
and effective assessment and techniques and outputs on new
evaluation tools relevant to procedures following developments, updates,
specific learning competencies safe and responsible research findings, and
and outcomes. laboratory or field investigations for an
practices. effective teaching in
biological sciences.
Apply scientific inquiry
in teaching and
learning.

5. Exhibit comprehensive Extend knowledge and Exhibit comprehensive

pedagogical content knowledge critically assess current pedagogical content
in all learning areas established views and theories in knowledge and critically
in a pattern of reflective learning selected areas of assess current views
and self-efficacy. biological science. and theories in all
learning areas of
biological science
established in a pattern
of reflective learning and
self-efficacy.
6. Manifest a desire to Articulate the latest Participate in continuing
continuously acquire personal developments in their education and
growth and improved specific field of practice professional
professional performance development in research
Work effectively in
responding to the rapidly and in teaching
multi-disciplinary and
changing professional biological science to
practices. multi-cultural teams. become responsive in a
rapidly changing
environment.

xxxviii
Jose Rizal Memorial State University
Form No. F14: Formative Assessment Plan
Background
This form aims to document the formative assessment strategies that a teacher deems
appropriate to address the learning outcomes and the content being taught. Formative
assessments refer to a wide variety of activities that teachers use to conduct in-process
evaluations of learners’ competencies, learning needs, and academic progress in a specific
lesson or unit of a course. It’s an ongoing process that teachers and learners engage in when
they take concrete actions to move closer to the attainment of the learning outcomes.

No. Learning Outcomes Relevant Topics Formative Feedback

Assessment Modality
Strategy

1 Describe the relevant Nature and Scope Multiple choice Phone,

fields of biology and of Biology Messenger,
the significant - Students are
contributions of Brief History of asked to choose
Biology between the letters
various scientists to
with given phrases
the development of
or words.
Biology.
True or false
- Students wil
answer true or
false to identify
facts, definition of
terms and
statements of
principles.
Identification
- Students are
going to identify
what does the
given sentence or
phrase needs.
Enumeration
- Students are
going to
enumerate Filipino
scientists and
given their
corresponding
contributions to

xxxix
science and
technology
Puzzles
- Students are
given words/
phrases and they
are going to supply
their answer in a
cross word puzzle.

2 Assess the complexity Scientific Method Reading strategy Phone,

and diversity of Messenger,
- Students are
organisms in your
given a reading
surrounding using the
material and they
Scientific Process of
are going to
inquiry.
answer the
questions given
after they are done
reading the
material.
Compare and
Contrast
- Students are
given two words
and they are going
to supply the
difference between
the two words.

3 Explore the nature Concepts of Life Digital and Audio- Phone,

and scope of biology visual technology Messenger,
Theories on the
and the importance of
origin of life -Students are
science in
given a video
understanding the Characteristics of
material and they
concepts of life: its Life are going write
origin, the domain,
and the properties of their
understanding on
life.
the video in a short
bond paper.

4 Describe how these Structure and Cross word puzzle Phone,

biomolecules function of Messenger,
- An identification
(carbohydrates, lipids, biological
proteins, and nucleic type of
molecules
assessment to
acids are built
specifically the assess the
knowledge of
differences in
students about
structure, and its
biological

xl
biological functions molecules and the
cell structure,
function, and
reproduction.
Studenrts will fill in
CAPITAL letters to
the empty puzzle
grid.
Reading strategy
- Students are
given a reading
material and they
are going to
answer the
questions given
after they are done
reading the
material.
Multiple choices
- Students are
asked to choose
between the letters
with given phrases
or words.
5 Identify the different Roots, stems, Identification of Phone,
parts and functions of leaves, flowers, plant part and Messenger,
fruits modifications
the plant;
- Students are
instructed to go out
in their
6 Discuss the internal Plant tissues suroounding and
and external structure look for plant parts
and modifications,
of the plants
they will capture it
and place it in a
7 Understand the Modifications in
short bondpaper
Roots, stems,
different modifications and identify its
leaves, flowers,
of plant parts common and
and fruits scientific name.

Prepared by (Name): Jariet S. Adriatico/ Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado

College/Department: College of Education/ BSED Science

xli
Jose Rizal Memorial State University
Form No. F15: Quality Indicators of Formative Assessment
No. Quality Indicators of Title of Assessment How the Assessment
Formative Assessment Exemplifies the Indicator

1. The assessment prompts Multiple Choice Students will be able to assess

learners to reflect on their if they have understood the
True or false previous topics through this
mastery of content and skills.
Identification different formative
assessments, it will be help
Enumeration the learners reflect on how
Puzzles much they have learned, or in
which areas they need to
improve themselves.

2. The assessment promotes Reading strategy These assessment strategies

self-efficacy, self-regulation, will help the students in
self-assessment, and self- Compare and assessing themselves in what
Contrast are things that they have
attribution
Digital and Audio- learned in reading and
visual technology watching videos, it would also
help them in their efficiency in
doing their classwork during
the time allotted to them.

3. The assessment prompts Reading strategy These assessment strategies

learners to devise a plan how will help students in devising a
to move further towards the Compare and plan on how and what are the
Contrast topics to study in order for
defined learning goals
Digital and Audio- them to achieve the learning
visual technology goals.

Multiple Choice
True or false
Identification
Enumeration
Puzzles
4. The assessment helps Reading strategy These assessment strategies
learners focus on salient will help the students in
Compare and
aspects of important understanding the basic
concepts and the criteria for a Contrast principles
successful performance Digital and Audio-
taught in the subject that they
visual technology could utilize in doing their

xlii
Multiple Choice projects and other
performance tasks.
True or false
Identification
Enumeration
Puzzles
5. The assessment teaches Reading strategy These assessment strategies
metacogntive strategies to will help the students in
Compare and
maximize student success assessing the quality of their
Contrast
outputs.
Digital and Audio-
visual technology
Multiple Choice
True or false
Identification
Enumeration
Puzzles
6. The assessment promotes Reading strategy Students will have to study the
shared responsibility in advance the lessons so that
Compare and
between teachers and every pre and posttest they
learners in the learning Contrast
will pass, teachers are also
process Digital and Audio- encouraged to give the correct
visual technology answers after the exam and
Multiple Choice answer the queries of the
student, they shall also
True or false monitor the status of the
Identification students in each lessons to
address concerns and gaps
Enumeration

7. The assessment provides Reading strategy In this, we would be able to

insights on the effectiveness evaluate the instructional
Compare and
of the instructional methods materials and methods if the
Contrast students really have garnered
and decisions
Digital and Audio- the learning outcomes of each
visual technology lessons.

Multiple Choice
True or false
Identification

xliii
Enumeration
Puzzles
8. The assessment focuses on Reading strategy Students will be able to attain
the attainment of learning the learning competencies
Compare and needed in the subject and
competencies
Contrast also
Digital and Audio-
assist them in understanding
visual technology the principles of biology.
Multiple Choice
True or false
Identification
Enumeration
Puzzles

Prepared by (Name): Jariet S. Adriatico/ Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado

College/Department: College of Education/ BSED Science

xliv
Jose Rizal Memorial State University
Form No. F16: Summative Assessment Plan
Background:
This form aims to document the summative assessment strategies that a teacher deems
appropriate to the course being taught and its corresponding course outcomes. Summative
assessments are methods used to evaluate student learning, skill acquisition, and academic
achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period – typically at the end of a
course or a semester. Summative assessments are requirements across all courses in
JRMSU. Please refer to the JRMSU Handbook on Flexible Learning for the guidelines in
designing summative assessments.

Course Title: General Biology

Course Code: SPEC- ELEC 1
SY/Sem: 1st semester/ SY 2020- 2021
No Course Title of Description Scoring/Grading Weight
Outcomes Assessment Standard (%) in
Final
Grade

1. Effectively Create a 3D According to the Rubrics 15

communicate the model of study of Carlan
relationship specific et al., (2014)
between structure animal cell three
and function at all and plant cell dimensional cell
levels: molecular, models could
cellular, tissue to mitigate the
organismal level difficulties
of biological encountered
organization when teaching
cell biology,
their results
suggest that
these activities
improve
student’s ability
to learn
concrete
concepts about
cell biology.

Prepared by (Name): Jariet S. Adriatico & Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado

xlv
College/Department: College of Education/ BSED Science
Form No. F17: Summative Assessment Instructions to Learners

Title of Assessment: Create a 3D model of specific animal cell and plant cell

Course Title: General Biology

Course Code: SPEC- ELEC 1

Assessment No.: SPEC Elec 1_1

Introduction and Rationale: Describe the assessment activity. Justify why the assessment
strategy is deemed appropriate to evaluate the attainment of the course outcomes. The basic
question to answer here is What information do learners need to know about this assessment
that can help them successfully complete it at the end of the course?

The 3D model of a cell as an assessment will address the course outcomes on " Effectively
communicate the relationship between structure and function at all levels: molecular, cellular,
tissue to organismal level of biological organization" because creating a cell model leads to
the understanding of the different structure, and organelles present in a cell. It would be easy
for graduates to discuss and illustrate the parts and structure of the cell to their future students,
as well as improve their creative mindset, resourcefulness in the creation of their 3D models.

Instructions: Provide clear instructions how learners will go about the assessment. Indicate
the needed resources and where to find them. Provide statement of your expectations.

Students will create a three-dimensional model of one specific type of animal cell {ex. skeletal
muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell) or an osteocyte (bone cell)}, and one plant cell using
indigenous materials like coconut husk and other parts of the coconut. Label all the distinct
components and cellular structures (organelles) present in each 3D model. This model could
be utilized by the students as future reference when they are going to teach.

As future educators, the instructors expect you to be creative, resourceful and be

environmentally friendly in the making of this model.

Prepared by (Name): Jariet S. Adriatico & Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado

College/Department: College of Education/ BSED Science

xlvi
Jose Rizal Memorial State University
Form No. F18: Quality Indicators of Summative Assessment
No Title of The The The The The
. Assessme assessme assessme assessmen assessme assessme
nt nt nt calls for t is feasible nt can be nt data has
measures learners to to easily the
what it perform implement. replicated potential
purports to tasks that or to improve
measure are customize curriculum
meaningful d and
to them. instruction
.

1. Create a 3D Students This The Students According

model of will do a cell assessment production will easily to the study
specific model that will give the of the cell replicate of Carlan et
animal cell. would help students an model is this in their al., (2014)
them idea on how feasible own three
understand to discuss since the because dimensional
the and instructors they will be cell models
structure illustrate highly the one who could
and parts of cells to their encourages make the mitigate the
the cell. future the students cell model, difficulties
clienteles. to utilize the encountere
indigenous replication d when
raw will be at teaching
materials ease. cell biology,
that could be their results
easily be suggest
found in their that these
surrounding activities
s. improve
students
ability to
learn
concrete
concepts
about cell
biology.

Prepared by (Name): Jariet S. Adriatico & Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado

College/Department: College of Education/ BSED Science

xlvii
Acknowledgement

We would like to express our heartfelt thanks to the people who took part in making
this module a successful one.

First and foremost, we would like to thank our Almighty Father God for the guidance
and wisdom He showered upon us while making this module.

We are grateful to Jose Rizal Memorial State University Administration spearheaded

by the University President, Dr. Daylinda Luz R. Laput, the OIC- Vice President for Academic
Affairs, Dr. Alice Mae M. Arbon, the OIC-Vice President for Research Development and
Extension, Dr. Jannette J. Icao, Campus Administrators, College Deans and Associate Deans
for their timeless and tireless support during the formulation of this module.

The FLS committee who served as the guiding light in mentoring the instructors and
professors of JRMSU to finish their modules and in making flexible learning package of
JRMSU as a successful academic achievement especially when we received the certificate of
completion from each training session.

And lastly, to our families for the nonstop emotional, physical, and spiritual support for
without them it would be difficult for the us to finish this module.

-The Authors

xlviii
1

UNIT I
THE INQUIRY ABOUT LIFE
Biology is the study of life and living organisms. It is derived from the Greek words,
“bios” which means life and “logos” which means study (Bagley, 2017). In the late 1700s
Pierre-Antoine de Monet and Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck coined the term biology. Earlier study
of living things was restricted to the pure science like Botany and Zoology that together
comprise the Biology. But as the time passed new branches evolved in the development of
Biology as a science.
Biology is also known as the science of life, specifically defined as “a systematic study
of nature”. Teaching of life science basically deals with providing information about the latest
developments in the field of biological sciences all over the world. It is also concerned with the
physical characteristics and behaviours of organisms living today and long ago. How they
came into existence and what relation they possess with each other and their environments?
In this unit, we will tackle the nature and scope of biology, scientific method, history of
biology, and the concepts of life which include the theories on the origin of life, the domains of
life, and the characteristics/properties of life that helped us understood and assess different
biological knowledge and principles.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. Describe the relevant fields of biology and the significant contributions of
various scientists to the development of Biology.
2. Assess the complexity and diversity of organisms in your surrounding
using the Scientific Process of inquiry.
3. Explore the nature and scope of biology and the importance of science in
understanding the concepts of life: its origin, the domain, and the
properties of life.
PRETEST
Direction: Based on your previous understanding and observation, identify the answer the
following questions. Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer of each item.

1. Which of the following sequences of organization is likely to be seen in a multicellular

organism, going from smallest to largest?
A. cell, organ, tissue, organism
B. cell, organ, system, tissue
C. cell, tissue, system, organism
D. organism, system, organ, tissue
2

E. tissue, system, cell, organ

2. Which of the following levels in the hierarchy of biological organization includes all of the
other levels in the list?
A. Organelles C. Macromolecules
B. Cells D. Tissues
3. The sum of all the chemical and energy transformations that occur in cells as they carry out
life processes.
A. Assimilation C. metabolism
B. Adaptation D. reproduction
4. Protists and bacteria are grouped into different domains because
A. protists eat bacteria. C. bacteria are not made of cells.
B. protists are photosynthetic. D. protists have a membrane-bounded
nucleus.
5. Which of the following statements best distinguishes hypotheses from theories in science?
A. Theories are hypotheses that have been proved.
B. Hypotheses are guesses; theories are correct answers.
C. Hypotheses usually are relatively narrow in scope; theories have broad explanatory
power.
D. Theories are proved true; hypotheses
6. He perfected the construction of the compound microscope who made pioneering
discoveries concerning protozoa, red blood cells, capillary systems, and the life cycles of
insects.
A. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek C. Matthias Schleiden
B. Theodor Schwann D. Robert Hooke
7. Which of the following best describes the logic of scientific inquiry?
A. If I generate a testable hypothesis, tests and observations will support it.
B. If my prediction is correct, it will lead to a testable hypothesis.
C. If my observations are accurate, they will support my hypothesis.
D. If my hypothesis is correct, I can expect certain test results.
8. The changes in the human race since the time of the first humans is an example of:
A. homeostasis C. evolution
B. metabolism D. responsiveness
9. Humans sweat when the temperature gets hot so that they can cool themselves. This is an
example of which characteristic of life?
A. Growth C. Reproduction
B. Homeostasis D. Response to stimuli
3

10. Which statement is FALSE about nearly all living things?

A. Living things are made up of cells.
B. Living things must obey the laws of chemistry and physics.
C. Living things show biological organization and other common characteristics of life.
D. Emergent properties can be used to distinguish living things from nonliving things.
E. Living things are composed only of organic elements, whereas nonliving things are
made up of inorganic elements.

Direction. True of False. Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false. Write
your answers on the space provided before each number.
______ 1. Gregor Mendel is the father of Genetics.

______ 2. The scientific method only involves hypothesis and experimentation.

______ 3. Spontaneous generation state that living organisms came from nonliving
matter, as inferred from the apparent appearance of life in some supposedly
sterile environments.

______ 4. The creationist theory is the leading explanation about how the universe began.

______ 5. All things here on earth including the nonliving are made up of one or more
cells.

______ 6. The cell makes up tissues that make up the organs and makes the organ
system is an example of an organization that is a characteristic of life.

______ 7. Growth is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions involved in
maintaining the living state of the cells and the organism.

______ 8. Development refers to the increase in the size of a child

______ 9. Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English

naturalist Charles Darwin

 10. A receptor is a change in the environment (either external or internal) that is

______
detected by stimuli.
4

Instruction:
This activity will assess your prior knowledge of the elements in a scientific inquiry. Scientific
process of inquiry can be learned from your observations in the surroundings, talk from experts
or expert ideas, previous research or case studies, practical issues, daily encounters with
organisms or through the media and reading published articles. At this time, recall your group
practical research or capstone research from your senior high school semester. Copy the
question and answer concisely the guide questions below to reassess your capability to handle
and solve real-world problems.

1. What was the topic or phenomenon you were wondering about?

__________________________________________________

2. Where did you search the phenomenon or topic of interest?

__________________________________________________

3. What studies have been done about your topic of interest?

__________________________________________________

4. What were the formulated research questions of your topic?

__________________________________________________

5. What were the tentative answers (hypotheses) to the questions?

__________________________________________________

6. What was the research design used to validate the hypotheses?

__________________________________________________

7. What were the data collected to answer the research questions?

5

__________________________________________________

8. How does the data presented in your write up?

__________________________________________________

9. What were the findings of the research or study conducted?

__________________________________________________

10. What was the conclusion drawn from the study?

__________________________________________________
6

1.1 Nature and Scope of Biology

Biology is a subject of enormous scope, and exciting new biological discoveries are
being made every day. According to Biology Libretext (2019), biology is a natural science that
studies life of living organisms. A science that studies on the function, structure, growth,
distribution, evolution and other characteristics of living organisms. Living organisms could
either be one-celled organism such as bacteria and paramecium or multicellular organism
such as plants and animals. Even though biology is a broad scope of science, it still has
unifying concepts and principles that govern biological research studies as follows:
1. Cells are the basic unit of biological organization;
2. Genes are the basic unit of heredity;
3. Evolution accounts for unity and diversity seen among living organisms;
4. All organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy; and
5. All organisms maintain a stable internal environment.

Exploring the Levels of Biological Organization

Life can be studied at different levels, from molecules to the entire living planet. The
study of life can be divided into different levels of biological organization.

Tissues
Ecosystems
Organs and organ
system

The Biosphere

Communities
Organelles Cells

Organisms

Atoms
7

Some branches of Biology include:

Botany- A branch of biology that deals with the study of plants. It is considered to
be the world’s oldest science and involves the study of plant like organisms
such as algae, ferns, mosses along the actual plant. Subdivided into
subgroups- Plant Pathology, Plant Ecology, Paleobotany and Forensic
Botany

Zoology- A division of biology that deals with the study of animal physiology their
behavior and their interactions with other species in the environment.
Subdivided into subgroups- Soil Zoology, Herpetology, Entomology,
Ornithology, Animal Physiology, Mammalogy Behavioral Ecology and
Comparative Anatomy.

Anatomy- Derived from the Greek word ‘anatome’ which means ‘up and cutting’. It
deals with the study of body structure of various living organisms.
Subdivided into subgroups- Human, Plant and Animal Anatomy.

Physiology- A branch of biology that deals with the study of characteristics and
mechanisms of the human body which involves Endocrine, Nervous,
Immune systems, and the blood cell of the body.

Biotechnology- Deals with the exploitation of living organisms involving the use of
technology. Involves the study of vaccines, enzymes etc. Its purpose is to
create new techniques for sustainable development. Includes: Genetics
and Bioprocess Engineering.

Ecology- Deals with the study of organisms, environment, how these interact with
each other. This includes human science, population, ecosystem and
biosphere it aims to improve the understanding of life processes,
adaptation and biodiversity of organisms. Subdivided into subgroups-
Global Ecology, Landscape Ecology, Ecosystem Ecology Community
Ecology, Population Ecology and Molecular Ecology.

Immunology- This branch of biology deals with the study of immune systems involving
the cell mediated, humoral aspects of immunity and immune response.
Involves the study of immune system, its components, its biological
processes, its physiological function, its typed and its disordered, this is
8

important because the immune system acts as the body’s defense system
from invading infection.

Genetics- Branch of biological sciences that deals with the study of heredity, the
biological process, the study of genes, genome, cell cycle, heredity and
others. Genetics deals with inheritance, the procedure by which
characteristics are handed down from one generation to the other.

Microbiology- Microorganisms are an essential part of the environment, human health

and economy. This deals with the study of living organisms that are
invisible to the naked eye like bacteria, fungi and other microscopic
organism that affects animals, the environment, the complete food supply
and health care as well. It includes: Environmental Microbiology,
Veterinary Microbiology, Food Microbiology, Pharmaceutical Microbiology,
Medical Microbiology.
9

1.2 History of Biology

335 BC: Aristotle, the Greek philosopher who classified living things like air,
land, or water dwellers. He is considered to be the Father of Biology. Recognized
that humans had similarities to other animals, especially apes. He believed in
“spontaneous generation”, wherein he believed that flies came from rotting meat
as he had always observed flies on or around it.

1665: Robert Hooke coined the term cells, when he observed a cork
under a microscope and named the tiny chambers that he sees as
cells. His studies of microscopic fossils led him to become one of the
first proponents of the theory of evolution.

1668: Francisco Redi challenges the idea that flies spontaneously

generate from rotting meat. He demonstrated that he presence of
maggots in putrefying meat does not result from spontaneous
generation rather from eggs laid on the meat by flies.

However, this belief was not accepted because the flask with no flies
had no air, they argued that it was the lack of air that caused the lack
of life. Later, when he repeated experiment and proved it, they agreed
that it could be true for flies but nothing else.
10

1674: Anton van Leeuwenhoek considered to be “Father of Microbiology”.

He built a simple microscope with only one lens to examine blood, yeast insects,
and many other tiny objects, which paved way for him to discover protozoa,
which he termed as animalcules. He is the first to study muscle fibers,
spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries.

1735: Carl Linnaeus considered to be the “Father of Modern

Taxonomy”. Classified plants based on their sexual parts. In his
Systema Natura he systematically classified every species known to
botany and zoology.
Linnaeus’ hierarchical system of classification includes eight levels of
taxa namely; domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and
species.

1745: John Needham, a supporter of the theory of spontaneous

generation, the idea that living organisms can develop from non-living
material. In his experiment, he had a chicken broth with microbial
growth which he boiled. The broth appeared clear of life after boiling it
but days later the broth had microbes in it.

1768: Lazzaro Spallanzani, questioned the experiment of Needham

and suspects there was an experimental error. Repeated the
experiment with complete closure of flasks. No life is formed and
concludes that life must come from the life but critics again say that
there was no air allowed which is the reason that there no
microorganisms.
11

1772: Joseph Priestly, one of the first scientists who discovered

oxygen. In his experiment, he placed a plant in a water inside a sealed
container with a mouse. The mouse survived because the plant
converted CO2 into O2 through photosynthesis.

1779: Jan Ingenhousz is best known for the discovery of the process
of photosynthesis. He discovered that in the dark plants give off carbon
dioxide.

1796: Edward Jenner, developed a smallpox vaccine from cowpox pustules.

He tests this injecting the pus from cowpox blisters on a milkmaid into an eight-
year-old boy. The boy became sick with cowpox but it passes and he is unable
to contract smallpox after that- the vaccine was successful and the boy was
immune.

1859: Charles Darwin, proposes a theory of evolution in his book: On the

Origin of Species stating that humans and apes share a common ancestor,
also stated that the weak will die because they failed to adapt while the
strong will adapt and pass on their favorable characteristics.

1864: Louis Pasteur, proved that germs cause diseases; developed vaccines
for anthrax and rabies; he created the process of pasteurization.
He disproves abiogenesis and spontaneous generation, stated that life comes
from life.
12

1864: Gregor Mendel also called as the “Father of Genetics” published his
findings of inheritance. Passing of traits to the next generation- heredity. He was
able to confirm his claims by experimenting on pea plants traits through cross
pollination.

1879: Walther Flemming the founder of cytogenetics. He was the first

person to conduct a systematic study of chromosomes during cell
division and called this process mitosis.

1908: Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg prove

mathematically that evolution will not occur in a population
unless allelic frequencies are acted upon by forces that causes
change (i.e., natural selection). When these forces don’t exist,
the allelic frequency doesn’t change and evolution doesn’t
occur.

1915: Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichakawa, induced cancer in rabbits

by applying coal tar to their skin, provided experimental proof that chemicals can
cause cancer. This led to the discovery that coal tar, asbestos and tobacco are
causes of cancer.

1928: Alexander Fleming, discovered accidentally the first antibiotics known as

penicillin, when he returned back from his vacation he noticed that one of his agar
plates was contaminated with a fungus and the bacteria surrounding the fungus
was destroyed. He tested and cultured the fungus which became penicillin.
13

1932: Fritz Zernike famous for creating the phase contrast microscope. This
enabled the scientist to study biological lifeforms that were colorless or
transparent which they were previously unable to study.

1940: Herman Kalckar called the “Father of Bioenergetics”, observed glucose

metabolism in microorganisms and animal tissue. He also discovered the role of
ATP in energy metabolism.

1944: Oswald Avery's group showed that DNA was the "transforming principle."
When isolated from one strain of bacteria, DNA was able to transform another
strain and confer characteristics onto that second strain.

1952: Miller- Urey performed a chemical experiment

designed to simulate the conditions thought at that time to
be present on the early Earth and tested the chemical
origin of life under those conditions. Created amino acids
and found that they could bond to one another.

1953: Watson and Crick published a letter in the journal

Nature suggesting a structure for DNA and hypothesizing
how the molecule replicates, deduced from its structure.
DNA a double helix structure held together by hydrogen
bonds.
14

1967: Lynn Margulis, proposed the endosymbiotic theory that

states ancestors of eukaryotic cells lived in association with
prokaryotic cells.

1969: Robert H. Whittaker proposed the five kingdom classification system.

All living things are a member of the monera, Protista, fungi, plantae or
Animalia kingdoms.

1974: Donald Johanson discovered australopithecine skeleton that helped

resolve the debate as to whether Australopithecus africanus was bipedal.

1979: James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis,

hypothesized that organisms interact with
their organic surroundings on Earth to form a
self- regulating, complex system that helps
maintain the conditions for life on the planet.
Suggested that organisms co- evolve with
their environment, influenced the abiotic
environment and the abiotics environment
influences them.
15

LEARNING ACTIVITY I. Match column A with column B. Write the letter of your chosen
answer on the space provided before each number in Column A. Submit this on August 28,
2020 (Friday)
Column A Column B

___1. They were responsible for the discovery of the a. Carl Linnaeus
structure of the DNA.
___2. A scientist that is responsible for the development of b. Robert Hooke
the modern classification system that is used today to study
organisms
___3. The person who coined the term “cell”. c. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
___4. A scientist that is considered to be the father of d. Aristotle
biology.
___5. The first person to observe living cells and coined the e. Gregor Mendel
term animalcules.
___6. A scientist that discovered transposons, a mobile DNA f. Alexander Fleming
element that move from one place to another within the
same chromosome or different chromosome in a genome.
___7. A scientist who utilized garden pea in his experiments g. Louis Pasteur
and formulated the laws of segregation and independent
assortment.
___8. A scientist credited for the discovery of the first h. Charles Darwin
antibiotic “penicillin”
___9. A scientist who developed a method known as i. Watson and Crick
“pasteurization” that removes undesired microbes from
juices without affecting its quality.
___10. A scientist who contributed the theory of scientific j. Barbara Mcclintok
evolution and explained how modern organisms evolved
over long periods of time through descent from common
ancestors.

LEARNING ACTIVITY II. List down five (5) Filipino scientists and their contributions in the
fields of biological science and/or science and technology. Write your answer on the table
provided below. Submit this on August 28, 2020 (Friday).
16

1.3 The Scientific Process of Inquiry

Science is a way of knowing—an approach to understanding the natural world. The

word science is derived from a Latin verb meaning “to know.” Striving to understand seems to
be one of our basic urges using the scientific method. The scientific method involves a series
of systematic steps that are used to investigate a natural occurrence. It is a process for
experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. It is an empirical
method of acquiring knowledge. It is also the technique used in the construction and testing
of a scientific hypothesis. As captured by the Oxford English Dictionary, the essential inviolable
commonality of all scientific practice is that it relies on “systematic observation, measurement,
and experiment, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses."
At the heart of science is inquiry, a search for information and explanations of natural
phenomena. There is no formula for successful scientific inquiry, no single scientific method
that researchers must rigidly follow. As in all quests, science includes elements of challenge,
adventure, and luck, along with careful planning, reasoning, creativity, patience, and the
persistence to overcome setbacks. Such diverse elements of inquiry make science far less
structured than most people realize. That said, it is possible to highlight certain characteristics
that help to distinguish science from other ways of describing and explaining nature. Scientists
use a process of inquiry that includes making observations, forming logical, testable
explanations (hypotheses), and testing them. The process is necessarily repetitive: In testing
a hypothesis, more observations may inspire revision of the original hypothesis or formation
of a new one, thus leading to further testing. In this way, scientists circle closer and closer to
their best estimation of the laws governing nature.
The figure 1.3a below shows the summary of the scientific process of inquiry
17

In the end, scientific method in the actual practice of science recognizes human biases
and prejudices and allows deviations from the protocol. At its best, it provides guidance to the
investigator to balance personal bias against the leaps of intuition that successful science
requires. As followed by most scientists, the practice of scientific method would indeed be
considered a success by almost any measure. Science “as a way of knowing” the world around
us constantly tests, confirms, rejects and ultimately reveals new knowledge, integrating that
knowledge into our world view. Here are the key elements of the scientific method, in the usual
order:
 Observe natural phenomena (includes reading the science and thoughts of others).
 Propose an explanation based on objectivity and reason, an inference, or hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a declarative sentence that sounds like a fact… but isn’t! Good
hypotheses are testable - turn them into if/then (predictive) statements or yes-or-no
questions.
 Design an experiment to test the hypothesis: results must be measurable evidence for
or against the hypothesis.
 Perform the experiment and then observe, measure, collect data, and test for statistical
validity (where applicable). Further validation can be done by repeating the
experiment.
 Publish! Integrate your experimental results with earlier hypotheses and prior
knowledge. Shared data and experimental methods will be evaluated by other
scientists. Well-designed experiments are those that can be repeated and results
reproduced, verified and extended.
Beyond these most common parts of the scientific method, two more precepts are added:
1. A Theory is a statement well-supported by experimental evidence and widely accepted
by the scientific community. One of the most enduring, tested theories is of course the
theory of evolution. Even though theories are more generally thought of as ‘fact, they
are still subject to being tested, and can even be overturned! Even Darwin’s notions have
been modified over time, but those modifications have only strengthened our
understanding that species diversity is the result of natural selection. You can check out
some of Darwin’s own work [Darwin C. (1859, 1860) The Origin of Species] at
http://literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-origin-of-species/.
2. Scientific Laws are even closer to ‘fact’ than theories! These Laws are thought of as
universal and are most common in math, physics and biology. In life sciences, we
recognize Mendel’s Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment as much
in his honor as for their universal and enduring explanation of genetic inheritance in living
things. But we do not call these Laws facts.
18

We all use observations and develop

questions and hypotheses in solving
everyday problems. Let’s say, for example,
that your flashlight fails while you are
camping. That’s an observation. The
question is obvious: Why doesn’t the
flashlight work? Two reasonable hypotheses
based on your experience are that (1) the
batteries in the flashlight are dead or (2) the
bulb is burnt out. Each of these alternative
hypotheses leads to predictions you can test
with informal experiments. For example, the
dead-battery hypothesis predicts that
replacing the batteries will fix the problem.
The figure 3 on the right diagrams this
campground inquiry.
In describing how we do science, the Wikipedia entry suggests that the goal of a scientific
inquiry is to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations (hypotheses) that can
predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain an understanding of
reality, and later use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to
cure disease). The better an hypothesis is at making predictions, the more useful it is, and the
more likely it is to be correct. In the last analysis, think of hypotheses as educated guesses
and think of Theories and/or Laws as one or more experimentally supported hypothesis that
everyone agrees should serve as guideposts to help us evaluate new observations and
hypotheses.

CHALLENGE: Since “A hypothesis is a declarative sentence that sounds like a fact…”,

and since both theories and hypotheses are stated as declarative sentences,
articulate in your own words the difference between a hypothesis and a theory. Write
your answer on the space provided below (10 points)
19

Learning Activity III. Using the scientific method of inquiry, print out a published science
journal article which you will use to answer the questions below. Write legibly your answer on
another piece of short bond paper to be submitted next week (September 11, 2020)

1. Who were the author/s of the paper?

____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. When and where did the author(s) publish the paper?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. What was the primary observation of the researcher/s?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
4. What were the problems identified by the researcher/s?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
5. What were the hypothesis?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
6. What was the experimental design that was utilized?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7. How did the researcher/s collected their data?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
8. How was the result presented?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
9. What was the conclusion of their study?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
10. What were their recommendations?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
20

1.4 The Origin and Nature of Life

One of the biggest and most important of emergent phenomena is that of the origin or
emergence of life. The mystery of life's origin is still a big debating issue in science. The
question “what is life?” is so hard to answer; we really want to know much more than what
it is, we want to know why it is, “we are really asking, in physical terms, why a specific
material system is an organism and not something else”. To answer this why question we
need to understand how life might have originated. There are a number of theories about
the origin of life. The next few sections give emphasis on these different theories about the
origin of life.

 Theory of Special Creation- According to this theory, all the different forms of life that
occur today on planet earth have been created by God, the almighty.
 Theory of Spontaneous Generation- This theory assumed that living organisms
could arise suddenly and spontaneously from any kind of non-living matter. One of the
firm believers in spontaneous generation was Aristotle, the Greek philosopher (384-
322 BC).
 Theory of Catastrophism- It is simply a modification of the theory of Special Creation.
It states that there have been several creations of life by God, each preceded by a
catastrophe resulting from some kind of geological disturbance. According to this
theory, since each catastrophe completely destroyed the existing life, each new
creation consisted of life form different from that of previous ones.
 Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia)- According to this theory, life has
reached this planet Earth from other heavenly bodies such as meteorites, in the form
of highly resistance spores of some organisms. This idea was proposed by Richter in
1865 and supported by Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary scientists. The
theory did not gain any support. This theory lacks evidence; hence it was discarded.
 Theory of Chemical Evolution- This theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or
Physico-chemical Theory. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of
a slow and gradual process of chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8
billion years ago. This theory was proposed independently by two scientists -
A.I.Oparin, a Russian scientist in 1923 and J.B.S Haldane, an English scientist, in
1928.
21

LEARNING ACTIVITY IV: Several attempts have been made from time to time to explain the
origin of life on earth. As a result, there are several theories which offer their own explanation
on the possible mechanism of origin of life.

Instruction: Watch a documentary video in http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1985159/ by the

National Geographic and find out how organisms evolved, before becoming extinct. In a short
bond paper, write your own explanation of your understanding on the formation of our world
and the creation of life (10 points). Submission shall be on September 18, 2020.

Scoring: Rubrics for scoring is shown in the appendices.

22

1.5 The Characteristics/Properties of Life

At the most fundamental level, we may ask: What is life? Even a child realizes that a dog or
a plant is alive, while a rock or a car is not. Yet the phenomenon we call life defies a simple,
one-sentence definition. We recognize life by what living things do. Living matter possess
attributes that helps in the survival, growth, development, and metabolism of each organism
living in Earth. All living organisms have share several characteristics or functions: order,
sensitivity or response to the environment, reproduction, growth and development, regulation,
homeostasis and energy processing. When we are going to look at it objectively the
characteristics mentioned defines life.

Order

Response to the
environment

Evolutionary Adaptation

Regulation

Reproduction
Energy Processing

Growth and development

Figure 1.4a: Some properties of life
23

1.5 The Characteristics/Properties of Life

Living things come in an astounding variety of shapes and forms, and biologists study life in
many different ways. What makes something “alive”? Anyone could deduce that a galloping
horse is alive and a car is not, but why? We cannot say, “If it moves, it’s alive,” because a car
can move, and gelatin can wiggle in a bowl. They certainly are not alive. What characteristics
do define life? All living organisms share basic characteristics. Details of the figure shown from
the previous page will be explained here.

A. Order- The close-up of a sunflower illustrates the highly ordered structure that
characterizes life. All organisms consist of one or more cells with highly ordered
structures: atoms make up molecules, which construct cellular organelles, which are
contained within cells. This hierarchical organization continues at higher levels in
multicellular organisms and among organisms as shown in Figure 1: The hierarchical
level of biological organization.
B. Sensitivity- The Venus flytrap closed its trap rapidly in response to the environmental
stimulus of a damselfly landing on the open trap. All organisms respond to any stimuli
from its environment. Plants grow toward a source of light, and your pupils dilate when
you walk into a dark room.
C. Growth and development- The inherited information carried by genes controls the
pattern of growth and development of organisms, such as the tree seedling. All
organisms are capable of growing and developing, and they all possess hereditary
molecules that are passed to their offspring, ensuring that the offspring are of the same
species. Although crystals also “grow,” their growth does not involve hereditary
molecules.
D. Reproduction- Organisms (living things) reproduce their own kind. All living things
reproduce, passing on traits from one generation to the next.
E. Regulation- The regulation of blood flow through the blood vessels of this jackrabbit’s
ears helps maintain a constant body temperature by adjusting heat exchange with the
surrounding air. All organisms have regulatory mechanisms that coordinate internal
processes.
F. Adaptation- The appearance of this pygmy sea horse camouflages the animal in its
environment. Such adaptations evolve over many generations by the reproductive
success of those individuals with heritable traits that are best suited to their
environments.
G. Metabolism- This butterfly obtains fuel in the form of nectar from flowers. The butterfly
will transform chemical energy stored in its food to power flight and other work. Broadly,
these reactions can be divided into catabolic reactions that convert nutrients to energy
and anabolic reactions that lead to the synthesis of larger biomolecules.
24

1.6 The Domains of Life

Historically, scientists have classified the diversity of lifeforms into species and broader
groupings by careful comparisons of structure, function, and other obvious features. In the last
few decades, new methods of assessing species relationships, such as comparisons of DNA
sequences, have led to an ongoing reevaluation of the number and boundaries of kingdoms.
Researchers have proposed anywhere from six kingdoms to dozens of kingdoms. While
debate continues at the kingdom level, biologists agree that the kingdoms of life can be
grouped into three even higher levels of classification called domains. The three domains are
named Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
We believe with good reason (as you shall see) that all life on earth evolved from the
progenote, a cell that existed soon after the origin of life on the planet. Prokaryotes lack nuclei
(pro meaning before and karyon meaning kernel, or nucleus). Prokaryotic cells, among the
first descendants of the progenote, fall into two groups, archaea and eubacteria (including
bacteria and cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae). Prokaryotes were long defined as a major
life grouping, alongside eukaryotes. But the recent discovery of archaea changed all that! Cells
that thrive in inhospitable environments like boiling hot springs or arctic ice were the first to be
characterized as archaea, but now we know that these unusual organisms inhabit more
temperate environments. As of 1990, eubacteria, archaea and eukaryotes characterize the
three domains of life. That all living organisms can be shown to belong to one of these domains
has dramatically changing our understanding of evolution.
A. The Prokaryotes (eubacteria = bacteria and cyanobacteria). The prokaryotic cells
typically lack a nucleus as well as mitochondria, chloroplasts, internal membranes and
other organelles (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, assorted vesicles and internal membranes).
They are typically unicellular, although a few live colonial lives at least some of the time
(e.g., cyanobacteria). A schematic diagram of typical bacterial structure is shown (right).
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall
and many have a polysaccharide capsule. The
cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection,
helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents
dehydration. The capsule enables the cell to
attach to surfaces in its environment. Some
prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae.
Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to
exchange genetic material during a type of
reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are
used by bacteria to attach to a host cell.
Figure 1.4b: Illustration of a bacterial cell
25

1.6 The Domains of Life

Important Reminder: The most effective action anyone can take to prevent the spread of
contagious illnesses is to wash your hands. Why? Because microbes (organisms so tiny that
they can only be seen with microscopes) are ubiquitous. They live on doorknobs, money, your
hands, and many other surfaces. If someone sneezes into his hand and touches a doorknob,
and afterwards you touch that same doorknob, the microbes from the sneezer’s mucus are
now on your hands. If you touch your hands to your mouth, nose, or eyes, those microbes can
enter your body and could make you sick.
However, not all microbes (also called microorganisms) cause disease; most are actually
beneficial. Microbes in your gut makes vitamin K. Other selected used to ferment beer and
wine or genetically engineered microbes are used for the removal of pollutants from soil or
groundwater, as well as hazardous elements from contaminated sites, a process called
bioremediation technologies.
B. The Archaebacteria (Archaea) Allessandro Volta, a physicist for whom the Volt is named,
discovered methane producing bacteria (methanogens) way back in 1776! He found them
living in the extreme environment at the bottom of Lago Maggiore, a lake shared by Italy
and Switzerland. These unusual bacteria are cheomoautotrophs that get energy from H 2
and CO2 and generate methane gas in the process. It was not until the 1960s that Thomas
Brock (from the University of Wisconsin-Madison) discovered thermophilic bacteria living
at temperatures approaching 100°C. The nickname extremophiles was soon applied to
describe organisms living in any extreme environment. One of the thermophilic bacteria,
now called Thermus aquaticus, became the source of Taq polymerase, the heat-stable
DNA polymerase that made the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) a household name in
labs around the world! Extremophile and “normal” bacteria both lack nuclei are similar in
size and shape(s), which initially suggested that they were closely related to bacteria and
were therefore prokaryotes (see the electron micrograph of Methanosarcina and
Pyrolobus, below). But Carl Woese (2004) compared the sequences of genes for ribosomal
RNAs in normal bacteria and an increasing number of extremophiles, including the
methanogens.
Based on sequence similarities and differences, the extremophiles seemed to form a
separate group from the rest of the bacteria. They were named archaebacteria, or archaea
because these organisms were thought to have evolved even before bacteria. Woese
concluded that Archaea were a separate group, or domain of life from bacteria and
eukaryotes profoundly changing our understanding of phylogenetic relationships. The
three domains of life (Archaea, Eubacteria and Eukarya) quickly supplanted the older
division of living things into Five Kingdoms (Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals).
26

1.6 The Domains of Life

Another big surprise from rRNA gene sequence comparisons was that the archaea were more
closely related to eukaryotes than bacteria! The evolution of the three domains is illustrated
below.
Archaea contain genes and proteins as well as metabolic pathways found in eukaryotes but
not in bacteria, speaking to
their closer evolutionary
relationship to eukaryotes.
They also contain genes and
proteins as well as metabolic
pathways unique to the group,
testimony to their domain
status. While some bacteria
and eukaryotes can live in
extreme environments, the
archaea include the most diverse extremophiles:
Acidophiles: grow at acidic (low) pH
Alkaliphiles: grow at high pH
Halophiles: require high salt concentrations of salt for growth
Methanogens: produce methane
Barophiles: grow best at high hydrostatic pressure.
Psychrophiles: grow best at temperature 15 °C or lower.
Xerophiles: growth at very low water activity (i.e., drought conditions)
Thermophiles/hyperthermophiles: organisms that grow best at 40 °C or higher, or
80°C or higher respectively.
Toxicolerants: grow in the presence of high levels of damaging elements (e.g. pools
of benzene, nuclear waste).
Finally, the Archaea are not only extremophiles thriving in unfriendly environments. They
include organisms living in more moderate places including soils, oceans and marshes… and
even in the human colon. In oceans, they are a major part of plankton. Originally seen as a
sideshow among living things, Archaea are particularly abundant in the oceans where they
are a major part of plankton, participating in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. In the guts of
cows, humans and other mammals, methanogens facilitate digestion, generating methane gas
in the process. Cows have even been cited as a major cause of global warming because of
their prodigious methane emissions. Methanogenic Archaea are being exploited to create
biogas and to treat sewage, while some extremophiles are the source of enzymes that function
at high temperatures or in organic solvents.
27

As you read earlier, the organisms making up two of the three domains—Bacteria and
Archaea—are prokaryotic. All the eukaryotes (organisms with eukaryotic cells) are now
grouped in domain Eukarya. The Eukarya possess the following characteristics:

1. Eukarya have eukaryotic cells.

2. Like the Bacteria, they have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains
attached to glycerol by ester linkages.
3. Not all Eukarya possess cells with a cell wall, but for those Eukarya having a cell wall,
that wall contains no peptidoglycan.
4. Eukarya are resistant to traditional antibacterial antibiotics but are sensitive to most
antibiotics that affect eukaryotic cells.
5. Eukarya contain rRNA that is unique to the Eukarya as indicated by the presence
molecular regions distinctly different from the rRNA of Archaea and Bacteria.
The Eukarya are subdivided into the following four kingdoms:
1. Protista Kingdom: Protista are simple, predominately unicellular eukaryotic
organisms. Examples includes slime molds, euglenoids, algae, and protozoans.
2. Fungi Kingdom: Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms with eukaryotic cell
types. The cells have cell walls but are not organized into tissues. They do not carry
out photosynthesis and obtain nutrients through absorption. Examples include sac
fungi, club fungi, yeasts, and molds.
3. Plantae Kingdom: Plants are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells.
The cells are organized into tissues and have cell walls. They obtain nutrients by
photosynthesis and absorption. Examples include mosses, ferns, conifers, and
flowering plants.
4. Animalia Kingdom: Animals are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells.
The cells are organized into tissues and lack cell walls. They do not carry out
photosynthesis and obtain nutrients primarily by ingestion. Animals include
invertebrates and vertebrates.
According to the endosymbiotic theory, eukaryotic mitochondria originated as free-living
prokaryotes that were engulfed by an ancestral eukaryote and became symbiotic. A similar
but independent event is believed to have given rise to plastids such as chloroplasts. The
compartments in eukaryotic cells are called organelles: membrane-bound structures enclosed
by a semi-permeable phospholipid membrane that is very similar in composition to the plasma
membrane. How other cellular organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, evolved is less
clear. Scientists believe that these organelles may have developed from infolding of the
plasma membrane of the protoeukaryote.
28

UNIT II
BIOMOLECULES AND CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
Biological molecules are often referred to as the molecules of life (biomolecules) that
are basically produced by cells and living organisms cell and categorized as organic and
inorganic molecules in general. It varies in sizes and structures and performs numerous
functions (Augustyn et al., 2020). Each member of the groups is vital for every single organism
on Earth. The organic biomolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids,
which are important either structurally or functionally for cells and, in most cases, they are
important in both ways.
On the other hand, we have inorganic biomolecules water and minerals which are also
important for the normal functioning of an organism. In this unit, we are going to tackle the
structure and function of organic and inorganic biomolecules, its importance to living
organisms’ survivability and functionality.
All organisms are made of cells. In the hierarchy of biological organization, the cell is
the simplest collection of matter that can be alive. Indeed, many forms of life exist as single-
celled organisms. Larger, more complex organisms, including plants and animals, are
multicellular; their bodies are cooperatives of many kinds of specialized cells that could not
survive for long on their own. Even when cells are arranged into higher levels of organization,
such as tissues and organs, the cell remains the organism’s basic unit of structure and
function.
All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells. During the long evolutionary
history of life on Earth, cells have been modified in many different ways. But although cells
can differ substantially from one another, they share common features. In this unit, we will first
examine the tools and techniques that allow us to understand cells, then tour the cell and
become acquainted with its components.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
1. Describe how these biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids are built specifically the differences in structure, and its
biological functions.
2. Explore the different types of cells, structure, and the function of its
components, especially the organelles for eukaryotic cells.
3. Create a 3D model of how the cells reproduce from previously existing
cells through mitosis (somatic/body cells) and meiosis (reproductive/sex
cells).
29

PRETEST
Instruction: The crossword puzzle below is an identification type to assess your prior
knowledge about biological molecules and the cell structure, function, and reproduction. Fill in
CAPITAL letters the empty puzzle grid. Erasures and superimpositions are NOT allowed.
If it is a two-word answer, leave one block (space) in between words. Observe neatness and
academic honesty.

1 2 3 4

6 7

8 9

10 11

12

13 14

15

16

17

18 19

20

EclipseCrossword.com

ACROSS DOWN
1. Monomers of nucleic acids containing a 5- 2. A stored carbohydrate in plants commonly found
carbon sugar, phosphate and nitrogen- cassava, potatoes, rice, and corn.
containing bases. 3. A polysaccharide and structural material that
6. Organic biomolecules including sugars, provides rigidity of plant cell wall.
starches, and fibers found in fruits, grains, 5. A covalent bond formed between simple sugars
vegetables, and milk products. (monosaccharides) to produce disaccharides.
8. These are complex biomolecules found in 7. A covalent bond formed between amino acids
genetic materials that will broken off to yield together to become a protein.
phosphoric acid, sugars, and organic bases. 9. Type of cell division that results to two new diploid
10. The basic structural and fundamental unit of daughter cells with exactly the same quality and
a living organism. quantity of genetic material as the parent cell.
15. These are organic molecule that includes 11. A five carbon sugar component of deoxyribonucleic
carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and nucleic acid.
acids found within the cell and lving 12. Nonpolar organic biomolecules that are insoluble in
organisms. water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform.
16. Specialized organelle in plant cells and algae 13. A stored carbohydrate in animals, which can store a
that will capture photons of light for lot of energy.
photosynthesis. 14. A monosaccharide, commonly known as the blood
17. These are specialized membrane-bound sugar that provides energy for animals and structure
components within eukaryotic cells. for plants.
18. Monomers of proteins. Type of cell division in reproductive cells (spermatocyte
19. The brain and control center of the cell. and oocyte) that will result to four haploid daughter
20. The most abundant lipid component in the cells.
cell membrane of eukaryotic cells.
30

2.1 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material Carbohydrates include sugars and
polymers of sugars. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, or simple sugars;
these are the monomers from which more complex carbohydrates are built. Disaccharides are
double sugars, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond. Carbohydrate
macromolecules are polymers called polysaccharides, composed of many sugar building
blocks.
A carbohydrate molecule is made of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are an
important source of energy and they also provide structural support for cells and help with
communication between cells (cell-cell recognition). They are found in the form of either a
sugar or many sugars linked together, called
saccharides. Based on the number sugar
units they contain, they are categorized into
three, as follows.
A. Monosaccharides (from the Greek monos,
single, and sacchar, sugar) generally have
molecular formulas that are some multiple
of the unit CH2O. Glucose (C6H12O6), the
most common monosaccharide, is of
central importance in the chemistry of life.
In the structure of glucose, we can see the
trademarks of a sugar: The molecule has a
carbonyl group, C=O, and multiple
hydroxyl groups, ¬OH as shown in the
figure (right) Depending on the location of
the carbonyl group, a sugar is either an
aldose (aldehyde sugar) or a ketose
(ketone sugar). Glucose, for example, is an
aldose; fructose, an isomer of glucose, is a
ketose. (Most names for sugars end in -
ose.) Another criterion for classifying
sugars is the size of the carbon skeleton,
which ranges from three to seven carbons
long. Glucose, fructose, and other sugars
that have six carbons are called hexoses.
Trioses (three-carbon sugars) and Figure 2.1a: Structure and Classification of Simple Sugars
pentoses (five-carbon sugars) are also common.
31

2.1 CARBOHYDRATES
B. Disaccharides Most sugars found in nature are disaccharides. These form when
two monosaccharides are joined by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed from
dehydration reaction (glyco refers to carbohydrate). In cells, these processes are facilitated
by enzymes, specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions. The reaction
connecting monomers is a good example of a dehydration reaction, a reaction in which
two molecules are covalently bonded to
each other with the loss of a water
molecule (Figure 7a). When a bond
forms between two monomers, each
monomer contributes part of the water
molecule that is released during the
reaction: One monomer provides a
hydroxyl group (￢OH), while the other
provides a hydrogen (￢H). This reaction
is repeated as monomers are added to
the chain one by one, making a polymer
(also called polymerization). This
process requires energy. A glycosidic
bond forms and holds the two
monosaccharide units together. The
three most important disaccharides are
sucrose, lactose and maltose. Figure 2.1b: Synthesis and breakdown of polymers
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a process that is essentially
the reverse of the dehydration reaction (Figure 7b). Hydrolysis means water breakage (from
the Greek hydro, water, and lysis, break). The bond between monomers is broken by the
addition of a water molecule, with a hydrogen from water attaching to one monomer and
the hydroxyl group attaching to the other. They are broken down in the small intestine
during digestion to give the smaller monosaccharides that pass into the blood and through
cell membranes into cells. Within the digestive tract, various enzymes attack the polymers,
speeding up hydrolysis. Released monomers are then absorbed into the bloodstream for
distribution to all body cells. Those cells can then use dehydration reactions to assemble
the monomers into new, different polymers that can perform specific functions required by
the cell.
32

2.1 CARBOHYDRATES
C. Polysaccharides. These are macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few
thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages. Some polysaccharides serve as
storage material, hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for cells. Other polysaccharides
serve as building material for structures that protect the cell or the whole organism. The
architecture and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers and
by the positions of its glycosidic linkages. Both plants and animals store sugars for later
use in the form of storage polysaccharides.
The properties of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:
 Its length (though they are usually very long) and the extent of any branching
(addition of units to the side of the chain rather than one of its ends)
 Any folding which results in a more compact molecule whether the chain is 'straight'
or 'coiled'
Plants store starch, a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within plastids
specifically known as amyloplasts. Starch is often produced in plants as a way of storing
energy. It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin, both are made from α-glucose.
Amylose is an unbranched polymer of α-glucose, which coils into a helical structure and
forms a colloidal suspension in hot water. Amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-glucose
and completely insoluble in water.

Figure 2.1c: Polysaccharides of plants and animals

33

2.1 CARBOHYDRATES
Animals store glycogen, a polymer of glucose found mainly in muscle and liver.
Glycogen is an analogue of starch in plants, which has fewer branches and is less compact
than starch. Glycogen is amylopectin with very short distances between the branching side-
chains. Starch from plants is hydrolysed in the body to produce glucose. Glucose passes
into the cell and is used in metabolism. Inside the cell, glucose can be polymerised to make
glycogen which acts as a carbohydrate energy store.
Cellulose is a third polymer made from glucose. But this time it's made from β-glucose
molecules and the polymer molecules are 'straight'. Cellulose serves a very different
purpose in nature to starch and glycogen. It is structural component of plant cell walls, much
tougher than cell membranes. This toughness is due to the arrangement of glucose units
in the polymer chain and the hydrogen-bonding between neighboring chains. Cellulose is
not hydrolysed easily and, therefore, cannot be digested so it is not a source of energy for
humans. The stomachs of herbivores contain a specific enzyme called cellulase which
enables them to digest cellulose.
Another important structural polysaccharide is chitin, the carbohydrate used by
arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related animals) to build their exoskeletons.
An exoskeleton is a hard case that surrounds the soft parts of an animal. Made up of chitin
embedded in a layer of proteins, the case is leathery and flexible at first, but becomes
hardened when the proteins are chemically linked to each other (as in insects) or encrusted
with calcium carbonate (as in crabs).
Chitin is also found in fungi, which use this polysaccharide rather than cellulose as the
building material for their cell walls. Chitin is similar to cellulose, with β linkages, except that
the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen-containing attachment.
Important Points to Remember About Carbohydrates
The most abundant organic molecules in nature which are polyhydroxy
aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield these compounds on
hydrolysis
Provide a significant fraction of the energy in the diet of most organisms
Can be cell-membrane components mediating intercellular communication
Can act as a storage form of energy
Can be structural components of many organisms
Can be cell-surface antigens
Can be part of the body‟s extracellular ground substance
Can be associated with proteins and lipids
Important source of energy for cells
34

LEARNING ACTIVITY V.
Instruction: Supplemental readings about the concepts on the Chemistry of Life from the
book by Reece, JB. (2014). Campbell Biology and Raven, P. and Johnson, G. (2002).
Biology and answer the following questions. Write your answer on an activity notebook for
submission at the end of this unit.
1. What are the elemental compositions of carbohydrates?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
2. Why cells rely on carbohydrates as a major source of energy compared to other
biomolecules?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3. What are the additional importance's of carbohydrates besides their role as energy
source?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
4. A dehydration reaction joins two glucose molecules to form maltose. The chemical
formula for glucose is C6H12O6. What is the chemical and structural formula for maltose,
lactose and sucrose?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
5. After a cow is given antibiotics to treat an infection, a vet gives the animal a drink of “gut
culture” containing various prokaryotes. Why is this necessary?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
35

2.2 LIPIDS
Lipids are a highly variable group of molecules that include fats, oils, waxes and some
steroids. A fat is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids.
Glycerol is an alcohol; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group. A fatty acid has a
long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length. The carbon at one end of the
skeleton is part of a carboxyl group, the functional group that gives these molecules the name
fatty acid. Fatty acids are made mostly from chains of carbon and hydrogen and they bond to
a range of other types of atoms to form many
different lipids. The major functions of lipids are to
store energy, protection, and main cellular
component (phospholipids) and communication.
The terms saturated fats and unsaturated fats
are commonly used in the context of nutrition
These terms refer to the structure of the
hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids. If there are
no double bonds between carbon atoms
composing a chain, then as many hydrogen atoms
as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton.
Such a structure is said to be saturated with
hydrogen, and the resulting fatty acid is therefore
called a saturated fatty acid. Most animal fats are
saturated: The hydrocarbon chains of their fatty
acids—the “tails” of the fat molecules—lack double
bonds, and their flexibility allows the fat molecules
to pack together tightly. Saturated animal fats—
such as lard and butter—are solid at room
temperature. In contrast, an unsaturated fatty
acid has one or more double bonds, with one fewer
hydrogen atom on each double-bonded carbon.
The fats of plants and fishes are generally
unsaturated, meaning that they are built of one or
more types of unsaturated fatty acids. Usually
liquid at room temperature, plant and fish fats are
Figure 2.2: Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
referred to as oils—olive oil and cod liver oil are examples.
36

2.2 LIPIDS
A lipid called a triglyceride is a fat if it is solid at room temperature and an oil if it is
liquid at room temperature. In addition, triglycerides are stored in the fat cells, also called
adipocytes or lipocytes, and are responsible in storing fats and lipids which will facilitate
energy store in animal’s body. Fat cells are categorized in white fat cells and brown fat
cells. The different is made from their ways of storing lipids. White fat cells store one large
lipid drop while brown fat cells store smaller and multiple droplets of lipids spreading in the
whole body of the cell. Various types of lipids occur in the human body, namely 1)
triacylglycerol, 2) cholesterol, and 3) polar lipids, which include phospholipids, glycolipids
and sphingolipids.
Plant leaves are coated with lipids called waxes to prevent water loss, and the
honeycomb in a beehive is made of beeswax. Plant and fish oils are nutritionally good,
unsaturated fats. The kinks where the cis double bonds are located prevent the molecules
from packing together closely enough to solidify at room temperature. The phrase
“hydrogenated vegetable oils” on food labels means that unsaturated fats have been
synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen, allowing them to solidify.
Peanut butter, margarine, and many other products are hydrogenated to prevent lipids from
separating out in liquid (oil) form.
A diet rich in saturated fats is one of several factors that may contribute to the
cardiovascular disease known as atherosclerosis. In this condition, deposits called plaques
develop within the walls of blood vessels, causing inward bulges that impede blood flow
and reduce the resilience of the vessels. The process of hydrogenating vegetable oils
produces not only saturated fats but also unsaturated fats with trans double bonds. It
appears that trans fats can contribute to coronary heart disease.
Important Points to Remember About Lipids
Lipids that have tail chains with only single bonds between the carbon
atoms are called saturated fats because no more hydrogens can bond to
the tail.
Lipids that have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in the tail
chain can accommodate at least one more hydrogen and are called
unsaturated fats.
Fats with more than one double bond in the tail are called polyunsaturated fats.
Lipids are insoluble in water but dissolve in nonpolar substances (other lipids)
Melting points depend on chain length and saturation
Phospholipid is the main biological component of cellular membranes
Lipids function as major source of energy, insulation, protection—e.g. protecting plant
leaves from drying up, activators of enzymes and acting as hormones.
37

LEARNING ACTIVITY VI.

Instruction: Supplemental readings about the concepts on the Chemistry of Life from the
book by Reece, JB. (2014). Campbell Biology and Raven, P. and Johnson, G. (2002).
Biology and answer the following questions. Write your answer on an activity notebook for
submission at the end of this unit.

1. What are the elemental compositions of lipids?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. Why lipids act as a major source of energy?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. What are the major classes of lipids? Describe each major class.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. Compare the structure of a neutral fat (triglyceride) with that of a phospholipid.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. Why are human sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen) considered lipids?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
38

2.3 PROTEINS
Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Many scientists believe amino acids were
among the first molecules formed in the early earth. The importance of proteins is underscored
by their name, which comes from the Greek word proteios, meaning “first,” or “primary.”
Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells, and they are instrumental
in almost everything organisms do. Proteins carry out a diverse array of functions, some speed
up chemical reactions, while others play a role in defense, storage, transport, cellular
communication, movement, or structural support.
A protein is a compound made of small carbon
compounds called amino acids. Amino acids are small
compounds that are made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
hydrogen, and sometimes sulfur. All amino acids share the
same general structure. Its four different partners are an
amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a
variable group symbolized by R. The R group, also called
the side chain, differs with each amino acid. Amino acids Figure 2.3 a: Amino acid basic structure
have a central carbon atom like the one shown in Figure 11. Recall that carbon can form four
covalent bonds. One of those bonds is with hydrogen. The other three bonds are with an
amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a variable group (–R). The variable
group makes each amino acid different. There are 20 different variable groups, and proteins
are made of different combinations of all 20 different amino acids. Several covalent bonds
called peptide bonds join amino acids together to form proteins, which is also shown in Figure
11. A peptide forms between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of
another. The 20 common amino acids are grouped into five chemical classes, based on their
side groups:
1. Nonpolar amino acids, such as leucine, often have R groups that contain —CH2 or —
CH3.
2. Polar uncharged amino acids, such as threonine, have R groups that contain —O (or only
—H).
3. Ionizable amino acids, such as glutamic acid, have R groups that contain acids or bases.
4. Aromatic amino acids, such as phenylalanine, have R groups that contain an organic
(carbon) ring with alternating single and double bonds.
5. Special-function amino acids have unique individual properties; methionine often is the
first amino acid in a chain of amino acids, proline causes kinks in chains, and cysteine
links chains together.
39

2.3 PROTEINS
Proteins make up about 15% of your total body mass and are involved in nearly every
function of your body. Your cells contain about 10,000 different proteins that provide structural
support, transport substances inside the cell and between cells, communicate signals within
the cell and between cells, speed up chemical reactions, and control cell growth.

Figure 2.3b: An overview of protein functions (Reece, et al., 2014)

40

2.3 PROTEINS
Four Levels of Protein Structure
In spite of their great diversity, proteins share three superimposed levels of structure,
known as primary, secondary, and tertiary structure. A quaternary structure, arises when a
protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains. When two amino acids are positioned so
that the carboxyl group of one is adjacent to the amino group of the other, they can become
joined by a dehydration reaction, with the removal of a water molecule. The resulting covalent
bond is called a peptide bond.
A. Primary Structure
Linear sequence of amino acids
The primary structure is like the order of letters in a very long word. If left to chance,
there would be 20127 different ways of making a polypeptide chain 127 amino acids long.
However, the precise primary structure of a protein is determined not by the random linking of
amino acids, but by inherited genetic information. The primary structure in turn dictates
secondary and tertiary structure, due to the chemical nature of the backbone and the side
chains (R groups) of the amino acids along the polypeptide.
B. Secondary Structure
Regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone
The amino acid side groups are not the only portions of proteins that form hydrogen bonds.
The —COOH and —NH2 groups of the main chain also form quite good hydrogen bonds—so
good that their interactions with water might be expected to offset the tendency of nonpolar
sidegroups to be forced into the protein interior. Inspection of the protein structures determined
by X-ray diffraction reveals why they don’t—the polar groups of the main chain form hydrogen
bonds with each other!
Two patterns of H bonding occur. In one, hydrogen bonds form along a single chain,
linking one amino acid to another farther down the chain. This tends to pull the chain into a
coil called an alpha (α) helix. The α helix is a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding
between every fourth amino acid. In the other pattern, hydrogen bonds occur across two
chains, linking the amino acids in one chain to those in the other. Often, many parallel chains
are linked, forming a pleated, sheetlike structure called a β-pleated sheet. A β-pleated sheet
structure has two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side (called β
strands), which are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments
of polypeptide backbone. β pleated sheets make up the core of many globular proteins. The
folding of the amino acid chain by hydrogen bonding into these characteristic coils and pleats
is called a protein’s secondary structure.
41

2.3 PROTEINS
C. Tertiary Structure: Three-dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side
chains
Tertiary structure is the overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between
the side chains (R groups) of the various amino acids (Raven,__). A protein is driven into its
tertiary structure by hydrophobic interactions with water. Once nonpolar amino acid side
chains are close together, van der Waals interactions help hold them together. Meanwhile,
hydrogen bonds between polar side chains and ionic bonds between positively and negatively
charged side chains
also help stabilize
tertiary structure.
Covalent bonds called
disulfide bridges may
further reinforce the
shape of a protein.
Disulfide bridges form
where two cysteine
monomers, which have
sulfhydryl groups (— Figure 2.3c: Example of Tertiary Protein Structure
SH) on their side
chains.
D. Quaternary Structure: Association of two or more polypeptides (some proteins only)
Quaternary structure is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of
polypeptide units (Raven,__). When two or more
polypeptide chains associate to form a functional protein,
the individual chains are referred to as subunits of the
protein. The subunits need not be the same. Hemoglobin,
for example, is a protein composed of two α-chain
subunits and two β-chain subunits. A protein’s subunit
arrangement is called its quaternary structure. Another
example is collagen, which is a fibrous protein that has
three identical helical polypeptides intertwined into a
larger triple helix, giving the long fibers great strength.
This suits collagen fibers to their function as the girders of
Figure 2.3d: Example of Quaternary
connective tissue in skin, bone, tendons, ligaments, and Protein Structure
other body parts. (Collagen accounts for 40% of the protein in a human body.)
42

LEARNING ACTIVITY VII.

Instruction: Supplemental readings about the concepts on the Chemistry of Life from the
book by Reece, JB. (2014). Campbell Biology or Raven, P. and Johnson, G. (2002). Biology
and answer the following questions. Write your answer on an activity notebook for submission
at the end of this unit.
1. What are the elemental compositions of proteins?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the physiological and structural roles of proteins?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are determines protein structure?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What parts of a polypeptide participate in the bonds that hold together secondary
structure? tertiary structure? and the quaternary structure?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. Explain the basis for the great diversity of proteins.
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
43

2.4 NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are polymers made of monomers called nucleotides. A nucleotide, in general,
is composed of three parts: a five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), a
nitrogen-containing (nitrogenous) base, and one to three phosphate groups.
To understand the structure of a single nucleotide, let’s first consider the nitrogenous bases.
Each nitrogenous base has one or two rings that include nitrogen atoms. (They are called
nitrogenous bases because the nitrogen atoms tend to take up H+ from solution, thus acting
as bases.) There are two families of nitrogenous bases: pyrimidines and purines. Pyrimidines
are smaller, single-ring molecules (one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms). The
members of the pyrimidine family are cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U). Purines are
larger, double-ring molecules (a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring) found in
both DNA and RNA; they are adenine (A) and guanine (G). The purines are adenine (A) and
guanine (G). The specific pyrimidines and purines differ in the chemical groups attached to
the rings. Adenine, guanine, and
cytosine are found in both DNA
and RNA; thymine is found only
in DNA and uracil only in RNA.
DNA molecules in
organisms exist not as single
chains folded into complex
shapes, like proteins, but rather
as double chains. Two DNA
polymers wind around each other
like the outside and inside rails of
a circular staircase. Such a
winding shape is called a helix,
and a helix composed of two
chains winding about one
another, as in DNA, is called a Figure 2.4a: Structure of a Nucleotide and Base Pairs
double helix. Each step of
DNA’s helical staircase is a basepair, consisting of a base in one chain attracted by hydrogen
bonds to a base opposite it on the other chain. These hydrogen bonds hold the two chains
together as a duplex (figure 3.15). The base-pairing rules are rigid: adenine can pair only with
thymine (in DNA) or with uracil (in RNA), and cytosine can pair only with guanine. The bases
that participate in base-pairing are said to be complementary to each other.
44

2.4 NUCLEIC ACIDS

A nucleic acid is simply a chain of five-carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester
bonds with an organic base protruding from
each sugar. The two types of nucleic acids,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA), enable living
organisms to reproduce their complex
components from one generation to the
next. Unique among molecules, DNA
provides directions for its own replication.
DNA also directs RNA synthesis and,
through RNA, controls protein synthesis;
this entire process is called gene
expression. The cell uses the single-
stranded, short-lived RNA transcript to direct
the synthesis of a protein with a specific
sequence of amino acids. Thus, the
Figure 2.4b: Gene Expression
information flows from DNA to RNA to
protein, a process that has been termed the “central dogma” of molecular biology.
RNA is similar to DNA, but with two major chemical differences. First, RNA molecules contain
ribose sugars in which the number 2 carbon is bonded to a hydroxyl group. In DNA, this
hydroxyl group is replaced by a hydrogen atom. Second, RNA molecules utilize uracil in place
of thymine. Uracil has the same structure as thymine, except that one of its carbons lacks a
methyl (-CH3) group.
DNA is a double-stranded helix that stores hereditary information as a specific sequence of
nucleotide bases. RNA is a single-stranded
molecule that transcribes this information to
direct protein synthesis. In addition to serving as
subunits of DNA and RNA, nucleotide bases
play other critical roles in the life of a cell. For
example, adenine is a key component of the
molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP; Figure
the energy currency of the cell. It also occurs in
the molecules nicotinamide adenine
Figure 2.4b: Adenosine Triphosphate
dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD+), which carry electrons whose energy is used to make ATP.
45

LEARNING ACTIVITY VIII.

Instruction: Supplemental readings about the concepts on the Chemistry of Life from the
book by Reece, J (2014). Campbell Biology and Raven, P. and Johnson, G. (2002). Biology
and answer the following questions. Write your answer on an activity notebook for submission
at the end of this unit.
1. What are the elemental compositions of nucleic acids?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What is the role of the two nucleic acids?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What are the molecular composition of nucleotides?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Describe briefly the differences between DNA and RNA?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. What role does complementary base pairing play in the functions of nucleic acids?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
46

LEARNING ASSESSMENT
Instruction: This is to assess your understanding on the molecules of life with supplemental
readings from the ebooks provided for your learning activities.
Multiple Choice: Choose and underline only one correct answer from the given choices per
item. Write one or two sentences to justify your answer on the space provided below each
item. Scoring shall be three (3) points per item (i.e. 1 point for each correct answer and 2
points for the justification of your answer)
Example: 1. The process by which monomers are linked together to form polymers?
A. Dehydration reaction C. Hydrolysis
B. Polymerization D. Monomerization
Answer: A.: When monomers are linked together to form a more complex
polymer, a water molecule is removed by dehydration reactions.

1. The type of bond that forms to join monomers (such as sugars and amino acids) into
polymers (such as starch and proteins) is a(n) __________ bond.
A. van der Waals C. peptide
B. Hydrogen D. covalent

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. Generally, animals cannot digest (hydrolyze) the glycosidic linkages between the glucose
molecules in cellulose. How then do cows get enough nutrients from eating grass?
A. They have to eat a lot of grass.
B. The flat teeth and strong stomach of herbivores break the cellulose fibers so that the
cows get enough nutrition from the cell contents.
C. Cows and other herbivores are exceptions and make some cellulose-digesting
enzymes.
D. Microorganisms in their digestive tracts hydrolyze the cellulose to individual glucose
units

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. In what polysaccharide form do plants store glucose to be available later as an energy
source?
A. Cellulose C. Starch
B. Glycogen D. Protein

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
47

4. Which of the following molecules is a monosaccharide?

A. C25H43O8 C. C45H84O8PN
B. C22H49O10N5 D. C6H12O6

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
5. At a conference, the speaker's grand finale was sautéing mealworms (insect larvae) in
butter and serving them to the audience. They were crunchy (like popcorn hulls) because
their exoskeletons contain the polysaccharide __________.
A. cellulose C. chitin
B. glycogen D. palmitic acid

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

6. Carbohydrates are used in our bodies mainly for .

A. building genetic material chitin
B. building genetic material
C. structural molecules, such as hair and fingernails
D. energy storage and release

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
7. The polysaccharide that you are most likely to have eaten recently is __________.
A. Glucose C. Lactose
B. Starch D. Fructose

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
8. One characteristic shared by sucrose, lactose, and maltose is that __________.
A. they are all monosaccharides C. they are all disaccharides
B. they are all polysaccharides D. they are all indigestible by humans

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
9. Carbohydrates can function in which of the following ways?
A. energy storage C. enzymatic catalysis
B. structural support and energy storage D. information storage

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
48

10. Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch. Why cannot the same enzyme break
down cellulose?
A. The bonds between the monosaccharide monomers in cellulose are much stronger.
B. The monosaccharide monomers in cellulose are bonded together differently than
those in starch.
C. Cellulose molecules are much too large
D. The enzyme cannot attack cellulose because of its helical shape.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
11. The subunits (monomers) in cellulose are linked together by __________.
A. phosphodiester linkages C. ionic bonds
B. glycosidic linkages D. peptide bonds

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
12. Which of the following components of a tossed salad will pass through the human
digestive tract and be digested the least?
A. oil (in the dressing) C. starch (in the croutons)
B. protein (in the bacon bits) D. cellulose (in the lettuce)

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
13. Lipids differ from other large biological molecules in that they __________.
A. do not contain carbon C. do not contain nitrogen and phosphorus
atoms
B. do not have specific shapes D. are much larger

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
14. Which of the following terms can be correctly used to describe compounds that do NOT
mix with water?
A. Proteins C. Hydrophilic
B. Hydrophobic D. Phospholipids

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
15. Nutritionally, saturated triacylglycerols are considered to be less healthful than
unsaturated triacylglycerols. What is the difference between them?
A. Saturated triacylglycerols are liquid at room temperature
B. Saturated triacylglycerols have more double bonds than unsaturated triacylglycerols
do.
49

C. Saturated triacylglycerols are fats; unsaturated triacylglycerols are carbohydrates.

D. For carbon skeletons of equal length, saturated triacylglycerols have more hydrogen
atoms than unsaturated triacylglycerols do.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
16. The lipids that form the main structural component of cell membranes are __________.
A. Carbohydrates C. Cholesterol
B. Triacylglycerols D. Phospholipids

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
17. If a small droplet of triacylglycerol molecules is suspended in water, the fat molecules
form a "ball of spaghetti" with no particular orientation. But if a droplet of phospholipid
molecules is put in water, all the molecules point outward, toward the water.
Phospholipids are forced into this orientation because phospholipids have
__________.
A. a charged or polar end and an uncharged or nonpolar end
B. three fatty acid molecules, all pointing in different directions
C. two fatty acid molecules pointing in different directions
D. both a saturated fatty acid and an unsaturated fatty acid

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
18. Which of the following is a true statement comparing phospholipids and triacylglycerols
(fats and oils)?
A. Triacylglycerols may be saturated or unsaturated, but all phospholipids are
saturated.
B. In nature, phospholipids occur in fused rings (sterol form), whereas triacylglycerols
maintain a straight-chain form.
C. Phospholipid molecules have a distinctly polar "head" and a distinctly nonpolar "tail,"
whereas triacylglycerols are predominantly nonpolar.
D. Phospholipids are the primary storage form for fats in our bodies.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
19. The sex hormones estradiol and testosterone belong to which class of biomolecules?
A. Nucleic acids C. Lipids
B. Proteins D. Carbohydrates

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
50

20. High cholesterol levels are considered a major risk factor for heart disease. If it is so bad
for humans, why does the body make cholesterol in the first place?
A. Cholesterol is the precursor for many important molecules such as sex hormones.
B. Cholesterol is an important energy storage molecule.
C. Cholesterol aids in the formation of amino acids that are used to build proteins.
D. Cholesterol is an important constituent of nucleotides.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
21. Some lipids are formed when fatty acids are linked to glycerol. These subunits are linked
together by .
A. ester linkages C. phosphodiester linkages
B. glycosidic linkages D. peptide bonds

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
22. Manufacturers make vegetable oils solid or semisolid at room temperature by
__________.
A. adding hydrogen atoms to the single-bonded carbon atoms of the fatty acid
hydrocarbon chains
B. removing hydrogen atoms and forming additional double bonds in the fatty acid
hydrocarbon chains
C. adding hydrogen atoms to the fatty acid hydrocarbon chains, thereby converting
carbon-carbon double bonds to single bonds
D. removing hydrogen atoms and forming additional single bonds in the fatty acid
hydrocarbon chains

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
23.The fatty acid tails of a phospholipid are __________ because they __________.
A. hydrophilic ... consist of units assembled by dehydration reactions
B. hydrophobic ... consist of units assembled by dehydration reactions.
C. hydrophilic ... are easily hydrolyzed into their monomers.
D. hydrophobic ... have no charges to which water molecules can adhere.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
24. The overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide is called its __________.
A. secondary structure C. tertiary structure
B. quaternary structure D. primary structure
51

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
25. When a protein is denatured, why does it lose its functionality?
A. Denaturation breaks the intramolecular bonds, such as hydrogen bonds and van der
Waals interactions, that hold the protein in its three-dimensional shape. Without the
proper shape, the protein cannot function.
B. Different amino acids are substituted into the sequence, so the protein's properties
change.
C. Denaturation destroys the primary structure of the protein, and the protein breaks
down to monomers.
D. Denaturation breaks the covalent bonds that hold the protein in its three-
dimensional shape. Without the proper shape, the protein cannot function.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
26. Which of the following lists ranks these molecules in the correct order by size from
smallest to largest?
A. water, glucose, sucrose, protein C. water, protein, sucrose,
glucose
B. water, sucrose, glucose, protein D. glucose, water, sucrose,
protein

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
27. Which of the following represents a specific description of a polypeptide?
A. organic molecules linked by dehydration reactions
B. organic monomers covalently bonded
C. carbohydrates with a hydrogen bond holding them together
D. amino acids linked by hydrolysis

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
28. Enzyme molecules require a specific shape to perform their catalytic function. Which of
the following might alter the shape of an enzymatic protein?
A. denaturing the protein
B. treating the protein with a chemical that breaks hydrogen bonds
C. heating the protein
D. a change in salt concentrations or pH
E. All of the above

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
52

29. The peptide bond is .

A. a covalent bond joining nucleotides together to form a nucleic acid
B. a covalent bond joining amino acids together to form a polypeptide
C. a hydrogen bond joining amino acids together to form a polypeptide
D. a hydrogen bond joining nucleotides together to form a nucleic acid

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
30. Protein molecules are polymers (chains) of __________.
A. purines and pyrimidines C. DNA molecules
B. amino acid molecules D. fatty acid molecules

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
31. The "primary structure" of a protein refers to __________.
A. interactions among the side chains or R groups of the amino acids
B. the sequence of amino acids along a polypeptide chain
C. coiling due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids
D. the weak aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains into one functional
macromolecule

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
32. Which type of protein shields a newly forming protein from cytoplasmic influences while it
is folding into its functional form?
A. receptor proteins C. fibrous proteins
B. Enzymes D. antibodies

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
33. What do Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and mad cow disease have in common?
A. All cause the misfolding of nucleic acids.
B. All are associated with the buildup of misfolded proteins in cells.
C. All are associated with plaque buildup in arteries (atherosclerosis).
D. All are associated with the buildup of lipids in brain cells due to faulty lysosome
activity.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
34. A shortage of phosphorus in the soil would make it difficult for a plant to manufacture
______.
A. Amino acid C. Deoxyribonucleic acid
53

B. Ribonucleic acid D. Fatty acid

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
35. Based on complementary base pairing, you would expect the percentage of __________
to be equal to the percentage of __________.
A. thymine ... cytosine C. adenine ... thymine
B. thymine ... guanine d. adenine ... cytosine

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
36. Which of the following are pyrimidines found in the nucleic acid DNA?
A. adenine and guanine C. uracil and guanine
B. thymine and cytosine D. thymine and adenine

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
37. Which of the following describes a difference between DNA and RNA?
A. RNA molecules generally consist of a single polynucleotide chain, whereas DNA
molecules generally consist of two polynucleotide chains organized into a double
helix.
B. Both molecules contain adenine, guanine and cytosine, but DNA also contains
thymine and RNA also contains uracil.
C. Both contain different sugars.
D. The first and second listed responses correctly describe differences between DNA
and RNA.
E. The first three listed responses correctly describe differences between DNA and
RNA.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
38. Which of the following lists represents the chemical components of a nucleotide?
A. a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a pentose sugar
B. a nitrogenous base, an amino acid, and a pentose sugar
C. a nitrogenous base, a fatty acid, and an amino acid
D. a nitrogenous base, an amino acid, and a phosphate group
E. a series of nitrogenous bases, a nucleic acid backbone, and a hexose sugar
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
39. Which of the following is true of unsaturated fats?
A. They are more common in animals than in plants.
B. They have double bonds in their fatty acid chains.
54

C. They generally solidify at room temperature.

D. They contain more hydrogen than do saturated fats having the same number
of carbon atoms.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
40. A glucose molecule is to starch as __________.
A. an amino acid is to a nucleic acid C. nucleotide is to a nucleic acid
B. a nucleic acid is to a polypeptide D. a protein is to an amino acid

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
41. Which of the following is true regarding complementary base pairing in DNA and RNA
molecules?
A. Complementary base pairing within single strands of DNA and RNA gives them
particular three-dimensional structures that are necessary for their function.
B. Although the base pairing between two strands of DNA in a DNA molecule can be
thousands to millions of base pairs long, base pairing in an RNA molecule is limited
to short stretches of nucleotides in the same molecule or between two RNA
molecules.
C. Complementary base pairing promotes an antiparallel orientation in the structure of
DNA and RNA molecules.
D. Although a DNA molecule demonstrates complementary base pairing between two
DNA polynucleotides to form a double helix, an RNA molecule can base-pair only
along stretches of nucleotides in the same RNA molecule, such as in transfer RNA
molecules.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
WRITE ABOUT A THEME: ORGANIZATION Proteins, which have diverse functions in a cell,
are all polymers of the same kinds of monomers—amino acids. Write a short essay (100–150
words) that discusses how the structure of amino acids allows this one type of polymer to
perform so many functions. You use your activity notebook to write your answer in essay.
55

2.5 CELL THEORY

Early study of cells progressed with the invention of microscopes in 1590 and their
refinement during the 1600s. Cell walls were first seen by Robert Hooke in 1665 as he looked
through a crude microscope at dead cells from the bark of an oak tree. But it took the
wonderfully crafted lenses of Antoni van Leeuwenhoek to visualize living cells. Imagine
Hooke’s awe when he visited van Leeuwenhoek in 1674 and the world of microorganisms—
what his host called “very little animalcules”—was revealed to him. Then, almost a century
and a half later, in the 1830‟s two German scientists proposed the Cell Theory that all living
things are composed of cells (their names were Mathias Schleiden and Theodore Schwann).
A German pathologist, Rudolph Virchow extended this idea by contending that cells arise only
from pre-existing cells.
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of every organism, which are of two
distinct types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea
consist of prokaryotic cells. Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells cells share certain basic features: They are all bounded
by a selective barrier, called the plasma membrane. Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike
substance called cytosol, in which subcellular components are suspended. All cells contain
chromosomes, which carry genes in the form of DNA. And all cells have ribosomes, tiny
complexes that make proteins through gene expression.
The activity of an eukaryotic organism depends on both the individual and the collective
activities of its cells. According to the principle of complementarity of structure and function,
the biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their shapes or forms, and by the relative
number of their specific sub-cellular structures.
At this point, recall the importance of an indispensable tool in the laboratory, the microscope

Review the Domains of Life

Instruction: Review the three Domains of Life from Unit 1 (1.6) and further supplemental
readings from Biology books by Raven and Johnson (2002), and Campbell Biology (2014) by
Reece, J.B. et al. Write in your activity notebook, the difference of between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells in terms of cell structure, presence or absence of sub-cellular components,
size of the cell, form, shape, and location of nuclear material.
that allows you to view and study specimens that cannot be seen by the naked eye.

To supplement your laboratory activity, research the parts and function of a compound
microscope commonly used in the laboratory and examine the tools and techniques that allow
us to understand cells, then tour the cell and become acquainted with its components.
56

In the 1950s, the electron microscope was introduced to biology. Rather than light, the
electron microscope (EM) focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its
surface. Resolution is inversely related to the wavelength of the radiation a microscope uses
for imaging, and electron beams have much shorter wavelengths than visible light. Modern
electron microscopes can theoretically achieve a resolution of about 0.002 nm, though in
practice they usually cannot resolve structures smaller than about 2 nm across. Still, this is a
hundredfold improvement over the standard light microscope.

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is especially useful for detailed study of
the topography of a specimen. The electron beam scans the surface of the sample, usually
coated with a thin film of gold. The beam excites electrons on the surface, and these secondary
electrons are detected by a device that translates the pattern of electrons into an electronic
signal to a video screen. The result is an image of the specimen’s surface that appears three-
dimensional.

The transmission electron microscope (TEM) is used to study the internal structure
of cells. The TEM aims an electron beam through a very thin section of the specimen, similar
to the way a light microscope transmits light through a slide. Electron microscopes have
revealed many organelles and other subcellular structures that were impossible to resolve with
the light microscope. But the light microscope offers advantages, especially in studying living
cells.

2.6 CELL ORGANELLES

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function. In

eukaryotes an organelle is a membrane bound structure found within a cell. Just like cells
have membranes to hold everything in, these mini-organs are also bound in a double layer of
phospholipids to insulate their little compartments within the larger cells. Prokaryotes are cells
that do not have membrane bound organelles. You can think of organelles as smaller rooms
within the factory, with specialized conditions to help these rooms carry out their specific task
(like a break room stocked with goodies or a research room with cool gadgets and a special
air filter). These organelles are found in the cytoplasm, a viscous liquid found within the cell
membrane that houses the organelles and is the location of most of the action happening in a
cell.

There are two kinds of cell organelles on the basis membrane covering, membranous
and non-membranous organelles. Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi bodies,
mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles are membranous
57

whereas, non-membrane bound cell organelles are ribosomes (70S and 80S), centrosomes,
cilia and flagella, microtubules, basal bodies and microfilaments.

2.6 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Figure 2.6.a Panoramic View of a Eukaryotic Cell-—a cut-away view of a plant cell (Reece et al, 2014)

\\
58

Figure 2.6.b Panoramic View of a Eukaryotic Cell—a cut-away view of a plant cell (Reece et al, 2014)
59

LEARNING ACTIVITY IX
Instruction: Create a three-dimensional model of one specific type of animal cell {ex. skeletal
muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell) or an osteocyte (bone cell)}, and one plant cell using
indigenous materials. Label all the distinct components and cellular structures (organelles)
present in each 3D model. Develop your creativity, resourcefulness and love for the
environment in the making of this model. Make sure that the model can be used as an
instructional material for your demo teaching or in a tutorial class session. Your output of a
3D-model shall be evaluated and presented using the rubrics presented in the appendices. To
enrich your understanding on the cell structure and function, research and answer the guide
questions presented below. Copy the question and write it in your activity notebook.
1. Why are cells so small?

As a cell decreases in size, its volume grows proportionally greater than its surface area.

Thus, a smaller object has a larger surface area to volume ratio. The need for a surface area

sufficiently large to accommodate the volume helps explain the microscopic size of most cells.

A sufficiently high ratio of surface area to volume is especially important in cells that exchange

a lot of material with their surroundings.

2. Label in your 3D model the nuclear envelope, nuclear material (chromatin), nuclear lamina,
nuclear matrix, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, nuclear pores, and pore complex of the eukaryotic
cell. Then write in the description of each nuclear component and its corresponding
function.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. List all the structures of the endomembrane system and describe the function of each to the
other.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. As proteins are synthesized, they are threaded into the lumen of the rough ER. Some have
carbohydrates attached to them in the ER to form glycoproteins. What does the ER do with
these secretory proteins?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
60

5. Describe the structure and function of all cellular components of both plant and animal cells.
List down in table form, what are the differences between animal and plant cells?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
61

2.6 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

A. Nucleus

This is distinctly oval or spherically shaped largest central structure surrounded by a

double-layered membrane. In the nucleus, DNA directs protein synthesis and serves as a
genetic blueprint during cell replication. DNA gives codes, or “instruction” for directing
synthesis of specific structure and enzymes proteins within the cell. By monitoring these
protein synthesis activity, the nucleus indirectly governs most cellular activities and serves as
the cell‟s master.

Three types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis. At first, DNA‟s genetic code for
a particular protein is transcribed into a messenger-RNA, which leaves nucleus through the
nuclear pores of the nuclear membrane. And, within the cytoplasm, m-RNA delivers the coded
message to the ribosomal RNA, which "reads" message/code and translates it into the
appropriate amino acids sequence for the designated protein being synthesized.

Finally, transfer-RNA transfers the appropriate amino acids within the cytoplasm to
their designated site in the protein under production. During cell replication, DNA ensures the
continuing of the identical types of cell line within the body. Furthermore, in the gametes, the
DNA blueprint serves to pass the genetic characteristics to future generation. The nucleus is
surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and one or more nucleoli.

The nuclear envelope is a double

membrane. The two membranes,
each a lipid bilayer with associated
proteins, are separated by a space
of 20–40 nm. The envelope is
perforated by pore structures that
are about 100 nm in diameter. At
the lip of each pore, the inner and
outer membranes of the nuclear
envelope are continuous. An
intricate protein structure called a
pore complex lines each pore and
plays an important role in the cell by
regulating the entry and exit of
proteins and RNAs, as well as large
complexes of Figure 2.6b: Structure of a Cell Membrane
macromolecules.
62

2.6 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

A. Nucleus

Within the nucleus, the DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes,
structures that carry the genetic information. Each chromosome contains one long DNA
molecule associated with many proteins. Some of the proteins help coil the DNA molecule of
each chromosome, reducing its length and allowing it to fit into the nucleus.

Generally, the nucleus may be:

 rounded e.g. in hepatocytes.
 indented (segmented) e.g. in neutrophils.
 binucleated e.g. in parietal cells, cardiac muscle cells.
 multinucleated e.g. in osteoclasts, skeletal muscle cells.
 very large (many DNA) e.g. in megakaryocytes.
 absent e.g. in mature erythrocytes, blood platelets.
Chromatin- The term chromatin means "colored material" and refers to the fact that this
material is easily stained for viewing with microscope, and it is composed mainly of coils
DNA bound to basic protein called his tones. The DNA is so long that it has to be packed
in an organization manner or it would get entangled like unraveled ball of string. When a
cell is not dividing, stained chromatin appears as a diffuse mass in micrographs, and the
chromosomes cannot be distinguished from one another, even though discrete
chromosomes are present. As a cell prepares to divide, however, the chromosomes coil
(condense) further, becoming thick enough to be distinguished as separate structures.
Each eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes. For example, a
typical human cell has 46 chromosomes in its nucleus; the exceptions are the sex cells
(eggs and sperm), which have only 23 chromosomes in humans. A fruit fly cell has 8
chromosomes in most cells and 4 in the sex cells.

Nucleoli- The nuclei of most cells contain one or more lightly stained structures called
nucleoli that actively engage in synthesizing of ribosomes. The nucleolus, unlike most of
the organelles, does not have a limiting membrane. Instead, it is simply a structure that
contains large amounts of RNA and protein of the type found in ribosomes. The nucleolus
becomes considerably enlarged when a cell is actively synthesizing proteins. The genes
of five separate chromosome pairs synthesize the ribosomal RNA and then store it in the
nucleolus.
63

B. CYTOPLASM- The cytosol is the material of cell interior not occupied by the nucleus,
containing a number of distinct, highly organized membrane-enclosed structures- the
organelles- dispersed within a complex jelly – like marrow called the „cytosol‟. All cells contain
six main types of organelles- the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, and vacules. They are similar in all cells, but with some variations
depending on the cell specialization. Each organelle is a separate compartment, containing
different chemically setting for fulfilling a partial or cellular function. These organelles occupy
about half of the total cell volume. The remaining part of the cytoplasm is cytosol.

C. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM: Includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum,

the golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various kinds of vesicles and vacuoles, and the plasma
membrane. This system carries out a variety of tasks in the cell, including synthesis of
proteins, transport of proteins into membranes and organelles or out of the cell, metabolism
and movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons.

C.1 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

The endoplasmic reticulum is a fluid-filled membrane system extensively present

throughout the cytosol. The ER is one continuous organelle with many communicating
channels. The two different types are smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough ER..
The smooth ER is a meshwork of interconnected tubules, whereas the rough ER projects
outwards from the reticulum as stacks of flattened sacs. Though different in structure and
function, they are continuous with each other.

The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- The outer surface of the rough ER contains dark
particles called ribosomes, which are ribosomal RNA protein complexes that produce
protein under the direction of nuclear DNA. Messenger-RNA carries the genetic message
from the nucleus to the ribosomes “workshop” where proteins are synthesized. Some
ribosomes are “free” dispersed throughout the cytosol. The rough ER in association with
ribosomes produces and releases a variety of proteins, into the fluid-filled space enclosed
by the membrane. Some proteins for export as secretory products (hormones or enzymes).
Other proteins are transported to sites within the cell for use in the construction of new
plasma membrane or new organelle membrane. Cellular membrane contains
predominantly fats and proteins. ER membrane also contains enzymes required for the
synthesis of almost all the lipids needed for the production of new membranes. These lipids
enter the ER lumen along with the proteins.
64

The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Since it does not have ribosomes, it looks „smooth‟
and does not produce proteins. It serves a variety of other functions that differ in cell types.
In most cells, the smooth ER is sparse and serves in packaging and discharging site for
protein molecules that are to be transported from the ER. All new proteins and fats pass
from ER gathered in the smooth ER. Portions of the smooth ER then “bud off/pinch off”,
giving rise to „transport vesicles‟, they contain the new molecule wrapped in a membrane
derived from the smooth ER membrane. Transport vesicles move to the Golgi complex for
further processing of their cargo. Some specialized cells have an extensive smooth ER,
which has additional functions as follows:
 The smooth ER is well developed in cells specialized in lipid metabolism- cells that
synthesize steroid hormones. The membrane wall of the smooth ER contains
enzymes for synthesis of lipids. This is an additional site for synthesis in addition for
ER to keep pace with demands for hormone secretion.
 In liver cells, the smooth ER
contains enzymes involved in
detoxifying harmful
endogenous substances
produced within the body by
metabolism or exogenous
substances entering the body
from outside as drugs or other
foreign compounds. The
detoxifying enzymes alter toxic
substances so that they could
be easily eliminated in the
urine. But unfortunately, in
some instances the same
enzyme transforms otherwise
harmless substance into
carcinogens that play a role in Figure 2.6c: Structure of an endoplasmic reticulum
cancer development.
 The smooth ER has a special role in skeletal muscle cells. They have an elaborate
network of smooth ER, which stores ionic calcium and plays a crucial role in the
process of muscle contraction.
65

C.2 The Golgi Complex- Shipping and receiving center

The Golgi complex is elaborately associated with the ER and contains sets of flattened,
curved, membrane- enclosed sacs, or cisternae, stacked in layers. Number of stacks vary in
cells; cells specialized for protein secretion have hundreds of stacks, whereas some have only
one. The majority of newly formed molecules budding off from the smooth ER enter a Golgi
complex stacks.

Figure 2.6d: Structure of a Golgi Complex

Golgi apparatus performs the following important functions.

1. Processing the raw material into finished products. In the Golgi complex, the “raw”
protein from the ER are modified into their final state mainly by adjustment made in the
sugar attached to the protein. This is a very elaborate, precisely programmed activity,
specific for each final product.
2. Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination. According to their function
and destination, different types of products are segregated by the Golgi complex, i.e.,
molecules that are destined for secretion to the exterior, molecules that will eventually
become part of the plasma membrane, and the molecules that will become incorporated
into other organelles.
3. The smooth ER of the liver and kidney cells are responsible for the detoxification and
inactivation of drugs. Enzymes within the smooth ER can inactivate or destroy a variety
of chemicals including alcohol, pesticides, and carcinogens.
4. In skeletal muscle cells, a modified form of smooth ER stores calcium to be released for
muscle contraction.
66

C.3 Lysosomes:

Lysosomes serve as the intracellular “digestive system”. Lysosomes are membrane-

enclosed sacs containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting and removing
unwanted cellular debris and foreign materials such as bacteria that have been internalized
within the cell. Lysosomes vary in size and shape, and about 300μm in a cell. Lysosomal
enzymes work best in the acidic environment found in lysosomes. If a lysosome breaks open
or leaks its contents, the released enzymes are not very active because the cytosol has a
neutral pH. Surrounding membrane confines these enzymes, preventing from destroying the
cell that houses them. However, excessive leakage from a large number of lysosomes can
destroy a cell by self-digestion.

Extrinsic material to be attacked by lysosomal enzymes is brought into the interior of

the cell through the process of endocytosis. If the fluid is internalized by endocytosis, the
process is called pinocytosis. Endocytosis is also accomplished by phagocytosis. In
pinocytosis, ECF and a large molecule such as protein is engulfed. A specific molecule may
bind to surface receptor, triggering pinocytosis- receptor-mediated endocytosis. Dynamin, a
molecule forms rings wrapping around, severing the vesicle from the surface membrane in
pinocytosis. In phagocytosis, large multimolecular particles are internalized by endocytosis;
this is achieved by only a few specialized cells- white blood cells that play an important role in
the body‟s defense mechanism. When a leukocyte encounters large multimolecular particle,
such as bacteria or tissue debris, it extends projection (pseudopodia) that completely surround
or engulf the particle, forming an internalized vesicle that traps the large multimolecular particle
within it.

Figure 2.6e: Structure of a Lysosome

67

C.3 Lysosome

A lysosome fuses with the membrane of the internalized vesicle and releases its
contents of hydrolytic enzymes into the vesicle. These enzymes safely attack the microbes or
other trapped material within the enclosed confines of the vesicle without damaging the
remainder of the cell.

Lysosomes can take up old organelles such as mitochondria and break down into their
component molecules. Those molecules that can be released are reabsorbed into the cytosol,
and the rest are dumped out of the cell. The process by which worn-out organelles are
digested is called autophagy a human liver cell recycles about half its content every week. In
the inherited condition known as lysosomal storage disease (Tay-Sachs disease)
lysosomes are not effective because they lack specific enzymes. As a result, harmful waste
products accumulate disrupting the normal function of cells, often with fatal results.

C.4. Vacuoles

These are large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
Thus, vacuoles are an integral part of a cell’s endomembrane system. Like all cellular
membranes, the vacuolar membrane is selective in transporting solutes; as a result, the
solution inside a vacuole differs in composition from the cytosol.

Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in

Figure 2.6f: Structure of a Vacuole
different kinds of cells. Food vacuoles, formed
by phagocytosis, have already been mentioned.
Many freshwater protists have contractile
vacuoles that pump excess water out of the
cell, thereby maintaining a suitable
concentration of ions and molecules inside the
cell. In plants and fungi, certain vacuoles carry
out enzymatic hydrolysis, a function shared by
lysosomes in animal cells. (In fact, some
biologists consider these hydrolytic vacuoles to
be a type of lysosome.) In plants, they are
important in maintaining turgor pressure and smaller vacuoles can hold reserves of important
organic compounds, such as the proteins stockpiled in the storage cells in seeds. Vacuoles
may also help protect the plant against herbivores by storing compounds that are poisonous
or unpalatable to animals. Some plant vacuoles contain pigments, such as the red and blue
pigments of petals that help attract pollinating insects to flowers.
68

C.5 Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the “power houses” of a cell; they extract energy from nutrients in
food and transform it into usable form to energize cell activity. Mitochondria are generally in
the range of 1–10 μm long. Their number varies depending on the energy needs of each
particular cell types. A single cell may have few hundreds or thousands. Mitochondria are rod
or oval shaped about the size of a bacterium. Each is enclosed by a double membrane - a
smooth outer that surrounds the mitochondria, and an inner membrane that forms a series of
enfolding or shelves called cristae, which project into an inner cavity filled with a jelly-like
matrix. These cristae contain proteins that convert much of the energy in food into a usable
form (the electron transport protein).

The enfolding increase the surface area available for keeping these important proteins.
The inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two internal compartments. The first is
the intermembrane space, the narrow region between the inner and outer membranes. The
second compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, is enclosed by the inner membrane. The
matrix contains a mixture of hundreds of different dissolved enzymes (Citric acid or Krebs
cycle enzymes) as well as the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes that are important in
preparing nutrient molecules for the final extraction of usable energy by the cristae proteins.
Enzymes in the matrix catalyze some of the steps of cellular respiration.

Carbon-hydrogen bonds in ingested food are the source of energy stored in the
chemical forms. Body cell can extract energy from food nutrients and convert it into energy
form that they can use. The high
energy phosphate bonds of ATP
contain adenosine with 3
phosphate groups. When high
energy phosphate bond is split, a
substantial amount of energy is
released. ATP is the universal
energy carrier the common
energy “currency” of the body. Figure 2.6g: Structure of a Mitochondrion

Cells can “cash in” ATP to pay the energy “price” for running the cellular machine. To get
immediate usable energy cells can split terminal phosphate bond of ATP, which yields ADP
with phosphate group attached - plus inorganic phosphate (Pi) plus energy.
Mitochondria are unusual organelles in two ways:
In the matrix they have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial DNA
69

Mitochondria have the ability to replicate themselves even when the cell to which they
belong is not undergoing cell division.

C.6 Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are useful organelles among plastids as they highly participate in the
process of photosynthesis by which plants synthesize their own food. They are located in outer
surface of the cell to receive enough light. Chloroplasts are green colored due to the
chlorophyll pigments found in its internal parts along with enzymes and other molecules that
function in the photosynthetic production of sugar. These lens-shaped organelles, about 3–6
μm in length, are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae. Some of
important characteristics of plant is its ability to carry out photosynthesis as the way they use
in making their own food
and pass through
converting light energy in
chemical energy. Inside
the chloroplast is another
membranous system in
the form of flattened,
interconnected sacs
Figure 2.7h: Structure of a Chloroplast
called thylakoids. In
some regions, thylakoids are stacked like poker chips; each stack is called a granum (plural,
grana). The fluid outside the thylakoids is the stroma, which contains the chloroplast DNA and
ribosomes as well as many enzymes. The membranes of the chloroplast divide the chloroplast
space into three compartments: the intermembrane space, the stroma, and the thylakoid
space.

Evolutionary Origin

Endosymbiont theory explains the similarities of bacteria with eukaryotic organelles,

mitochondria and chloroplasts. This theory states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells
engulfed an oxygen-using non- photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. Eventually, the engulfed cell
formed a relationship with the host cell in which it was enclosed, becoming an endosymbiont
(a cell living within another cell). over the course of evolution, the host cell and its
endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion. At least
one of these cells may have then taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor
of eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts (Reece, et al., 2014).
70

C.7 Peroxisome: Oxidation

Peroxisome is a specialized membrane-enclosed metabolic sacs bounded by a single

membrane containing oxidative enzymes and catalase that detoxify various wastes.
Peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates
and transfer them to oxygen (O 2), thus producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product
(from which the organelle derives its name).

Oxidative enzymes need oxygen to remove hydrogen from specific

substance/molecule; such reactions are important in detoxifying various waste products within
the cell or foreign compounds that have entered in, such as ethanol consumed in alcoholic
drinks (in liver and kidneys). Peroxisomes in the liver detoxify alcohol and other harmful
compounds by transferring hydrogen from the poisons to oxygen. The major product
generated is hydrogen peroxide; hydrogen peroxide itself is a powerful oxidant. It also contains
catalase, and antioxidant enzyme decomposing hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and
oxygen. This reaction is an important safety reaction that destroys deadly hydrogen peroxide,
at the site of production, thereby preventing possible devastating escape into the cytosol. It is
shorter and smoother than lysosome and several hundred may present in one cell.

Some peroxisomes use oxygen to break fatty acids down into smaller molecules that
are transported to mitochondria and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Specialized
peroxisomes called glyoxysomes are found in the fat-storing tissues of plant seeds.
Glyoxysomes contain enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty acids to sugar, which the
emerging seedling uses as a source of energy and carbon until it can produce its own sugar
for photosynthesis.
71

D. CYTOSKELETON

The cytoskeleton is a complex protein network extending throughout the cytoplasm

that act as the “bone and muscle” of the cell. These necessary intracellular scaffoldings
supports and organizes cellular components arrangements and to control their movements;
this provides distinct shape, size to the cell. This network has three types of molecular
structures, namely microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.

1. Microtubules are the thickest of the three types; slender, hollow tubes measuring about 25
nm in diameter and from 200 nm to 25 μm in length, composed of a globular protein
molecule (6 nm diameter) tubulin. Microtubules provide asymmetrical shape and support of
the cell, coordinate numerous complex cell movements in transport of secretory vesicles
from region to region of the cell, serve as tracks along which organelles equipped with
motor proteins can move such as movements of cilia and flagella, and also involve in the
distribution and separation of chromosomes during cell division.

2. Microfilaments (also called actin filaments) are the thinnest of the cytoskeleton composed
of protein molecule actin having a globular shape similar to tubulin. Microfilaments are well
known for their role in cell motility, particularly as part of the contractile apparatus of muscle
cells.

3. Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle range, named for their 8–12 nm
diameter, which is larger than the diameter of microfilaments but smaller than that of
microtubules. Intermediate filaments play an important role in reinforcing the shape of a cell
and fixing the position of certain organelles, while others make up the nuclear lamina lining
the interior of the nuclear envelope, and some helps carry out specific function of the cell.

Table 1: The Structure and Function of Cytoskeleton (Reece, et al., 2014)

72

D.1 Centrosomes and Centrioles

In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome, a region that is often
located near the nucleus and is considered a “microtubule-organizing center.” These
microtubules function as compression-resisting girders of the cytoskeleton. Within the
centrosome is a pair of centrioles, each composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules
arranged in a ring.

Before an animal cell divides, the centrioles replicate. Although centrosomes with
centrioles may help organize microtubule assembly in animal cells, they are not essential for
this function in all eukaryotes; fungi and almost all plant cells lack centrosomes with centrioles
but have well-organized microtubules. Apparently, other microtubule-organizing centers play
the role of centrosomes in these cells.

D.2 Cilia and Flagella

In eukaryotes, a specialized arrangement of microtubules is responsible for the beating of

flagella (singular, flagellum) and cilia (singular, cilium), microtubule-containing extensions
that project from some cells.
When cilia or flagella extend
from cells that are held in
place as part of a tissue
layer, they can move fluid
over the surface of the
tissue. For example, the
ciliated lining of the trachea
(windpipe) sweeps mucus
containing trapped debris
out of the lungs and the cilia
lining the human oviducts
help move an egg toward
the uterus.

Flagella and cilia differ in

Figure 2.6i: Structure of Flagella and Cilia
their beating patterns. A
flagellum has an undulating motion that generates force in the same direction as the
flagellum’s axis, like the tail of a fish. Propulsion of a human sperm cell is an example of
flagellate locomotion. In contrast, cilia work more like oars, a back-and-forth motion with
alternating power and recovery strokes generating force in a direction perpendicular to the
73

cilium’s axis, much as the oars of a racing crew boat extend outward at a right angle to the
boat’s forward movement.

2.7 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

E. Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is also known as the cell membrane and the membranes of
organelles consist of a double layer (bilayer) of
phospholipids with various proteins attached to
or embedded in it forming outermost boundary of
living cell and enclosing the intracellular fluid
(ICF). The hydrophobic parts, including
phospholipid tails and interior portions of
membrane proteins, are found in the interior of
the membrane. The hydrophilic parts, including
phospholipid heads, exterior portions of proteins,
and channels of proteins, are in contact with the
aqueous solution. Carbohydrate side chains
may be attached to proteins or lipids on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane. It serves as a
mechanical barrier that traps needed molecules Figure 2.6j: Structure of a Plasma Membrane
within the cell; plasma membrane plays an active role in determining the composition of cell
by selective permeability of substances to pass between the cell and its ECF environment.

All plasma membrane is made up of lipids and proteins plus small amount of
carbohydrates. It appears as trilaminar’ layer structure having two dark layers separated by
a light middle layer as a result of specific arrangement of the constituent molecules.
Phospholipids are most abundant with a lesser amount of cholesterol. Phospholipids have a
polar charged head having a negatively charged phosphate group and two non-polar
(electrically neutral) fatty acid tails.

The polar end is hydrophilic (water loving) because it can interact with water molecule,
which is also polar; the non-polar end is hydrophobic (water fearing) and will not mix with
water. The hydrophobic tails bury themselves in the center away from the water, while the
hydrophilic heads line up on both sides in contact with water. The water surface of the layer is
exposed to ECF, whereas the inner layer is in contact with the intracellular fluid (ICF). Such
two-sided molecule self-assemble into a lipid bilayer, a double layer of lipid molecules when
in contact with water. The lipid is fluid in nature, with consistency like liquid cooking oil.
Cholesterol provides to the fluidity as well as the stability; cholesterol lies in between the
74

phosphate molecules, preventing the fatty acid chain from packing together and crystallizing
that could decrease fluidity of the membrane.\

The membrane proteins are either attached to or inserted within the lipid bilayer; some
extending through the entire membrane thickness; they have polar region at both ends joined
by a non-polar central portion. Other proteins are on either the outside or inner surface,
anchored by interactions with proteins that spans the membrane or by attachment to the lipid
bilayer. On account of membrane fluidity, many proteins float freely, although the mobility of
protein that have special function in a particular area of the membrane is restricted - this gives
ever changing mosaic pattern of the protein embedded in the lipid layer. Only the outer surface
of the plasma membrane contains a small amount of carbohydrate. Short-chain carbohydrates
are bound primarily to membrane proteins and to a lesser extent to lipids, forming
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
The plasma membrane is actually asymmetrical; the two surfaces are not the same;
carbohydrate is only on the outer surface; different amount of different proteins is on the outer
and inner surfaces and even the lipid structures of the outer and inner half is not the same.
The plasma membrane is highly complex, dynamic, regional differentiated structure. The lipid
layer forms the primary barrier to diffusion, whereas proteins perform most of the specific
membrane functions.

Make Connections: Review Lipids (pages 35- 36) and describe the characteristics of a
phospholipid that allow it to function as the major component in the plasma membrane.
75

2.6 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

E. Cell Wall

The first cell structure discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 was the cell wall, and
among plant cell structures observed with a microscope, the cell wall is the most obvious
because it defines the shape of the cell (Stern et al., 2008). The main structural component of
cell walls is cellulose, which is composed of 100 to 15,000 glucose monomers in long chains,
and is the most abundant polymer on earth. In addition to cellulose, cell walls typically contain
a matrix of hemicellulose (a gluelike substance that holds cellulose fibrils together), pectin (the
organic material that gives stiffness to fruit jellies), and glycoproteins (proteins that have
sugars associated with their molecules).
The first cell structure discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 was the cell wall, and
among plant cell structures observed with a microscope, the cell wall is the most obvious
because it defines the shape of the cell. But
the vast diversity of cell walls within and
among species tells a story about the
structure and function of each cell. For
instance, epidermal cells, which form a thin
layer on the surfaces of all plant organs, often
have unusual shapes and sizes. Some such
cells form hairs that may secrete substances
that discourage animals from grazing on the
plants producing them.
A middle lamella, which consists of a
layer of pectin, is first produced when new cell
walls are formed. This middle lamella is
normally shared by two adjacent cells and is
so thin that it may not be visible with an
ordinary light microscope unless it is specially
stained. A flexible primary wall, consisting of a
fine network of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and glycoproteins, is laid down on either side
of the middle lamella.

Figure 2.6n: Structure of a Cell Wall

76

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

A. The Importance of Cell Division

Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two
new cells, referred to as daughter cells (Wakim & Grewal, 2020). Cell division is simpler in
prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic
cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Prokaryotes
(bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their genetic
material is segregated equally into two daughter cells.

While binary fission may be the means of division by most prokaryotes, there are
alternative manners of division, such as budding, that have been observed. All cell divisions,
regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication. Eukaryotic cells,
in contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus and many other
organelles. All of these cell parts must be duplicated and then separated when the cell divides.
In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division: a vegetative division, whereby each
daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell division,
whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce
haploid gametes (meiosis).

1. Vegetative (also known as somatic) cell division, a cell undergoes a nuclear division called
mitosis and a cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis to produce two genetically identical
cells, each with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original cell. Somatic
cell division replaces dead or injured cells and adds new ones during tissue growth.

2. Reproductive cell division is the mechanism that produces gametes, the cells needed to
form the next generation of sexually reproducing organisms. This process consists of a
special two-step division called meiosis, in which the number of chromosomes in the
nucleus is reduced by half.

For simple unicellular microorganisms such as amoeba, one cell division is equivalent to
reproduction, an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can
create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. Mitotic
cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote,
which itself was produced by meiotic cell division from gametes.

After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for continual construction and repair of the
organism. The human body experiences about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a lifetime. The
primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before
division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated,
77

and the duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells. A great deal of cellular
infrastructure is involved in keeping genomic information consistent between generations.

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

B. The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is a repeating series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and
cell division. The cell cycle in prokaryotes is quite simple: the cell grows, its DNA replicates,
and the cell divides. This form of division in prokaryotes is called asexual reproduction or
amitosis. Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission,
where their genetic material is
segregated equally into two daughter
cells. While binary fission may be the
means of division by most
prokaryotes, there are alternative
manners of division, such as budding,
that have been observed. All cell
divisions, regardless of organism, are
preceded by a single round of DNA
replication.

In eukaryotes, the cell cycle is more

complicated. The diagram below
(Figure 2.7a) represents the cell cycle
of an eukaryotic cell. As you can see,
Figure 2.7a: Eukaryotic Cell Cycle (Source:
the eukaryotic cell cycle has several bio.libretexts.org)
phases. The mitotic phase (M) actually
includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. This is when the nucleus and then the cytoplasm divide.
The other three phases (G1, S, and G2) are generally grouped together as interphase. During
interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide. These
phases are summarized on the next page (https://bio.libretexts.org.) There are a number of
main checkpoints. Checkpoints in the eukaryotic cell cycle ensure that the cell is ready to
proceed before it moves on to the next phase of the cycle.

1. The G1 checkpoint, just before entry into S phase, makes the key decision of whether the
cell should divide.

2. The S checkpoint determines if the DNA has been replicated properly.

3. The mitosis checkpoint ensures that all the chromosomes are properly aligned before the
78

cell is allowed to divide.

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

B.1. Interphase
During interphase, the cell replicates its DNA, produces additional organelles and
cytosolic components in anticipation of
cell division. It is a state of high
metabolic activity and the cell does
most of its growing. It consists of three
phases: G1, S, and G2.

1. Growth Phase 1 (G1): The cell

spends most of its life in the first
gap (sometimes referred to as
growth) phase, G1. In this phase,
the cell undergoes rapid growth
and high rate of biosynthetic and
Figure 2.7b: The Cell Cycle (Tortora & Derrickson,
metabolic activities. The cell
2014)
performs its routine functions,
synthesis of amino acids and a great number of proteins that are required by the cell
especially those needed for DNA replication. If a cell is not dividing, the cell enters the
G0 phase from this phase. Note to Remember about G0 phase: The G0 phase is a resting
phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. Non-dividing cells in
multicellular eukaryotic organisms enter G0 from G1. These cells may remain in G0 for long
periods of time, even indefinitely, such as with neurons. Cells that are completely
differentiated may also enter G 0. Some cells stop dividing when issues of sustainability or
viability of their daughter cells arise, such as with DNA damage or degradation, a process
called cellular senescence. Cellular senescence occurs when normal diploid cells lose
the ability to divide, normally after about 50 cell divisions.

2. Synthesis Phase (S): Dividing cells enter the Synthesis (S) phase from G 1. For two
genetically identical daughter cells to be formed, the cell’s DNA must be copied through
DNA replication. When the DNA is replicated, both strands of the double helix are used as
templates to produce two new complementary strands. These new strands then hydrogen
bond to the template strands and two double helices form. During this phase, the amount
of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the cell remains in a diploid state.

3. Growth Phase 2 (G2): The second gap (growth) (G2) phase is a shortened growth period
in which many organelles are reproduced or manufactured. Parts necessary for mitosis
79

and cell division are made during G 2, including microtubules used in the mitotic spindle.

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

B.2. Mitosis

The mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle, which results in the formation of two identical
cells, consists of a nuclear division (mitosis) and a cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) to form
two identical cells. The events that occur during mitosis and cytokinesis are plainly visible
under a microscope because chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes (Tortora &
Derrickson, 2014).

1. Prophase: During early prophase, the chromatin fibers condense and shorten into discrete
chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of a pair of identical strands called chromatids
held together in a constricted
region called centromere. At
the outside of each
centromere is a protein
complex known as the
kinetochore, a point of
attachment for mitotic
spindle. Later in prophase,
tubulins in the pericentriolar
material of the centrosomes
start to form the mitotic
spindle, a football-shaped
Figure 2.7c. Mitotic Stages of Somatic Cell Division in
assembly of microtubules
Animal Cell
that attach to the kinetochore. As the microtubules lengthen, they push the centrosomes
to the poles (ends) of the cell so that the spindle extends from pole to pole. The mitotic
spindle is responsible for the separation of chromatids to opposite poles of the cell. At the
conclusion of the prophase, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope has totally
fragmented.

2. Metaphase: During metaphase, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle align the
centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the exact center of the mitotic spindle. The
chromosomes become aligned so that their centromeres are in a plane roughly in the
midpoint of the cell. This invisible circular plate, called the equator, is analogous to the
equator of the earth, so this midpoint region is called the metaphase plate or equatorial
plate. At the end of metaphase, the centromeres holding the two strands (sister
chromatids) of each chromosome together separate lengthwise.
80

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

B.2. Mitosis

3. Anaphase: During anaphase, the centromeres split, separating the two members of each
chromatid pair, which move toward opposite poles of the cell as daughter chromosomes.
As the chromosomes are pulled by the microtubules of the mitotic spindle during
anaphase, they appear V-shaped because the centromeres lead the way, dragging the
trailing arms of the
chromosomes toward the pole.

4. Telophase: This is the final

stage of mitosis, which begins
after chromosomal movement
stops at opposite poles of the
cell, uncoil and revert to the
threadlike chromatin form. A
nuclear envelope forms around
each chromatin mass, nucleoli
reappear in the identical nuclei,
and the mitotic spindle breaks
up.

Figure 2.7d. Somatic Cell Division in Animal Cell

Cytokinesis is the division of a cell’s cytoplasm and organelles into two identical cells,
but it differentiates between plant and animal cells. In animal cell, this process usually
begins in late anaphase with the formation of a cleavage furrow, a slight indentation of
the plasma membrane, and is completed after telophase. The cleavage furrow usually
appears midway between the centrosomes and extends round the periphery of the cell.
Actin microfilaments that lie just inside the plasma membrane form a contractile ring that
pulls the plasma membrane progressively inward. The ring constricts the center of the cell,
like tightening a belt around the waist, and ultimately pinches it in two. In contrast to plant
cell, the spindle microtubules gradually break down, and a set of shorter fibrils (consists of
microtubules), called phragmoplast develops between the daughter nuclei. The
microtubules apparently trap the dictyosome derived vesicles, which then fuse together
into one large, flattened but hollow structure called a cell plate. The cell plate becomes
more extensive; two primary cell walls and two plasma membranes form. When the cell
81

plate reaches the mother cell walls, the plasma membranes unite with the existing plasma
membrane, and the production of two daughter cells is complete.

LEARNING ACTIVITY X

Instruction: Supplement your readings on Cell Reproduction from any available references
on Higher Education Biology Books or from the provided reference books: Chapter 12: Cell
Cycle of the Campbell Biology by Reece, et al., 2014 and Chapter 19: The Cell Cycle, DNA
Replication, and Mitosis of the Becker’s World of the Cell by Hardin et al., 2014. Copy what is
asked below and write legibly your comprehensive answers in your activity notebook for
submission.
1. Draw and describe the process of binary fission in bacteria.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2. List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs during
each phase.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

3. Describe the roles of checkpoints, cyclin, Cdks, and MPF in cell cycle.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

4. Draw the phases of mitosis given a certain number of chromosomes (2n=4). Label the
phases of mitosis and describe the major events characteristic of each phase.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

5. Draw or describe the mitotic spindle, including centrosomes, kinetochore microtubules,

nonkinetochore microtubules, asters, and centrioles (in animal cells).

___________________________________________________________
82

___________________________________________________________

6. Compare and contrast cytokinesis in animals and plants.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________
83

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

B.3. Meiosis

The reproductive cell division, meiosis occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes),
produces four (4) daughter cells (gametes) in which the number of chromosomes is reduced
by half or haploid. In the process called sexual reproduction, fertilization restores the diploid
number of chromosomes. Unlike mitosis, which is complete after a single round, meiosis is
otherwise known as reduction division in two successive stages: meiosis I and meiosis II.

Meiosis I, which begins once chromosomal replication is complete, consists of four

phases: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. During the interphase that
precedes meiosis I, the chromosomes of the diploid cell start to replicate. As a result of
replication, each chromosome consists of two sisters (genetically identical) chromatids, which
are attached at their centromeres. Prophase I is an extended phase in which the
chromosomes shorten and thicken, the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the
mitotic spindle forms.Prophase I occupies the longest duration of meiosis. It is subdivided into
five (5) substages.

1. Leptonema which replicated

chromosomes (leptotene)
appear as long slender
threads.

2. Zygonema includes the

pairing of homologous
chromosomes (synapsis),
the pair is referred to as
bivalent or tetrad (zygotene).

3. Pachynema where the Figure 2.7e: Details of Crossing-Over in Prophase 1

chromosomes become longer and thicker (pachytene). There will be crossing over
between parts of nonsister (genetically different) chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes to have an exchange of genes. Due to crossing-over, the resulting cells
are genetically unlike each other and genetically unlike the starting cell that produced
them. Crossing-over results in genetic recombination—that is, the formation of new
combinations of genes—and accounts for part of the great genetic variation among
humans and other organisms that form gametes via meiosis.

4. Diplonema the tetrad starts to repel each other (diplotene) and the chiasma, the area of
contact between two chromatids, becomes distinct.
84

5. Diakinesis where the chromosomes continue to coil and contract. The nucleolus
disappears and the nuclear membrane breaks down. Spindle apparatus begins to form.

2.7 CELL REPRODUCTION

B.3. Meiosis

In metaphase I, the tetrads formed by the homologous pairs of chromosomes line up

along the metaphase plate of the cell, with homologous chromosomes side by side. During
anaphase I, the members of each homologous pair of chromosomes separate as they are
pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the microtubules attached to the centromeres. The
paired chromatids, held by a centromere, remain together. (Recall that during mitotic
anaphase, the centromeres split and the sister chromatids separate.) Telophase I and
cytokinesis of meiosis are similar to telophase and cytokinesis of mitosis. The net effect of
meiosis I is that each resulting cell contains the haploid number of chromosomes because it
contains only one member of each pair of the homologous chromosomes present in the
starting cell.

In general, meiosis I is sometimes referred to as the reduction division of meiosis

because it is the event that reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid. The
segregation of homologous chromosomes into different daughter cells in meiosis I has special
genetic significance because it represents the point in an organism’s life cycle when the two
alleles for each gene part company. Another great significance are events involving the
physical exchange of parts of DNA molecules between two different sources, called genetic
recombination by molecular biologists.

Figure 2.7f: Stages of Meiosis I.

85

B.3. Meiosis
After meiosis I has been completed, a brief interphase may intervene before meiosis
II begins. However, this interphase is not accompanied by DNA replication because each
chromosome already consists of a pair of replicated, sister chromatids that were generated by
DNA synthesis during the interphase preceding meiosis I. So DNA is replicated only once in
conjunction with meiosis, and that is prior to the first meiotic division. The purpose of meiosis
II, like that of a typical mitotic division, is to parcel the sister chromatids created by this initial
round of DNA replication into two newly forming cells. It consists of four phases: prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
In summary, Meiosis II is sometimes referred to as the separation division. During
meiosis I, segregation of homologous chromosomes into different daughter cells reduces the
chromosome number from 2n to 1n and the DNA content from 4C to 2C. During meiosis II,
each of the two haploid cells formed during meiosis I divides; the net result is four haploid
gametes that are genetically different from the original diploid starting cell. Sister chromatid
separation during meiosis II then reduces the DNA content from 2C to 1C, while the
chromosome number remains at 1n. In contrast, a normal mitosis reduces the DNA content
from 4C to 2C (by sister chromatid separation) while the chromosome number remains at 2n.

Figure 2.7g: Stages of Meiosis II.

86

General Features of Plant Cells & Tissues

Plants are made up two structural systems i.e. The shoot system and the root system,
whereby the shoot system is made up of structures that i.e. above the ground including leaves,
stems, fruits, flowers while the root system is made up of roots, tubers and rhizobial structure
that lie below the ground and it’s the origin of growth of plants.

These systems are structured differently, defined by sets of specialized mature cells that
perform a wide range of functions ranging from protection, support, metabolism, reproduction
enabling plant growth, and development. For example, plant cells are formed at the meristem
which multiple and grows to for plant tissues. These tissues are:

Dermal tissue – make up the outer layer of all plant organs. It helps deter excess water loss
and invasion by insects and microorganisms (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2019).
It also regulates exchange of gasses specifically CO 2 and O2, and in roots, it absorbs water
and nutrients in the soil. Plant’s stems and leaves have pores called stomata, which CO 2,
water vapour and O2 diffuse through.

Epidermal cells- are covered by a plant cuticle, which contains cutin, a waxy substance that
protects the plant against water loss. Plants in the dessert and arid regions often have thick
cuticles to help conserve water (B. D. Editors, 2017).

These are the external cells covering the plant stems, leaves, roots and plant seeds for
protection from water loss, pathogens and environmental factors such as high temperatures,
bruises, chemical exposures e.g. radiations. They are placed closely together with no
intracellular spaces. They are covered with a
waxy cuticle layer to reduce water loss.
There are three types of epidermal cells that
play the primary role of protecting the plant
1. Pavement cells
2. Stomatal guard cell
3. Trichomes
Structure of the Epidermal Cells
1. Pavement cells Figure 4.5.6. Epidermal cells

 These are the most common epidermal cells covering all plants. They are poorly
specialized hence they lack a defined shape, therefore, they do not have special
functions.
 The morphology of pavement cells varies from plant to plant such as the leaves of
dicots they appear like jigsaw pieces giving the leaves mechanical strength.
87

 Pavement cells found on the stem and other long plant parts appear to be rectangular
with an axis running parallel to the direction of plant expansion.
 The different morphologies are associated with the functions the pavement cells
perform.
 They prevent excessive loss of water, the cells are closely packed together, making a
protective lining to protect other underlying cells.
 The functions of the pavement cell include: maintain the plants’ internal temperature,
act as a physical barrier from pathogens and external damages from chemicals such
as radiations, and separate the leaves’ stomata.
2. Stomatal Guard cells
 Stomatal guard cells are available depending on the type of plant.
 They are highly specialized with a defined shape which allows them to perform a
variety of functions.
 There are two types of guard cells defined by the structure i.e those that control water
availability by opening and closing the stomata by maintaining turgor pressure and
those that regulate the exchange of gases into and out of the leaves’ stomata.
 The stromal guard cells also have chloroplast. therefore, they have a functional effect
of photosynthesis.
3. Trichomes

 These are also known as epidermal hairs found on the epidermal tissue. They are a
specialized group of cells with a well-defined shape.
 They have a large size of about 300um in diameter.
 They play a major role in protecting the plants from predators and pathogens, by acting
as trappers and poisoners to animal predators.
 These cells do not multiply by cell division instead they undergo endoreplication for
expanding their cell population.
88

Guard cells contain chloroplasts and regulate gas

exchange between the inside of the leaf and the
surrounding air.

Epidermal hairs lower water loss by decreasing the flow of air

over the plant surface, which in turn, slows the loss of water
from the plant.

Glandular hairs prevent herbivory by storing substances that

are harmful to insects.

In older stems and roots, the epidermis may be replaced by the

periderm, which provides protection while permitting gas
exchange. The outer layer of periderm, cork tissue, is composed
of dead cells whose cell walls are impregnated with a waxy
material, suberin.

Root hairs increase water uptake by increasing the surface area of

the cell.

Plant cells multiply by cell division, a mechanism known as Mitosis, which takes place within
its nucleus. This begins at the meristem, that is found at the tip of the root and/or the shoot of
vascular plants. Meristems at the tips are known as apical and lateral meristems. Apical
meristems are responsible for producing the roots while the lateral meristems produce
secondary growth of the stem wood and cork.

Besides cell division of the cells that leads to the formation of tissues that eventually creates
89

a plant, there are other features of the plant cells that are of importance to plant growth and
metabolisms.

1. Presence of a cell wall combined with a plasma membrane. It’s made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose, and pectin. The cell wall gives the cell shape, cell protection and mediation of
cellular interactions.

2. They have dynamic single-membranous central vacuoles that are filled with water to
maintain the turgor pressure of the cell, regulate the movement of cellular molecules within
the cytosol, storage of nitrogen and phosphorus and mediate digestion of stored cellular
proteins.

3. They have a plasmodesmata, which is a continuous porous structure that extends from
the endoplasmic reticulum, allowing cell-cell communication.

4. Plant cells also have plastids. The most common plastid known as chloroplasts, that are
made up of chlorophyll, a green pigment responsible for capturing light energy and converting
it to chemical energy that is used by the plants in photosynthesis. other plastids include
amyloplast for storage of starch, elaioplast, for storage of fats and chromoplasts for synthesis
and storage of pigments.

5. The plant cells undergo cell division by forming the phragmoplast template for building up
cell plates in cytokinesis. Unlike animal cells, plant cells notably lack cilia, flagella, and
centrioles.

2. Types of Plant Cell

The development of other cells is facilitated by the initial multiplication that takes at the tip,
from the undifferentiated meristematic cells to form other specialized cells and cell tissues.
The plant cells undergo cell division by forming the phragmoplast template for building up
cell plates in cytokinesis. Unlike animal cells, plant cells notably lack cilia, flagella, and
centrioles.

Ground tissue –is made up of all cells that are not vascular or dermal. There are three types
of ground tissue: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Parenchyma cells form the
“filler” tissue in plants, and perform many functions like photosynthesis, storage of starch, fats,
oils, proteins, and water, and repairing damaged tissue. Collenchyma tissue is made up of
long cells with irregularly thick walls that provide structural support to the plant. Plants that
grow in windy areas have thicker walls of collenchyma tissue. Sclerenchyma is also
supporting tissue, but it is made of dead cells. There are two types of sclerenchyma: fibers
90

and sclereids. Fibers are long, slender cells, while sclereids are star-shaped with thick cell
walls. Sclerenchyma fibers make up fabrics such as hemp and flax (B. D. Editors, 2017).

The development of other cells is facilitated by the initial multiplication that takes at the tip,
from the undifferentiated meristematic cells to form other specialized cells and cell tissues.
The plant cells undergo cell division by forming the phragmoplast template for building up
cell plates in cytokinesis. Unlike animal cells, plant cells notably lack cilia, flagella, and
centrioles.

2.1 Parenchyma Cells

Structure of Parenchyma Cells

These are live undifferentiated cells found in a

variety of places of the plants’ bodies.

They are live thin-walled cells with permeable

walls that are undifferentiated.

They do not have a specialized structure hence they easily adapt and differentiate into a
variety of cells performing different functions.

The experimental observation indicated that they appear green.

There are two types of parenchyma cells

A. Palisade parenchyma—cells are columnar elongated structured cells found in a variety of

leaves, lying below the epidermal tissue. Palisades are closely linked cells in layers of
mesophyll cells found in leaf cells.

B. Ray parenchyma - has both radial and horizontal arrangement majorly found within the
stem wood of the plant.

Functions of the Parenchyma cells

 Parenchyma cells are closely linked to the surface epidermal cells which contribute
largely to light penetration and absorption and regulating gas exchange.
 They participate in several mechanisms of the plan including photosynthesis, food
storage, secretion of waste materials.
 The permeable wall allows the transportation of small molecules between the cells and
the cell cytoplasm.
 The palisade parenchyma combined with spongy mesophyll cell found below the layer
of the epidermis tissue assists in light absorption used in photosynthesis.
 Ray parenchyma cells are found in wood rays which transport materials along the plant
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stem.
 The parenchyma cells are also found in good numbers within the xylem and the phloem
of vascular plants, helping in the transportation of water and food materials in the plant.
 Some are also involved in biochemical secretion of nectar and manufacturing
secondary elements that act as protective materials from herbivores’ feeding.
 And those parenchyma cells found in root tubers such as potatoes, leguminous plants,
help in the storage of food.

2.2 Collenchyma Cells

Structure of Collenchyma Cells

 These are cells that are long with a

primary thick cell wall. The cell wall is
normally irregular and made up of
cellulose and pectin molecules.
 They are elongated cells found below the
epidermis and/or in young plants on the
outer layers of their stems and leaves.
 They become alive after maturing up and
are derivatives of the meristems and they are found in the vascular and/or on the plant
stem corners.
 They occur in the peripheral region of the plant and they are not found in the plant
roots.
 These are cells that are long with a primary thick cell wall. The cell wall is normally
irregular and made up of cellulose and pectin molecules.
 During maturity, at some point, they resemble the parenchyma cells which transform
into the collenchyma cells. When a few cells accumulate, the Golgi bodies along with
the endoplasmic reticulum come up together to form the primary cell wall. When two
cells fuse, they form a thin primary wall that doesn’t differentiate to collenchyma cells.
 Therefore, the more the cells accumulate and fuse, they form a strong irregular
functional primary cell wall. These newly formed cells are elongated to give support for
the plant to grow. However, the primary wall doesn’t have lignin, a polymeric organic
complex that forms strong structural tissues of vascular plants giving it rigid support,
especially in wood and bark and that it also prevents rotting.
 Experimental observation they appear red.
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Functions of the Collenchyma cells

 Being the living cells in plant tissues, they give support to the plant areas that are
growing and maturing in length. Since the cell wall lacks lignin, it remains supple giving
the plant parts like young stems, young roots, and young leaves plastic (stretchable)
support.
 They offer flexibility and tensile strength to plant tissues, allowing the plants to bend.
 They also allow the plant parts to grow and elongate.
 Collenchyma can combine with the chloroplast and perform the process of
photosynthesis.

2.3 Sclerenchyma Cells

Structure of Collenchyma Cells

 These are collenchyma cells that have

an agent of the cell wall that plays a
major role in hardening its cell wall.
Therefore, these are mature
Collenchyma cells with a secondary cell
wall, over the primary cell wall.
 They have a lignified cell wall, making
them extremely hard, making them more
rigid in comparison to the parenchyma
and the collenchyma cells.
 They also have suberin and cutin, which makes them waterproofed.
 They are found in all plant roots and they are important in anchoring and giving support
to the plants. Because of their rigidity and waterproof effect, they do not live for long
since there cannot exchange materials for cellular metabolisms to sustain their
longevity.
 Therefore, in the event of fully developing their functional maturity (a phase for
cytoplasm formation), they are dead.

Two types of sclerenchyma cells, namely

1. Fiber sclerenchyma cells

2. Sclereid sclerenchyma cells

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Functions of the Collenchyma cells

 Due to their thickened cell wall, they offer protection and support to other plants’ tissues
especially the tree trunks and fibers of large herbal trees.
 The hardened cell wall discourages herbivory. Ingestion of the hard cell wall causes
damage to the digestive tract of larval stage insects, especially in peach fruits.
 Sclerenchyma found fibers are used in making fabric, thread, and yarns.

Vascular Tissue – this tissue is made up of xylem, phloem, parenchyma and cambium
cells, with its functions including transportation of water (xylem), transportation of food
(phloem), minerals, hormones in the plants of the plant cells

2.4 Xylem Cells

Xylem cells are complex cells found

in the vascular tissues of plants,
mostly in woody plants.

Structure of Xylem Cells

They have two elements for

conduction:

1. Tracheids

2. Vessel elements

 They have tracheids which

are vessels that conduct
water and minerals from, the roots to the plant leaves.
 Tracheids are elongated slender vessels that are lignified, hence they have a hardened
secondary cell wall, specialized to conduct water from the roots.
 The tracheid also has overlapping tap ends placed in an angel to allow a connection
and communication from cell to cell.
 The vessel elements allow the transport of water. They are hollow, shorter, wider than
the tracheids but lack the angeled endplates, therefore they are aligned with each other
forming a continuous hollow tube, 3 meters’ long
 The xylem cells are also combined with fibers and parenchyma cells hence they have
a primary cell wall combined with a lignified cell wall, forming rings and looped
networks with pits known as bordered pits for conduction.
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 The bordered pits are areas in the cell wall where primary cell wall materials are
deposit, and they allow water to move between the xylem cells.
 Gymnosperms, ferns, and pteridophytes have tracheids while flowering plants have
vessel elements

Functions of Xylem cells

The primary function of the xylem cells is to transport

water and soluble nutrients, minerals and inorganic
ions upwardly from the roots of the plants and its
parts. These elements flow freely through the xylem
tracheids and vessel elements with the aid of the
xylem sap. Figure: Protoxylem and metaxylem
diagram. Source: University of
2.5 Phloem Cells

Phloem cells are located outside the xylem layer of cells.

They become alive at maturity because they need the
energy to move materials.

Structure of Phloem Cells

There are two types of phloem cells

1. Sieve tube members and Companion cells

 These are the cells that control the cells’ metabolism, and they are linked together with
large numbers of plasmodesmata.
 Sieve tube members are shorter and wider and they are continuously arranged from
one end to another into the sieve cells, where they are highly packed together.
 This concentration allows the solute materials to move faster within the sieve tubes
and the sieve cells. the sieve tube members’ nucleus disintegrates, ribosomes
disappear and the vacuole membrane breaks down at maturity.

The companion cells assist in moving materials into

and out of the sieve tube members. Characteristically,
the sieve tubes have Phloem (P)-proteins at the cell
wall and callose and together they heal injuries caused
on the sieve tubes.

2. Sieve cellsThey are the primitive part of the phloem found in ferns and conifers.
95

 They are structurally long with tapered overlapping ends. They have pores all over
their cell wall that is surrounded by callose (a carbohydrate that repairs the pores after
an injury).
 They associate with albuminous cells to help in moving materials into the phloem.
 This is the site where dissolved food flows eg sucrose

Functions of Phloem cells

 They function to transport food from the plant leaves to other parts of the plant.
 They also have a flaccid cell wall hence they lack tensile strength that allows them to
move materials at high pressure.
 It transports dissolved foods and organic materials throughout the plants since it has
the ability to move the materials in all directions of the plant, depending on the age of
the plant.

2.6 Meristematic Cells

They are also known as the meristems. These are the cells in a plant that divide continuously
throughout the life of a plant. They have a self-
renewal ability and high metabolisms to control
the cell.

Structure of the Meristematic Cells

 These are cells that undergo cell division

giving rise to the Parenchyma,
Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma cells.
 They have a thin wall and lack the central
vacuole and are composed of immature
plastids.
 Their protoplast is densely filled.
 They have a cubic shape with a large nucleus.
 They have high metabolic activity.
 They are closely clamped together, therefore, they have no intercellular space.
 They play a major role in plant growth in width and length.

There are three types of meristematic cells classified according to the tissue they exist in.
96

1. Apical meristems – they are found at the tips

of roots and stems that have started
growing and they contribute to the length of
the plant

2. Lateral meristems – they are found in the

radial part of the stem and roots and they
contribute to the plant thickness

3. Intercalary meristems – they are found at

the base of the leaves and the contribution
to the size variance of the leaves.

Functions of Meristematic cells

 They play a major role in the length and width sizes of the plants
 They also give variance in the sizes of the plant leaves.
 They differentiate and mature into permanent tissues of the plants.

2.7 Epidermal Cells

These are the external cells covering the plant stems, leaves, roots and plant seeds for
protection from water loss, pathogens and environmental factors such as high temperatures,
bruises, chemical exposures e.g. radiations. They are placed closely together with no
intracellular spaces. They are covered with a
waxy cuticle layer to reduce water loss.
There are three types of epidermal cells that
play the primary role of protecting the plant
1. Pavement cells
2. Stomatal guard cell
3. Trichomes
Structure of the Epidermal Cells
1. Pavement cells
 These are the most common epidermal cells covering all plants. They are poorly
specialized hence they lack a defined shape, therefore, they do not have special
functions.
 The morphology of pavement cells varies from plant to plant such as the leaves of
dicots they appear like jigsaw pieces giving the leaves mechanical strength.
 Pavement cells found on the stem and other long plant parts appear to be rectangular
97

with an axis running parallel to the direction of plant expansion.

 The different morphologies are associated with the functions the pavement cells
perform.
 They prevent excessive loss of water, the cells are closely packed together, making a
protective lining to protect other underlying cells.
 The functions of the pavement cell include: maintain the plants’ internal temperature,
act as a physical barrier from pathogens and external damages from chemicals such
as radiations, and separate the leaves’ stomata.
2. Stomatal Guard cells
 Stomatal guard cells are available depending on the type of plant.
 They are highly specialized with a defined shape which allows them to perform a
variety of functions.
 There are two types of guard cells defined by the structure i.e those that control water
availability by opening and closing the stomata by maintaining turgor pressure and
those that regulate the exchange of gases into and out of the leaves’ stomata.
 The stromal guard cells also have chloroplast. therefore, they have a functional effect
of photosynthesis.
3. Trichomes

 These are also known as epidermal hairs found on the epidermal tissue. They are a
specialized group of cells with a well-defined shape.
 They have a large size of about 300um in diameter.
 They play a major role in protecting the plants from predators and pathogens, by acting
as trappers and poisoners to animal predators.
 These cells do not multiply by cell division instead they undergo endoreplication for
expanding their cell population.
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UNIT III
PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION

Plants serve as a habitat for different species, it also helps in maintaining good soil
condition to reduce the likelihood of soil erosion, fertilizing the soil through the decay of trees,
and plants when they die, absorption of CO 2 through the process of photosynthesis which in
turn reduces CO2 emissions, plays an important role in the discovery of new medicinal drugs,
and of course one of the most important things is that it produces food for almost all organisms
and microorganisms here on Earth (Clark, 2018).

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify the different parts and functions of the plant;

2. Discuss the internal and external structure of the plants; and
3. Understand the different modifications of plant parts.

PRE- TEST

True of false. Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false. Write your answer
on the space provided before each number.

___1. Stamens are the female part of the plant.

___2. Pistils are the male part of the plant.

___3. A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering.

___4. Gymnosperms are flowering plants.

___5. Embryo contains plant’s roots, leaves, and stem, and is capable of sensing whether the
correct conditions are appropriate for seed growth.

___6. Epigeal is a type of germination, the hypocotyl remains short and the cotyledons do not
emerge from the seed but rather force the radicle and epicotyl’s axis to elongate out the seed
coat.

___7. Leaves primary function is anchorage of the plant, absorption of water and dissolved
mineral and conduction of these to the stem, and storage of reserve foods.

___8. Flowers are the reproductive structure of angiosperms.

___9. Vivipary is a phenomenon that involves seeds germinating prematurely while it is still
inside or attached to the parent plant or fruit.
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___10. Vascular tissue is an arrangement of multiple cell types in vascular plants which is
responsible for the transport of water, minerals, and the product of photosynthesis throughout
plant.
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Human and Animal Dependence on Plants

The dependence of human and animal on plants does not end on the production of O
at all. Plants are the main sources of products that are that are part of the human society.
Rice, corn, potatoes and other vegetables are plants. Fish, poultry, meat, eggs, fish, and milk
owes its existence on plants. Spices used as condiments and luxuries such as perfumes are
produced by plants. The homes that we live in are constructed with lumber are from trees,
which also furnish the cellulose for paper, cardboard, and synthetic fibers.

Clothing and other equipments used for the production of textile goods are made from
fibers of many plant families. Coal is a fossilized plant material and oil probably came from
microscopic green organisms or animals that either directly or indirectly were plant consumers.
Medicines and drugs at one time came from plants, fungi or bacteria and many important ones
including most antibiotics.

4.1. Classification of plants

Bryophyta

There are 24, 000 bryophyte species and are grouped into three phyla including: (1)
Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

Mosses

Non- vascular plants it cannot transport

fluids through its body. Instead, it relies on
the surrounding moisture to do the job.
Though, small in stature, mosses are
important members of our ecosystem. This
lays foundation for other plant’s growth,
prevents erosion, and contribute to the lush
green appearance of many forested areas.
It reproduces primarily by spores because it
does not have any flowers and it is evidently seen on the ground, rocks and on other plants.

It has two generations, the gametophyte and sporophyte.

During the 1st generation, the gametophyte, forms the green leafy structure we
ordinarily associated with moss. It produces a sperm and an egg (the gametes) which unite,
when conditions are right, to grow into the next generation: the sporophyte or spore- bearing
structure.
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The moss sporophyte contains no chlorophyll of its own, it grows parasitically on its
gametophyte mother.

As the sporophyte dries out, the capsule release spores which will grow into a new generation
of gametophytes, if it germinates.

The life cycle of most mosses begins with the

release of spores from a capsule, which opens
when a small, lidlike structure, called the
operculum, degenerates. A single spore
germinates to form a branched, filamentous
protonema, from which a leafy gametophyte
develops. The gametophyte bears organs for
sexual reproduction. Sperm, which are released
by the mature antheridium (the male reproductive
organ), are attracted into the neck of an
Figure 4.1. 1 Life cycle of moss
archegonium (the female reproductive organ). Here, one sperm fuses with the egg to produce
the zygote. After cell division, the zygote becomes the sporophyte, and, at the same time, the
archegonium divides to form the protective calyptra. The sporophyte usually consists of a
capsule and a seta. Asexual reproduction occurs within the capsule and the whole process
may begin again.

Liverworts

The most ancient liverwort fossils known provide the

earliest evidence of plants colonizing the land. These
fossils, which appear as cryptospores (sporelike
structures), were discovered in Argentina in rocks
dating to between 473 million and 471 million years ago
(The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020g).

Sexual (gametophyte) and asexual (sporophyte) generations characterize a liverwort

life cycle. The gametophyte generation consists of the haploid thallus and is the dominant
generation; it develops from a germinating spore. Sperm from the male reproductive organ
(antheridium) travel through an aqueous environment to fertilize the eggs that are still retained
in the female reproductive organ (archegonium). The sporophyte generation develops from
this diploid embryo and forms a sporangium at its apex. Spores are released when the
sporangium ruptures, marking the start of a new gametophytic generation (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020g).
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Most liverworts can reproduce asexually by means of gemmae, which are disks of
tissues produced by the gametophytic generation. The gemmae are held in special organs
known as gemma cups and are dispersed by rainfall. Fragmentation of the thallus can also
result in new plants. Single-celled structures called rhizoids anchor most liverworts to their
substrata (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020g).

Hornworts

Usually grow on damp soils or on rocks in tropical

and warm temperate regions. The largest genus,
Anthoceros, has a worldwide distribution.
Dendroceros and Megaceros are mainly tropical
genera. Hornworts have an ancient lineage and are
thought to be some of the earliest plants to have
evolved on land.

The plants’ gametophytes (sexual generation) are typically flattened, irregularly

lobulated (thallose) structures that are usually less than 2 cm (0.8–1.6 inches) in diameter.
The sporophyte, or asexual generation, forms a tapered cylinder. The sporophyte is
dependent on the attached gametophyte for nutrients and water. Most sporophytes grow to
up to 5 cm (2 inches). The thallus, or flat, gametophyte, usually lacks a midrib. The sexual
organs are sunk into the upper surface of the thallus. Rhizoids (rootlike structures) on the
undersurface anchor the plant. Cavities in the thallus sometimes contain colonies of the blue-
green alga Nostoc.

Hornworts reproduce sexually by means of waterborne sperm, which travel from the
male sex organ (antheridium) to the female sex organ (archegonium). A fertilized egg in a
female sex organ develops into an elongate sporangium, which splits lengthwise as it grows,
releasing the spores that have developed within it. Elaters (elongated cells that aid in spore
dispersal) are usually irregular and multicellular.

Ferns- Pteridophyta

In contrast to mosses, liverworts and hornworts, ferns have a vascular system that
transports fluids through their bodies but like mosses, it reproduces through spores instead of
seeds.

It also has a gametophyte and sporophyte stage, but the gametophyte stage is much reduced.
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Life Cycle of ferns

Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

Angiosperms, Angiospermae, Magnoliophyta, or flowering plants are the largest and

most diverse group within the Kingdom Plantae with 300,000 species. It represents 80% of all
known green plants that are living. Angiosperms are vascular seed plants in which ovule (egg)
is fertilized and developed into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary.

Ovary in a plant is usually enclosed in a flower, the part of the angiospermous plant
that contains the male or female reproductive organs or both. Fruits are derived from a
maturing floral organs of the plant. All cells in the plant body participate in every function
necessary to support nourish and extend the plant body. This plants have evolved cells and
tissues that carry out these functions and have further evolved specialized vascular tissues
xylem and phloem. Xylem transport water from the roots and leaves, while phloem transport
sugars from source tissues to sink tissues. (Berry & Zimmermann, 2019).

Angiosperms can be grouped into two classes monocotelydons or monocots and

dicotelydons or dicots. Monocots are plants that only has one cotyledon, it usually has parallel
104

leaf veins, flowers are in multiples of three, and the arrangement of primary vascular bundles
in the stem is scattered or more complex of an arrangement as compared to dicots.

Examples are rice, grasses, orchids, onions, palms and many others.

On the other hand, we have dicotyledons that has two cotyledons, leaves are usually netlike,
flowers are usually fours or fives and the arrangement of the vascular bundles are in a ring.

Examples are legumes, oaks, roses, mustards, cacti, sunflowers and many others (Salinas,
2012).

Figure 4.1. 1 Difference between monocots and dicots.

On the other hand, we have gymnosperms these are the other group of vascular seed
plants, the seeds do not develop enclosed within an ovary but are usually borne exposed on
the surfaces of reproductive structure, such as cones (Berry & Zimmermann, 2019). The term
gymnosperms literally mean “naked seed”, seeds are exposed on the surface of leaf- like
structures called bracts. These are vascular plants of the subkingdom Embryophyta and
includes conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes and other recognizable examples that
includes pines, spruces, firs and ginkgoes.

Mostly abundant in temperate and boreal forest biomes with species that can tolerate
moist or dry conditions. They are believed to be the first vascular plants to inhibit and
appearing in the Triassic Period (245- 208 million years ago). In contrast to angiosperms,
these types of plants do not produce flowers or fruits. In reproduction, since gymnosperms
could not produce seeds to be used for reproduction the female gametes (megaspore) are
produced in the gametophyte structures called archegonia located in ovulate cones. Male
gametes (microspores) are produced in pollen cones and develop into pollen grains. Male and
female cones of some gymnosperms species could be found on the same tree, while others
have separate male and female cone. For pollination to take place, gametes must come into
105

contact with one another. This happens with the aid of vectors like wind, animals or insect
transfer. Fertilization happens when pollen grains contact the female ovule and germinate.
Sperm cells make their way to the egg inside the ovule and fertilize the egg. In conifers and
gnetophytes, sperm cells have no flagella and must reach the egg via the formation of a pollen
tube. In cycads and ginkgoes, the flagellated sperm swim toward the egg for fertilization. Upon
fertilization, the resulting zygote develops within the gymnosperm seed and forms a new
sporophyte (Bailey, 2018).

Figure 4.1. 2. Fertilization in gymnosperms.

Learning Activity XI. Write your answers in a white short bond paper.

1. In your own idea, what makes plants important in your daily lives?
2. Observe your environment, take a picture of a view in your surroundings, and explain
what makes your surroundings beautiful? Explain.
3. Copy the table below and supply the needed answers on the difference between
angiosperms and gymnosperms.
106

Characteristics Angiosperms Gymnosperms

Germination

Reproduction

Double Fertilization

Examples (crops, trees,

etc.)

Seed location

Sperm

Pollination

Seeds

Flowers

Life Cycle

Uses
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4. 2. Seeds

Increasing the number of plants by utilizing seed is a type of sexual reproduction, it is

the in which a dormant seed begins to sprout and grow into a seedling under the right growing
conditions (Yadav, 2018).

Seeds could either be dicots or monocots.

Figure 4.2.1 Parts of the seed.

As observed in figure 4.2.1 a dicot and a monocot are almost identical, they differ in the
number of cotyledons and presence of endosperm which could be observed in a monocot
seed.

Below are the parts and functions of the cell.

Part of the cell Function

Embryo- It contains plant’s roots, leaves, and stem, and is capable of

sensing whether the correct conditions are appropriate for seed
growth. When it detects sufficient amounts of water, oxygen and
other minerals in its environment, it begins to consume the
endosperm in its container in order for a new plant to grow
(Flournoy, 2019).

Cotyledon- A part of the embryo within the seed of a plant. Often when the seed
germinates, or begins to grow, the cotyledon may become the first
leaves of the seedling. It is important for a new plant as it begins to
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grow because it contains the stored food reserves from the seed to
give the plant the initial burst of energy to grow. In dicot plants, the
cotyledons are photosynthetic and function like leaves (Cotyledon:
Definition & Function, 2015).

Seed coat- The seed coat or testa protects the seed from mechanical damage
and it protects the seed from infection from bacteria, virus, and
fungi. It prevents the seed from desiccation freezing and in some
cases the effects of fire (Costa, 2016)

Radicle- The primary root, or radicle, is the first organ to appear when a seed
germinates. It grows downward into the soil, anchoring the
seedling. In gymnosperms and dicotyledons (angiosperms with two
seed leaves), the radicle becomes a taproot. It grows downward,
and secondary roots grow laterally from it to form a taproot system.
(The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020)

Hypocotyl- The portion of the embryo between the cotyledon attachment point
and the radicle is known as the hypocotyl. In dicots, the hypocotyls
extend above ground, giving rise to the stem of the plant, while in
monocots, they remain below ground (Boundless, 2020).

Epicotyl- This is important for the beginning stages of a plant's life. It is the
region of a seedling stem above the stalks of the seed leaves of an
embryo plant. It grows rapidly, showing hypogeal germination, and
extends the stem above the soil surface.

Endosperm- The developing embryo gets its nutrients from the endosperm,
while the young seedling gets its nutrition from the cotyledons.
Endosperm is not photosynthetic, while cotyledons are. An
endosperm gives nutrition for the young seedling, while a cotyledon
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gives to the developing embryo (Differences Between Cotyledon

and Endosperm, 2018).

Plumule- Part of a seed embryo. It is a bud like or a small portion of the plant
embryo giving rise to the first true leaves, especially above the
cotyledons and is grown into a plant giving rise to several leaves,
branches, flowers, and seeds.

Coleoptile- Cylindrical organs that ensheath the first leaf and shoot apex in
grass seedlings. They help in the emergence of the
first leaf (and shoot apex) by protecting it during its passage
through the soil. On emergence, the first leaf breaks through the
coleoptile tip.

Endosperm- Tissue that surrounds and nourishes the embryo in the seeds of
angiosperms (flowering plants). In some seeds the endosperm is
completely absorbed at maturity (e.g., pea and bean), and the
fleshy food-storing cotyledons nourish the embryo as it germinates.
In others, some of the endosperm is present until germination (e.g.,
wheat, castor bean), and the cotyledons are typically thin and
membranous and serve to absorb the stored food from the
endosperm upon germination (The Editors of Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 2018).

4.3. Seed Germination

During seed germination, different processes happen before a leaf could be seen
emerging in the seed days after planting, and in this topic, we are going to explore in a step
by step process. However, we should take note that not all seeds planted in a pot of soil or on
the field will emerge and become a fully developed plant because sometimes there are biotic
and abiotic factors that affect germination, and sometimes seeds planted are dormant.
Dormancy is used to describe a seed that will not germinate because of any condition
associated either with the seed itself of with existing environmental factors such as
temperature and moisture (Umhaw, 2018).
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Here are the steps involved in the germination of seeds. According to (Bryce et al., 2015);

1. Environmental conditions must trigger the seed to grow, this is determined by how
deep the seed is planted, water availability, and temperature;
2. Imbibition of water fills the seed;
3. The water activates enzymes that begin the plant’s growth;
4. The seed grows a root to access water underground;
5. The seed grows shoot that grow towards the sun; and
6. The shoots grow leaves and begin photomorphogenesis.

As what is stated above, there are factors that affects the germination of seeds and these
are relevant in the growth and development of plants, listed below are environmental factors
that affects seed germination. (Ramani, 2013).

a) Light- Seeds require the red portion of light spectrum, while the far red light inhibits
germination. Seeds must not be buried below the soil so deeply that light cannot
penetrate. Phytochrome are present in leaves and operates in nature as a signal-
transducing photoreceptor enabling the plant to acquire information on the light
environment which may be applied to the modulation of cellular process, thereby
enabling acclimation to environmental change. (Smith & Morgan, 1983, p. 511)

b) Temperature- Seed germination is a complex process involving many individual

reactions and phases, each of which is affected by temperature. The optimum
temperature for seeds is between 15 and 30 OC and the maximum for most species is
between 30 to 40 OC. The response of plants to temperature depends on a number of
factors, including the species, variety, growing region, quality of the seed, and duration
of time from harvest (Arshad, 2019).

c) Water- The most essential factor it is needed to generate the turgor pressure that
powers the cell expansion, the basis for vegetative growth and development. Water
content of mature, air dried seeds is in the range of 5- 15% well below the threshold
required to fully active metabolism (Arshad, 2019).

d) Gases- Air is composed of about 20% O, 0.03% CO2, and about 80% N gas. O is
required for germination in most species. CO 2 concentrations higher than 0.03% retard
germination while N gas has no influence (Arshad, 2019).
111

Types of Germination

There are three types of germination: (1) Epigeal, (2) Hypogeal, and (3) Viviparous
Germination

Epigeal- In this type of germination, the radicle

emerges from the seed and the hypocotyl elongates,
raising the cotyledons, epicotyl, and remains of the
seed coat above ground. The cotyledons may expand
and function as normal leaves to conduct
photosynthesis, however when the cotyledons contain

Figure 4.3. 1. Epigeal germination

seed storage products, it transfers it to the rest of the
seedling and degenerate without becoming significantly photosynthetic (Stevenson & Dilcher,
2019).

Hypogeal- In this type of germination, the hypocotyl

remains short and the cotyledons do not emerge from
the seed but rather force the radicle and epicotyl’s
axis to elongate out the seed coat. The seed, with
enclosed cotyledons, remains underground, and the
epicotyl grows up through the soil. When the
Figure 4.3. 2. Hypogeal germination

cotyledons, contain seed storage products, these products are directly transferred to the
radicle and epicotyl (Stevenson & Stevens, 2019).

Vivipary- A phenomenon that involves seeds

germinating prematurely while it is still inside or attached
to the parent plant or fruit. This is a phenomenon that
occurs frequently on ears of corn, tomatoes, peppers,
pears, citrus fruits, and plants that grow in mangrove
environments (Baessler, 2018).

Figure 4.3.3. Hypogeal germination

The embryo emerges out of the fruit with a massive radicle pointing downwards. Due to
increased weight the seedling separates from the parent plant and establishes itself in a
muddy soil below.

Seeds are still the most economical and fastest means in the reproduction of plants.
However, some plants like fruit trees produced from seeds vary in their characteristics, hence,
112

we cannot always expect the desirable qualities as to size, shape, vigor, quality and yield of
the parent plant in their new off-springs or progenies.

Like animals, plants contain cells with organelles in which specific metabolic activities
takes place. Plant utilizes energy from the sun to form sugars during photosynthesis.
Moreover, as discussed in our previous topics it has cells that have walls, plastids, and a large
vacuole which are not found in animal cells. Each of these organelles plays a specific role in
plant structure and function.

Food chains begins with photosynthetic autotrophs (primary producers) like green
plants, algae, trees, shrubs, and herbs which are prolific sources of energy in the form of
carbohydrates stored in the leaves. Carbohydrates produced in photosynthesis are broken
down in the process of respiration (Dickison & Rothwell, 2020).

4.4 Roots

In botany, roots are part of the vascular plant that is normally underground. Its primary
function is anchorage of the plant, absorption of water and dissolved mineral and conduction
of these to the stem, and storage of reserve foods. The root differs from the stem mainly by
lacking leaf scars and buds, having a root cap, and having branches that originate from internal
tissue rather than from buds (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020b).

Roots is the descending portion of the plant axis and is positively geotropic. It is non-
green or brown in color. It is differentiated into nodes and internodes, does not bear leaves
and true buds. Usually protected by a root cap and bears unicellular root hairs. Lateral roots
arise from the root which is endogenous in origin.

Parts of the root

Figure 4.4.1. Parts of the root

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As seen in figure 4.4.1, there are parts of the root that can be traced out like:

Region of root cap

The tip of the root is called as calyptra or root cap. It is for the protection of the root tip
against any injury. It is formed from meristem called calyptrogen. andanus is the only plant
with multiple root caps. In the aquatic plants like Pistia, Lemma and Eicchornia instead of root
caps, they have root pockets for buoyancy. The root caps are absent in parasites and
mycorrhizal roots.

Region of Cell Division

Cells in the region of cell division, which is composed of an apical meristem (a tissue
of actively dividing cells) in the center of the root tip, produce the surrounding root cap. Most
of the cell divisions take place next to the root cap at the edges of this inverted cup-shaped
zone, located a short distance behind the actual base of the meristem. Here the cells divide
every 12 to 36 hours, while at the base of the meristem, they may divide only once in every
200 to 500 hours.

The divisions are often rhythmic, reaching a peak once or twice each day, usually
toward noon and midnight, with relatively quiescent intermediate periods. Cells in this region
are mostly cubical, with relatively large, more or less centrally located nuclei and a few very
small vacuoles. In both roots and stems, the apical meristem soon subdivides into three
meristematic areas: (1) the protoderm gives rise to an outer layer of cells, the epidermis; (2)
the ground meristem, to the inside of the protoderm, produces parenchyma cells of the cortex;
(3) the procambium, which appears as a solid cylinder in the center of the root, produces
primary xylem and primary phloem. Pith (parenchyma) tissue, which originates from the
ground meristem, is generally present in stems but is absent in most dicot roots. Grass roots
and those of most other monocots, however, do have pith tissue.

Region of elongation

This region merges with the apical meristem, usually extends about 1 centimeter (0.4
inch) or less from the tip of the root. Here the cells become several times their original length
and also somewhat wider. At the same time, the tiny vacuoles merge and grow until one or
two large vacuoles, occupying up to 90% or more of the volume of each cell, have been
formed. Only the root cap and apical meristem are actually pushing through the soil, since no
further increase in cell size takes place above the region of elongation. The usually extensive
remainder of each root remains stationary for the life of the plant. If a cambium is present,
however, there normally is a gradual increase in girth through the addition of secondary tissues
produced by the cambium.
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Region of maturation

The primary tissues in this region, which is sometimes called the region of
differentiation, or roothair zone. The large numbers of hairlike, delicate protuberances that
develop from many of the epidermal cells give the root-hair zone its name. The protuberances,
called root hairs, which absorb water and minerals, adhere tightly to soil particles with the aid
of microscopic fibers they produce and greatly increase the total absorptive surface of the root.
When a seedling or plant is moved, many of the delicate root hairs are torn off or die within
seconds if exposed to the sun, thereby greatly reducing the plant’s capacity to absorb water
and minerals in solution.

This is why plants should be watered, shaded, and pruned after transplanting until new
root hairs have formed. In any growing root, the extent of the root-hair zone remains fairly
constant, with new root hairs being formed toward the root cap and older root hairs dying back
in the more mature regions. The life of the average root hair is usually not more than a few
days, although a few live for a maximum of perhaps 3 weeks. The cuticle which may be
relatively thick on the epidermal cells of stems and leaves, is thin enough on the root hairs and
epidermal cells of roots in the region of maturation to allow water to be absorbed but still
sufficient to protect against invasion by bacteria and fungi.

The cells of the cortex, a tissue composed of parenchyma cells lying between the
epidermis and inner tissues, mostly store food. This tissue, which may be many cells thick, is
similar to the cortex of stems except for the presence of an endodermis at its inner boundary.
The endodermis consists of a single-layered cylinder of compactly arranged cells whose
primary walls are impregnated with suberin. The suberin bands, called Casparian strips, are
on the radial and transverse walls. The plasma membranes of the endodermal cells are fused
to the Casparian strips, which are perpendicular to the root’s surface; they prevent water from
passing through the otherwise permeable (porous) cell walls.

There are two types of root system (1) tap root and (2) fibrous root.

Tap root system develops from a radicle of the germinating seed also called as the
normal root system. Radicle develops into a primary root which grows vertically downwards
and becomes the tap root. On the other hand, fibrous root system develops from any part of
the plant body, other than the radicle. Mostly seen in monocotyledonous plants like grasses
that has a fibrous root system. Primary roots formed from the radicle disappear soon, then
many roots develop from the base of the stem as clusters of fibers hence called as a fibrous
root system.
115

Modifications of Tap Root

According to Parul University, 2017 modifications of the tap root system like fusiform,
napiform, conical, tuberous, and pneumatophores carries out special functions that helps in
the development and growth of certain plant species. Below are the functions of each forms
and its sample plant.

Fusiform- A modified tap root that is swollen in the middle while both ends gradually
taper forming a spindle shaped structure. Example: radish

Napiform- The hypocotyls region is considerably swollen, becoming almost spherical

and then abruptly tapering towards the lower end. Example: turnip and beet.

Conical- The roots swell, becoming broad at the base and gradually taper towards
apex forming a cone like structure. Example. Carrot,

Tuberous- The root is thick and fleshy but does not form any definite shape. Example:
cassava.

Pneumatophores- Commonly found in mangrove species that grow in saline and mud
flats, these are lateral roots that grows upward out of the mud and water to function as the site
of oxygen intake for the submerged primary root system.

Nodular roots- Members of the pea family (Fabaceae) host symbiotic nitrogen—fixing
bacteria (Rhizobium) and many plant roots form intricate associations with mycorrhizal soil
fungi; a number of non- photosynthetic mycoheterotrophic plants (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020b).

Modification of Fibrous roots

Roots that arise from an organ other than the root- usually a stem, sometimes a leaf.
Many primary and adventitious roots system have become modified for special functions, like
food storage, mechanical support, and vital functions.

Tuberous root- Grow from the nodes of the running stem. It swells and get modified
to irregular forms known as tuberous. Example: Sweet potato.

Fasciculate root- These are tuberous roots arising in cluster from the base of the
stem. Example: Dahlia, Ruellia, Asparagus.

Nodulose root- These are roots become swollen at their tips due to accumulation of
food. Example: Arrowroot, Mango- ginger.
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Monilform or beaded roots- Swollen at frequent intervals, gives the root a beaded
appearance. Example. Rose moss, Bitter gourd, Guinea rush.

Palmate tuberous root- In Orchis there is a pair of succulent tuberous root, one of
which perishes every year while another new one is formed by its side. Such orchid roots may
sometimes be of palmate shape, therefore, called palmate roots.

Annulated roots- The roots of a medicinal plant, Ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha)

yields emetine that looks like discs placed one above another, therefore, called annulated.

Parasitic or Haustorial- The roots of certain parasitic plants are highly modified into
haustoria, which embed into the vascular system of the host plant to feed the parasite.

Epiphytic roots- These roots are also called ‘hygroscopic roots’. These roots develop
in some orchids which grow as epiphytes upon the trunks or branches of trees. They hang
freely in the air and absorb moisture with the help of special sponge like tissue called velamen.
Velamen is modification of epidermis. e.g., Venda, Dendrobium etc.

Saprophytic roots- Also called as mycorrhizal roots, in here roots are associated with
fungal hyphae either superficially (ectomycorrhizae) or internally (endomycorrhizae) for
absorption of water and minerals. e.g., Monotropa and Sarcodes.

Photosynthetic or Assimilatory roots- These are green, aerial, adventitious roots

which prepare food materials by photosynthesis. Examples are Taeniophyllum, Trapa and
Tinospora. In some epiphytes like Taeniophyllum, stem and leaves are absent. The entire
plant is represented by thin green, ribbon like roots which contain velamen. These roots
absorb moisture from the atmosphere and manufacture food materials by photosynthesis.

Reproductive roots- Some fleshy adventitious root develops buds which can grow in
to new plants. These are called reproductive root. These roots serve as means of vegetative
propagation. e.g., Sweet potato, Dahlia etc.

Stilt Roots- Aerial, adventitious obliquely growing roots that develop from the lower
nodes of the stem to give additional support are called stilt roots. This root bears several large
overlapping root caps called multiple root caps. e.g., Sugarcane, Pandanus, Rhizophora,
Sorghum and Maize. Pandanus (screw pine) is a common sea shore plant. They also help in
the absorption of water and minerals from the soil.

Prop Roots- Adventitious aerial roots arise from horizontal aerial branches of the trees
like Ficus bengalensis (Banyan). These are initially hygroscopic in function, become red in
moist condition and possess root-caps at their apices. It grows vertically downward, penetrate
the soil, become thick and assume the shapes of pillars. They provide support to the spreading
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branches of tree. Sometimes the main trunk dies and it is replaced by prop roots which assume
the shapes of trunks. In India, the biggest banyan tree having large number of prop roots is
found at Indian Botanical Gardens, Kolkata and Kadiri (Andhra Pradesh).

Buttress Roots- This is a horizontal plank like aerial, adventitious roots that develop
at the base of the stem to give additional support are called buttress roots or ballast roots,
e.g., Terminalia and Salmalia. In some huge and heavy trees, plank like roots develop at the
base of the stem on the soil surface. These roots give additional support and act like ballasts.
Hence these roots are called ballast roots. In monocots, these roots arise in whorls from a few
basal nodes of stem.

Climbing Roots- These are aerial adventitious roots that arise from the nodes or
internodes of weak stemmed plants to climb up their support are called climbing roots, e.g.,
Pothos, Piper betel, Vanilla and Hedera.

Floating Roots- These roots develop from the nodes of floating aquatic plants like
Jussiaea (=Ludwigia). It stores air, become inflated and spongy, project above the level of
water, make the plant light and function as floats.

Contractile or Pull Roots- Roots of some plants with underground stems contract or
swell so that the aerial shoots are kept in a proper depth in the soil. e.g., Canna, Crocus,
Allium, Lilium, Freesia, etc.

Root thorns- In aroids like Pothos and many palms (Acanthorhiza and Iriartea) the
adventitious roots become hard and pointed hence called root thorns.
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Modifications of the Tap root system

Fusiform

Napiform
Conical Tuberous

Modification of Fibrous roots

Pneumatophores Nodular roots

Tuberous Fasciculate Moniliform

119

Annulated Nodulose Parasitic or haustorial

Epiphytes Saprophytes

Photosynthetic or assimilatory
roots
120

Reproductive roots

Stilt roots

Prop roots

Climbing roots

Buttress roots
121

Floating roots

Contractile roots

Root thorns
Learning activity XII.

1. Look for ten 10 plants and identify its root modifications.

2. Take a picture of the plant.
3. Give the common name and scientific name of the plant.
4. Place your picture and answer in a short white bond paper
122

Absorption of water

Primary tissues of the roots are, from the outermost to the innermost, the epidermis,
the cortex, and the vascular cylinder. Water and dissolved minerals enters through the cell
wall and cell membrane of the root hair cell by osmosis. Osmosis occurs because (1) water is
present in higher concentrations in the soil than within the epidermal cells and (2) membrane
of the epidermal cells is permeable to water but not too many substances dissolved in the
internal fluid. Such conditions create an osmotic gradient, whereby water flows into the
epidermal cells. This flow exerts a force, called root pressure, that helps drive the water
through the roots. This phenomenon is partially responsible for the rise of water in plants, but
it cannot alone account for the transport of water to the top of all trees (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020b).

4.4.2. Transport of water in plants, from the roots to the xylem.

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4.5. Stem

In botany, stem is the plant axis that bears the buds and shoots with leaves and, at its
basal end, roots. It conducts water, minerals, and food to other parts of the plant; may also
store food, and green stems themselves produces food. In most plants the stem is the major
vertical shoot, in some it is inconspicuous, and in others it is modified and resembles other
plant parts. In asexual reproduction, as what we have discussed stems are used as a
vegetative propagule to increase plant species.

Figure 4.5.1. Parts of the stem.

Part Function

Terminal bud- It is the primary growing point at the top of the stem of the
plant (Your dictionary, 2018). According to Sunset 2019, if a
terminal bud is removed, the growth if the lateral buds is
stimulated and the plant becomes bushier, but if the lateral
buds or branches are removed, growth is channeled into the
lateral bud and the plant becomes taller or longer.

Axillary bud or lateral bud- An axillary bud, is formed at the junction between a leaf and
the stem. The shoot apex tends to inhibit outgrowth of axillary
buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance.
124

Node- In the article from Vanderlinden (2019), she stated that a

plant’s stem nodes are those critical areas from which the
leaves, branches, and aerial roots grow out from the stem.
The base of a bud, leaf, twig, or branch is always attached to
a node.

Internode- In contrast, internodes are the sections of stem between

nodes. It is the blood vessels carrying the water, hormones,
and food from node to node. These are lengthy and provide
several inches of spacing between adjacent nodes
(Vanderlinden, 2019)

Petiole- A stalk that attaches a leaf to the plant stem.

Stem’s anatomy consists tissues that works together to support, protect, and aid in the
nourishment of plants. These are the dermal tissues, vascular tissues, and ground tissues.

Plant cells multiply by cell division, a mechanism known as Mitosis, which takes place
within its nucleus. This begins at the meristem, that is found at the tip of the root and/or the
shoot of vascular plants. Meristems at the tips are known as apical and lateral meristems.
Apical meristems are responsible for producing the roots while the lateral meristems produce
secondary growth of the stem wood and cork.

Besides cell division of the cells that leads to the formation of tissues that eventually
creates a plant, there are other features of the plant cells that are of importance to plant growth
and metabolisms.

1. Presence of a cell wall combined with a plasma membrane. It’s made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose, and pectin. The cell wall gives the cell shape, cell protection and mediation of
cellular interactions.

2. They have dynamic single-membranous central vacuoles that are filled with water
to maintain the turgor pressure of the cell, regulate the movement of cellular molecules within
the cytosol, storage of nitrogen and phosphorus and mediate digestion of stored cellular
proteins.
125

3. They have a plasmodesmata, which is a continuous porous structure that extends

from the endoplasmic reticulum, allowing cell-cell communication.

4. Plant cells also have plastids. The most common plastid known as chloroplasts,
that are made up of chlorophyll, a green pigment responsible for capturing light energy and
converting it to chemical energy that is used by the plants in photosynthesis. other plastids
include amyloplast for storage of starch, elaioplast, for storage of fats and chromoplasts for
synthesis and storage of pigments.

5. The plant cells undergo cell division by forming the phragmoplast template for
building up cell plates in cytokinesis. Unlike animal cells, plant cells notably lack cilia, flagella,
and centrioles.

Vascular tissue is an arrangement of multiple cell types in vascular plants which is

responsible for the transport of water, minerals, and the product of photosynthesis throughout
plant. Moreover, plants that are considered as non-vascular plants such as algae and moss
cannot easily transport water and nutrients (B.D. Editors, 2018).

Vascular plants (tracheophytes) differ

from non-vascular bryophytes that
possesses specialized supporting and
water- conducting tissue, called xylem,
and food- conducting tissue called
phloem. Xylem is composed of non-
living cells (tracheids and vessel
elements) that are stiffened by the
Figure 4.5.4. Vascular plants presence of lignin, a hardening
substance that reinforces the cellulose cell wall, however, living sieve elements that comprises
the phloem are not lignified. Xylem and phloem are collectively called as vascular tissue and
form a central column (stele) through the plant axis. Ferns, gymnosperms, and flowering plants
are all vascular plants (Dickison & Rothwell, 2020)
126

Modified stems that grows above ground.

Stolon- is also called as a runner, a slender stem that

grows horizontally along the ground, giving rise to roots
and aerial (vertical) branches at specialized points called
nodes (Lotha & Tikkanen, 2018)

Figure 4.5.7. Stolon

Tubers- specialized storage stems of certain seed plants.

It is usually short and thickened and typically grows below
the soil. Most tubers, bears minute scale leaves, each
with a bud that has a potential fordeveloping into a new
plant (Lotha et al., 2019).

Figure 4.5.8. Tubers

Cladodes- also called cladophylls or phylloclades, these
are shoot systems in which leaves do not develop; rather,
the stems become flattened and assume photosynthetic
functions of the plant (Stevens & Dilcher, 2019).

Figure 4.5.9. Cladodes

Rhizome- also known as rootstocks, a type of plant stem

situated either at the soil surface or underground that
contains nodes from which roots and shoots originate.
These are unique in that they grow perpendicular,
permitting new shoots to grow up out of the ground. When
separated, each piece of rhizome is capable of producing
Figure 4.5.10. Rhizome
a new plant (B. D. Editors, 2019b)

Corm- vertical, fleshy, underground stem that acts as a

food- storage structure in certain seed plants. It stores
starches to fuel growth and to help plants survive
unfavorable conditions, and many produce offshoots known

Figure 4.5.11.Corm
127

as daughter corms or cormels that are used for vegetative reproduction (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018a)

Bulb- a modified stem that is the resting stage of

certain seed plants,
particularly perennial monocotyledons. Consists
of a relatively large, usually globe-shaped,
underground bud with membraneous or fleshy
overlapping leaves arising from a short stem.

Figure 4.5.12. Bulb

Tendril- a plant organ specialized to anchor and support

vining stems. It may be a modified leaf, leaflets, leaf tips,
or leaf stipules; they may, however, be derived as modified
stem branches (e.g. grapes). It is distinctive in being
specialized lateral organ strongly possessing a twining
tendency causing it to encircle any object encountered.

(The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2016)

Figure 4.5.13. Tendril

Thorns- Represent the modifications of an axillary shoot

system in which the leaves are reduced a die quickly and
the stems are heavily sclerified and grow for only a limited
time. Protect the plants against herbivores (Stevens &
Zimmermann, 2019).

Figure 4.5.14. Thorns

Learning Activity XIII.

1. Look for ten 10 plants and identify its stem modifications.

2. Take a picture of the plant.
3. Give the common name and scientific name of the plant.
4. Place your picture and answer in a short white bond paper.
128

4.6. Leaf

In botany, leaves are usually flattened green outgrowth from the stem of a vascular plant. The
primary site for photosynthesis, it manufactures food for plants which gives nourishment and
sustains all land animals (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020f). They obtain their
green color due to the presence of chlorophyll (Leaves, n.d.). Leaves are also a site for gas
exchange within the plant and its environment.

Structure of the leaf

Figure 4.6.1. Structure of a leaf.

Typically, all plants have a lamina that is also called as the leaf blade, an expansion of a leaf.
Generally, broad and flat, it is in this layer that photosynthesis occurs (Leaf, n.d.). Some leaves
are attached to the plant stem by a petiole. Leaves do not have a petiole and are directly
attached to the plant stem are called as sessile leaves. Leaves also have stipules, small
green appendages usually found at the base of the petiole. Most leaves have a midrib, which
travels the length of the leaf and branches to each side to produce veins of vascular tissue.
The edge of the leaf is called the margin.
129

Internal Structure of the Leaf

Leaf is composed of the following layers:

Figure 4.6.2. Structure of a leaf.

Parts Function

Epidermis- The outermost, protoderm-derived layer of cells covering the stem,

root, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed parts of a plant. The epidermis and
its waxy cuticle provide a protective barrier against mechanical
injury, water loss, and infection.

Palisade mesophyll- This layer of the leaf is adapted to absorb light efficiently. The cells:
are packed with many chloroplasts. are column-shaped and
arranged closely together.

Spongy mesophyll- This tissue is packed loosely for efficient gas exchange. The
spongy mesophyll cells are covered by a thin layer of water. Gases
dissolve in this water as they move into and out of the cells.
130

Guard cells- Located in the leaf epidermis and pairs of guard cells surround and
form stomatal pores, which regulate CO2 influx from the
atmosphere into the leaves for photosynthetic carbon fixation.
Stomatal guard cells also regulate water loss of plants via
transpiration to the atmosphere (Kwak et al., n.d.)

Cuticle- A waxy layer that covers the leaves of all plant species. The cuticle
reduces the rate of water loss from the leaf surface. Other leaves
may have small hairs (trichomes) on the leaf surface. Trichomes
help to avert herbivory by restricting insect movements or by storing
toxic or bad-tasting compound (Boundless, 2020b).

Xylem- A specialized tissue of vascular plants that

transports water and nutrients from the plant–soil interface to
stems and leaves, and provides mechanical support and storage.

Phloem- A vascular tissue in charge of transport and distribution of the

organic nutrients. The phloem is also a pathway to signaling
molecules and has a structural function in the plant body.

Vein- It is composed of xylem and phloem cells embedded in

parenchyma, sometimes sclerenchyma, and surrounded by bundle
sheath cells.

Stomata- These are pores surrounded by specialized parenchymatic cells,

called guard cells. Stomata have two main functions, namely they
allow for gas exchange acting as an entryway for carbon dioxide
(CO2) and releasing the Oxygen (O2) that we breath. The other
main function is regulating water movement through transpiration
(Caballero & Roca, 2018).
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Classification of leaf

On the basis of petiole.

Petiolate plants are groups of flowering plants that possess a petiole, which connects
the leaf blade to the stem. On the other hand, sessile plants lack petioles; hence, their leaves
are attached directly to the stem (Biology Online, n.d.).

Figure 4.6.3. Petiolate vs. sessile

On the basis of lamina

The lamina can be studied through its base, shape, margin, apex, surface, texture,
color, odor, taste, venation, leaf incision and simple or compound.

According to Kumar, (n.d.) shapes could either be one of the following:

1. Acicular- Needle shaped as in pine.

2. Linear- longer and slightly broader in many grasses.

3. Lanceolate- Shaped like a lance as in Nerium and Polyalthia

4. Oblong- More or less rectangle as in banana.

5. Subulate- long and narrow, tapering gradually from base to apex as in Salsola kali.

6. Ovate- An egg shaped leaf like banyan.

7. Cordate- A deep notch at the base as in betel vine.

8. Sagittate- Shaped like an arrowhead with the two basal lobes pointing to-wards the
base as in Sagittaria sagittifolia and in arum.

9. Hastate- Like sagittate but the two basal lobes are directed outwards as in some
Ipomoea and in Typhonium.

10. Reniform or kidney-shaped- Rounded above with a deep notoh at the base as in
Centella asiatica.
132

11. Lunate- Shaped like a half-moon with two pointed basal lobes as in some
Adiantum (a fern) and in Passiflora lunata (reversed).

12. Obovate- Reverse of ovate as in jack-fruit or Terminalia catappa.

13. Obcordate- Reverse of cordate with an apical notch as in Batihinia.

14. Spathulate- Shaped like a spatula as in Euphorbia nerifolia, Phyla nodiflora or

Drosera burmanni.

15. Cuneate- or wedge-shaped as in Pistia stratiotes.

16. Elliptical- like an ellipse as in Vinca rosea, guava and India-rubber.

17. Rotund- or orbicular (circular) as in lotus, water-lily and garden nasturtium.

Figure 4.6.4. Lamina shapes

Incised forms:

Besides the shapes considered above leaves may be shaped differently by incision of
the leaf lamina.

According to Gupta (n.d.), base could either be one of the following:

1. Connate- Two sessile opposite leaves meeting each other across the stem and
fusing together, e.g., Lomicera flava.
133

2. Amplexicaul- Clasping or surrounding the stem, as base of leaf, e.g., Sonchus.

3. Auriculate- Leaf with expanded bases surrounding stem, e.g., Calotropis.

4. Decurrent- Having leaf base prolonged down stem as a winged expansion or rib,
e.g., Laggera pterodonta.

5. Perfoliate- A leaf with basal lobes so united as to appear as if stem ran through it,
e.g., Aloe perfoliata.

Figure 4.6.4. Lamina bases

According to Kumar, (n.d.) margin of the lamina could either be one of the following:

1. Entire- When the margin is smooth as in mango.

2. Repand- Margin wavy as in Polyalthia.

3. Serrate- Margin with teeth pointed upwards as in a saw, e.g., china-rose, rose, etc.

4. Bi- serrate- Margin toothed but the teeth again serrated as in the elm tree.

5. Retroserrate- The teeth are pointed downwards.

6. Dentate- Margin toothed, the teeth are pointed outward, i.e., at right angles, e.g.,
water-lily.

7. Bi- dentate- Margin toothed and the teeth are again dentate.

8. Crenate- Margin toothed and the teeth ^re rounded as in Centella and Kalanchoe.

9. Bi- crenate- Margin toothed and the teeth are again crenate.

10. Spiny- The marginal teeth are pointed to form spines as in pineapple (Ananas) or
Mexican poppy (Argemone).

11. Lobed or incised- When the margin is so much dissected that it can no longer be
described simply as toothed. There are various types of lobing or incision which ate discussed
later in connection with leaf incision.
134

Figure 4.6.5. Lamina bases

According to Kumar, (n.d.) surface of the lamina could either be one of the following:

1. Glabrous- When smooth and without any hair, etc., as in mango.

2. Glaucus- When the surface is covered by a waxy coating causing a shiny bluish or
whitish tinge as in the leaves of lotus, arum or Calotropis.

3. Scabrous- When the surface is rough because of the presence of short rigid points
as in fig leaves.

4. Viscose- When the surface is sticky because of some excretion as in Cltome

viscosa. A similar case is the leaf of Nicotiana tabacum which is also sticky and is sometimes
described as glutinous.

5. Rugose- When the surface is somewhat wrinkled as in Rubus rugosus of Rosa-

ceae.

6. Gland-dotted- When glands are found on the leaf surface as in lemons.

7. Hairy- When the surface is covered with hairs. These again may be of many types:
(a) pubescent—when the hair is soft and woolly as in tomato; (b) pilose—when the hairs are
long, distinct and scattered as in Grewia flavescens; (c) villose—when hairs are long, soft and
closely arranged as in Leucas aspera; (d) tomentose—when hairs are short, dense and
cottony as in Terminalia tomentosa, Calolropis procera, etc.; (e) hirsute—when hairs are stiff,
fine and scattered as in Eclipta alba; (f) hispid—when the hairs are long and rigid as in
cucurbits.

8. Spinose- When the leaf surface is covered by small prickles (they are to be termed
prickles and not spines) as in brinjal.
135

According to Kumar, (n.d.) texture of the lamina could either be one of the following:

1. Herbaceous- When the leaf is thin and membranous as in china-rose and rose.

2. Coriaceous- When it is firm and leathery as in mango.

3. Succulent- When soft and juicy as in Kalanchoe. The leaves are more or less brittle.

4. Gland-dotted- The presence and nature of glands (e.g., on lemon leaves) may be
considered in connection with texture as well as in connection with lamina surface.

Colour, Odour & Taste

According to Kumar, (n.d.) are the characteristics of the lamina that is important for the
identification when anything special is found.

Venation- Fibrovascular tissue system supplying a leaf reaches the base of the lamina
through the petiole and from this point it branches out or ramifies according to certain patterns.
The ramifications are called veins and their arrangement is known as vena-tion. Moreover,
conducting and mechanical tissues of the vascular system (veins) circulate water and other
raw material as well as prepared food throughout the leaf and at the same time gives
mechanical rigidity to the leaf. The veins, therefore, serve as a circu-latory system as well as
like a skeleton of the leaf. Venation is very clear on the lower surface of thin leaves (Kumar,
n.d.).

A. Reticulate Venation- There are two types of reticulate venation.

(a) Unicostate or Pinnate- May be likened to racemose branching. The main

fibrovascular supply traverses the length of the lamina from base to apex and forms the midrib
or the prominent single costa. Midrib gives out secondary branch veins resembling the general
plan of a feather (hence the name pinnate) and these, in their turn, give rise to the
anastomosing veins. Secondary veins often do not reach the margin but before reaching the
edge either fizzle out or curve and run parallel to the margin for a short length.

(b) Palmate- Reaching the base of the lamina, breaks up into a number of equally
strong veins or costas. Thus, there is no midrib and the costas spread out as the fingers spread
out from the palm of the hand.

Palmate venation, again, may be:

(i) Convergent- The prominent veins (costas) after spreading out from the base again
converge towards the-tip of the lamina like Zizyphus jujuba of Rhamnaceae and in the
cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum tamala).
136

(ii) Divergent- When the costas spread out farther and farther apart as in the cucur-bits
and china-rose.

B. Parallel or Striate Venation

Parallel venation, similarly, may be unicostate or multicostate.

(a) Unicostate or Pinnate- May be seen in banana (Musa of Musaceae) or Canna of

Cannaceae where there is a strong midrib giving rise to parallel branches which are joined by
transverse veinlets which are again parallel to one another.

(b) Palmate- Shoeing a number of strong veins (costas) which are:

(i) Convergent in bamboos and grasses,

(ii) Divergent in fan palm (Borassus flabellifer of Palmaceae).

Figure 4.6.5. Lamina venations

Moreover, leaves could be compound or simple. Simple leaves are leaves in which
the leaf blade or lamina is undivided into lobes and the arrangement of such leaves are in
acropetal succession. On the other hand, compound leaves show the division of leaf blade
or lamina into leaflets, it does not make acropetal succession arrangement of the leaflets
(Rachna, 2018).
137

Figure 24. Simple vs. compound leaf

Figure 4.6.6. Simple vs. compound leaf

Types of Compound Leaves

Pinnately Compound- Leaflets are arranged laterally along the rachis (featherlike
fashion). This type of leaf compound could simple, bipinnate and tripinnate.

A. Simple leaf can be even or odd pinnate.

Figure 4.6.7. Even and odd pinnate

138

B. Bipinnate are primary rachis branches into secondary rachis that bears the leaflets.

Figure 4.6.8. Bipinnate

C. Tripinnate are compound leaf with primary, secondary and tertiary rachises.

Figure 4.6.9. Tripinnate

Palmately compound- Leaflets radiate from a common point. This type of compound
leaf could either be (1) Unifoliate, (2) Bifoliate, (3) Trifoliate and (4) Quadrifoliate and (5)
Mullifoliate.

Figure 4.6.10. Palmate compound

139

Learning Activity XIV

1. Look for ten 10 plants and identify its leaf modifications.

2. Take a picture of the plant.
3. Give the common name and scientific name of the plant.
4. Place your picture and answer in a short white bond paper.
140

4.7 Flowers

In the article from Gaur et al. (2020) they stated that flowers are the reproductive
structure of angiosperms. The term “flower” applies when all part or all of the reproductive
structure is distinctive in colour and form. Flowers varies in colour, size, form and anatomical
arrangement, it presents a seemingly endless variety of combinations. Regardless of its
variety, all flowers have uniform function, the reproduction of species through the production
of seed.

Floral parts

A flower contains four sets of parts arranged in whorls on the receptacle the swollen
tip of the pedicel.

Accessory parts

1. Sepal (calyx)- Protects the inner parts of the flowers and prevents desiccation.

2. Petals (corolla)- Most noticeable portion, different colors. (Perianth is the collective
term for calyx and corolla)

Essential Parts

1. Stamen (androecium)- Group of stamens, or the male gametophyte consisting of (a)

pollen, (b) anther, and (c) filament.

2. Carpel (gynoecium)- Female reproductive leaf and ovule bearing structure of a

flower which consist of (a) ovary, (b) stigma, and (c) style.

Figure 4.7.1. Floral anatomy

141

Floral Variations

1. Parts present

A. Complete- A flower having sepals, petals, stamens and pistils is termed as complete
(Gaur et al., 2020)

B. Incomplete- Lacks any of the modified leaves.

2. Sexuality

A. Perfect- Bisexual or hermaphroditic, contains both stamens and pistils.

B. Imperfect- Unisexual, contains either stamens or pistils. A flower that lacks stamens
is called pistillate while flowers that lacks pistils are called as staminates (Gaur et al., 2020).

b. 1. Monoecious- When the same plant bears unisexual flowers of both sexes (Gaur
et al., 2020).

b. 2. Dioecious- When the male and female flowers are on different plants (Gaur et al.,
2020).

b. 3. Polygamous- When the male, female, and bisexual flowers are on the same plant
(Gaur et al., 2020).

Figure 4.7.2. Perfect flower

Figure 4.7.3. Monoecious plant

Figure 4.7.5. Polygamous

Figure 4.7.4. Dioecious plant
142

3. Number of flower parts

A. Dicotyledonous- Flower parts in 4’s and 5’s or divisible by 4 or 5.

B. Monocotyledonous- Flower parts are in 3’s or divisible 3.

Figure 4.7.6. Monocot and dicot flowers

4. Nature of flowers

A. Regular (Actinomorphic)- Modified leaves are of the same size and shape.

B. Irregular (Zygomorphic)- Modified leaves are different in size and shape.

b. 1. Papilionaceous

b. 1. 1. Standard/ banner- Largest outermost showy petal

b. 1. 2. Wings or Alae- Two lateral petals.

b. 1. 3. Keel or Carina- Innermost petals.

b. 2. Caesalpinaceous

b. 2. 1. Banner- Smallest innermost petal

b. 2. 2. 2 wings

b. 2. 2. 2 keels

b. 3. Bilabiate (2- lipped)- Petals are partially united. Petals form the upper and lower lips.

b. 4. Orchidaceous- Flowers have 3 petals labellum- petal which is entirely different shapes
and sizes.
143

Figure 4.7.7. Regular and irregular flower

Figure 4.7.8. Papilionaceous Figure 4.7.9. Caesalpinaceous

Figure 4.7.11. Orchidaceous

Figure 4.7.10. Bilabiate
144

5. Symmetry of flower

A. Actinomorphic- Radial symmetry, flowers can be divided into 2 equal halves along
any plane.

B. Zygomorphic- Bilateral symmetry, divided into two equal halves only by a medical
cut through the central axis.

Figure 4.7.12. Zygomorphic and actinomorphic

6. Position of the ovary

A. Superior ovary (hypogynous)- Petals and sepals are inserted below the ovary.

B. Inferior ovary (epigynous)- Petals and sepals inserted above the ovary.

C. Perigynous- A hypanthium (a floral tube formed from the fusion of the stamens,
petals, and sepals) is attached to the receptacle below the gynoecium and surrounds the
ovary.

Figure 4.7.13. Hypogynous, perigynous, and epigynous flower

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7. Placentation

Types of placentation

In angiosperms, ovules are present inside the ovary. A placenta is a tissue where
ovules are attached inside the ovary. The mode of distribution of placenta inside the ovary is
known as placentation (Brainkart, 2016).

1. Axile placentation- This type

of placentation is seen in bi- or
multi carpellary, syncarpous
ovary. The carpel walls meet in
the centre of the ovary, where the
lacenta are formed like central
column. The ovules are borne at

Figure 4.7.14. Types of placentation

or near the centre on the
placenta in each locule. e.g.
Hibiscus.

2. Marginal Placentation- It occurs in a monocarpellary, unilocular ovary. The ovules

are borne along the junction of the two margins of the carpel. e.g. Fabaceae.

3. Parietal Placentation- This type of placentation is found in multi carpellary,

syncarpous, unilocular ovary. The carpels are fused only by their margins. The placenta
bearing ovules develop at the places, where the two carpels are fused. e.g. Cucumber

4. Basal Placentation- It is seen in bicarpellary syncarpous, and unilocular ovary. The

placenta develops directly on the receptacle, which bears a single ovule at the base of the
ovary. e.g. Asteraceae.

5. Superficial Placentation- This type of placentation occurs in a multicarpellary,

multiocular ovary. The ovules are borne on placentae, which develop all-round the inner
surface of the partition wall e.g. Nymphaeaceae
146

Inflorescence or Anthotaxy

A cluster of flowers on a branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is

categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a main axis.

Inflorescence may differ in the (a) number of flowers present, (b) sequence of floral
maturity, (c) length of the pedicel, and (d) number and arrangement of peduncles.

Kinds of Inflorescence

1. Raceme- Unbranched main axis or

peduncle, florets mature all at the
same time and the pedicels are of the
same length. Ex. Gladiola, Corrales.

2. Panicle- Branched main axis or

peduncle, florets mature at the same
time. Ex. Rice, Cadena Amor

3. Spike- Elongated axis and sessile.

Figure 4.7.15. Kinds of inflorescence Ex. Seifritz’s flower.

4. Ament or catkin- Special type of spike, elongated axis or drooping, and flowers are
usually unisexual. Ex. Buntot pusa

5. Spadix- Fleshy spike with both male and female flowers and petalloid bract (spathe).
Ex. Anthurium, gabi, pongapong.

6. Cyme- Inflorescence is more or less or convex. Pedicels of younger flowers at the

margin are longer than the older flowers at the center. Ex. Shanghai beauty, santan, mayana.

7. Corymb- Similar with cyme, pedicels of younger flower shorter (center), pedicels of
older flower longer (margin or base). Ex. Caballero.

8. Umbel- Axis is shorter, pedicillate flowers radiated from the rounded apex of the
axis. Ex. Japanese bamboo.

9. Head or capitate- Flowers are sessile, arrangement of flowers similar to umbel,

flower may be of 2 kinds (a) disc flower and (b) ray flower. Ex. Sunflower and cosmos.

10. Fascicle- Closed cluster or small bundle of pedicelled or sessile flowers on one
side of the stem. Ex. Abaca, false birds of paradise.
147

Pollination

The stamens and pistils are directly involved with the production of the seed. The
stamens bear microsporangia (spore cases) that develops into numerous microspores
(potential pollen grains); the pistil bears ovules, enclosing an egg cell. When a microspore
germinates, it is known as a pollen grain. When the pollen sacs in the stamen’s anther are
ripe, the anther releases them and the pollen is shed. Fertilization can occur only if the pollen
grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of a pistil, a process known as pollination.

Reproduction in flowering
plants begins with
pollination, the transfer of
pollen from anther to
stigma on the same flower
or to the stigma of another
flower on the same plant
(self-pollination) or from
the anther on one plant to
the stigma of another plant
(cross-pollination). Once

Figure 4.7.16. Pollination

the pollen grain lodges on
the stigma, a pollen tube grows from the pollen grain to an ovule. Two sperm nuclei then pass
through the pollen tube. One of them unites with the egg nucleus and produces a zygote. The
other sperm nucleus unites with two polar nuclei to produce an endosperm nucleus. The
fertilized ovule develops into a seed.

Self-pollination

In the presentation of Bhatnagar (2015), she stated that self-pollination is the transfer
of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of either the same or genetically
similar flower.

Types of Self-pollination

Autogamy- A type of self-pollination in which an intersexual or perfect flower that is

pollinated by its own pollen. It occurs in two methods:

A. Homogamy- The anthers and stigmas of chasmogamous or open flowers are

brought together by growth, bending or folding.
148

B. Cleistogamy- In cleistogamous flowers, the anthers dehisce inside closed flowers.

Growth of the style brings the pollen grains in contact with stigma. Pollination and seed set
are assured. Pollinators are not required.

Geitonogamy- A type of self- pollination in which pollen grains of one flower are
transferred to the stigma of another flower belonging to either the same plant or genetically
similar plant. In geitonogamy, the flowers often show modifications similar to ones found in
xenogamy or cross pollination.

Cross- pollination

Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from one anther of one flower to the
stigma of a genetically different flower. This type of pollination is affected by biotic and abiotic
factors.

Abiotic factors include wind (anemophily) and water (hydrophily) while the abiotic
factors that affects cross pollination include insects (entomophily), birds (Omithophily), bats
(Chiropterophily), snails (Malacophily), ants (Myrmycophily), and snakes (Ophiophily).
149

4.8 Fruits

According to Gaur et al. (2019), a fruit is mature ovary and usually contains seeds,
which have developed from the enclosed ovule after fertilization, however, a seeds could also
develop without fertilization through the process of parthenocarpy, for example, in bananas.
Fertilization induces various changes in a flower: the anthers and stigma wither, the petals
drop off, and the sepals may be shed or undergo modifications; the ovary enlarges, and the
ovules develop into seeds, each containing an embryo plant. The principal purpose of the fruit
is the protection and dissemination of the seed.

Figure 4.8.1. Fruit anatomy

Parts Functions

Endosperm- It is a triploid tissue that is formed by the fusion of one of the male
nuclei(haploid) and the vegetative nuclei(diploid). The endosperm
functions to provide nutrition to the developing embryo. (Toppr, n.d.)

Embryo- The fertilised ovule, an immature plant from which a new plant will grow
under proper conditions.

Seed coat- Present all over the seed except for a small pore called as the micropyle
which the where the new plant will germinate on finding a
favorable environment.
150

Endocarp- It is the innermost layer and also is different in different kinds of fruits.

Mesocarp- Is the second or the middle layer which is often juicy and varies in thickness
in different fruits.

Exocarp- It is the outermost layer which is formed from the outer layer or the epidermis.

Fruits classification

According to the presentation of (Alviola, 2008) fruits are classified according to the
following fruit types:

I. Simple fruits- This type of fruit develops from a single ovary containing one or more carpels,
fruits are formed from 1 pistil. It is either a (a) fleshy or (b) dry fruits.

A. Fleshy fruit- A fruit in which the wall becomes soft and fleshy as it matures.

Further, fleshy fruit can be classified into (a) Drupe, (b) Berry, and (c) pome.

Drupe- This type of fleshy fruit is a one seeded simple fruit that develops from a superior
ovary, the innermost portion of the wall (endocarp) becomes hard and stony, the outermost
part (exocarp) becomes a relatively thin skin, and the middle portion between the skin and the
stone (mesocarp) becomes either fleshy or fibrous.

Berry- A simple fruit in which the ovary wall or at least its inner portions become enlarged
and usually juicy. Examples: grape, banana, and gooseberry. Berry can be categorized into:
hesperidium and pepo.

Hesperidium- This type of berry in which leathery rind forms, the interior of the fruit
divided by septa, indicating the number of carpels.

Pepo- This is relatively hard rind. Examples: watermelon, gourds, and squash.

Pome- A pome is a French name for an apple. An accessory fleshy fruit formed by a group of
carpels more or less firmly united with each other and surrounded by and united to the floral
tube or receptacle like apples, pears, and mountain ash. This consist of tissue derived from
the ovary and from the perianth, for this reason it is often called as an accessory fruit.
151

B. Dry fruit- These are fruits in which the coat becomes dry at maturity.

Further, dry fruits can be classified into (a) Dehiscent and (b) Indehiscent fruits.

Dehiscent fruits- Dry fruits which at maturity open by definite natural beans to shed the
contained seeds.

Types of dehiscent fruits

Legumes- A dry dehiscent fruit developed from 1 carpel and at maturity splitting along both
the dorsal and ventral suture. Legumes splits along the two lines of dehiscence following
maturation and drying. Example: peas, beans, and peanuts. Moreover, peanut is one of the
few legumes that does not split open when ripe. This is because the fruit of peanut does not
develop on the air rather it develops air.

Follicle- A dry dehiscent fruit that is developed from 1 carpel and at maturity splitting along
only one suture. The fruit of the follicle develop from a single ripened ovary and split once to
release their seeds. The split is always lengthwise, along the edge of the carpel. Examples:
larkspur and columbine.

Capsule- A dry dehiscent fruit developed from several carpels. Unlike legumes, the capsule
is composed of more than one carpel. Moreover, capsules are categorized into loculicidal,
poricidal, denticidal, septicidal, silique, silicle, pyxis

Loculicidal- One which splits along the outer median line.

Poricidal- One which opens with round holes.

Denticidal- Small teeth at the top of the fruit that splits open to release the seeds, as
in this corn cockle.

Septicidal- One which splits along the septa and opens at the top.

Silique- A special long slender capsule of 2 carpels.

Silicle- A special short broad capsule of 2 carpels.

Pyxis- A capsule which has circumscissle dehiscence.

Indehiscent fruits- Dry fruits which does not open when mature to shed their seeds.

This is categorized into: (a) achene, (b) nut, (c) samara, (d) grain, and (e) schizocarp

Achene- A one- seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit. The seed is attached to the fruit wall at a single
point. Examples: buttercups, dandelion, and sunflower.
152

Nut- A dry, indehiscent fruit, one seeded fruit similar to an achene but with the wall greatly
thickened and hardened. Examples: beech, chestnut, oak, hazel, walnut and hickory.

Samara- A one- or two- seeded dry, indehiscent fruit in which part of the fruit walls grows out
into a wing. Examples: elm, maple, and ash.

Grain or Caryopsis- One seed which has the seed coat fused to the pericarp.

Schizocarp- From a compound pistil, splits into mericarps which encloses one or more seeds
and resemble fruits themselves.

II. Aggregate fruits- These are fruits developed from an aggregate or cluster of multiple
separate pistils that are borne on a single flower.

III. Multiple fruits- When an entire inflorescence develops into a single fruit, it is called a
multiple fruit. Example: pineapple, figs, mulberry and jackfruit.
153

Hesperidium
Orange
Drupe
Coconut

Pome
Pepo
Apple
Cucumber

Legume
154
Septicidal
capsule

Follicle
Columbine
Loculicidal
capsule

Poricidal
capsule

Denticidal
capsule

Septicidal
capsule
Silique
capsule
155

Silicle
Capsule
Pyxis
Capsule

Achene

Nut

Samara

Grain
156

Schizocarp

Learning Activity XV

1. Look for ten 10 fruits and identify its classification

2. Take a picture of the fruit.
3. Give the common name and scientific name of the plant.
4. Place your picture and answer in a short white bond paper.
157

UNIT IV
INVERTIBRATES
The invertebrate animal phyla exhibit an enormous variety of cells and tissues adapted
for specific purposes, and frequently these tissues are unique to their phyla. These
specializations show the range of cellular differentiation possible within the clade
Opisthokonta, which has both unicellular and multicellular members. Cellular and structural
specializations include cuticles for protection, spines and tiny harpoons for defense, toothy
structures for feeding, and wings for flight.
An exoskeleton may be adapted for movement or for the attachment of muscles as in
the clams and insects. Secretory cells can produce venom, mucus, or digestive enzymes. The
body plans of some phyla, such as those of the mollusks, annelids, arthropods, and
echinoderms, have been modified and adapted throughout evolution to produce thousands of
different forms.
Perhaps you will find it amazing that an enormous number of both aquatic and
terrestrial invertebrates—perhaps millions of species—have not yet been scientifically
classified. As a result, the phylogenetic relationships among the invertebrates are constantly
being updated as new information is collected about the organisms of each phylum.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, the student is able to:
1. Recognize the different phylums under invertebrates; and
2. Understand the characteristics of the different phylums.
Pretest.
Which of the following statements is false?
a. Choanocytes have flagella that propel water through the body.
b. Pinacocytes can transform into any cell type.
c. Lophocytes secrete collagen.
d. Porocytes control the flow of water through pores in the sponge body.

Phylum Porifera
Animals included in phylum Porifera are parazoans because they do not show the formation
of true embryonically derived tissues, although they have a number of specific cell types and
“functional” tissues such as pinacoderm. These organisms show very simple organization,
with a rudimentary endoskeleton of spicules and spongin fibers. Glass sponge cells are
connected together in a multinucleated syncytium. Although sponges are very simple in
organization, they perform most of the physiological functions typical of more complex
animals.
158

Phylum Cnidaria

Cnidarians represent a more complex level of organization than Porifera. They

possess outer and inner tissue layers that sandwich a noncellular mesoglea between them.
Cnidarians possess a well-formed digestive system and carry out extracellular digestion in a
digestive cavity that extends through much of the animal. The mouth is surrounded by
tentacles that contain large numbers of cnidocytes—specialized cells bearing nematocysts
used for stinging and capturing prey as well as discouraging predators.

Cnidarians have separate sexes and many have a lifecycle that involves two distinct
morphological forms—medusoid and polypoid—at various stages in their life cycles. In
species with both forms, the medusa is the sexual, gamete-producing stage and the polyp is
the asexual stage. Cnidarian species include individual or colonial polypoid forms, floating
colonies, or large individual medusa forms (sea jellies).

Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
(Flatworms, Rotifers, and Nemerteans)

This section describes three phyla of relatively simple invertebrates: one acoelomate,
one pseudocoelomate, and one eucoelomate. Flatworms are acoelomate, triploblastic
animals. They lack circulatory and respiratory systems, and have a rudimentary excretory
system. This digestive system is incomplete in most species, and absent in tapeworms. There
are four traditional groups of flatworms, the largely free-living turbellarians, which include
polycladid marine worms and tricladid freshwater species, the ectoparasitic monogeneans,
and the endoparasitic trematodes and cestodes.

Trematodes have complex life cycles involving a molluscan secondary host and a
primary host in which sexual reproduction takes place. Cestodes, or tapeworms, infect the
digestive systems of their primary vertebrate hosts. Rotifers are microscopic, multicellular,
mostly aquatic organisms that are currently under taxonomic revision. The group is
characterized by the ciliated, wheel-like corona, located on their head. Food collected by the
corona is passed to another structure unique to this group of organisms—the mastax or jawed
pharynx.

The nemerteans are probably simple eucoelomates. These ribbon-shaped animals

also bear a specialized proboscis enclosed within a rhynchocoel. The development of a closed
circulatory system derived from the coelom is a significant difference seen in this species
compared to other phyla described here. Alimentary, nervous, and excretory systems are
more developed in the nemerteans than in the flatworms or rotifers. Embryonic development
159

of nemertean worms proceeds via a planuliform or trochophore-like larval stage.

Superphylum Lophotrochozoa
(Mulluscs and Annelids)

Phylum Mollusca is a large, group of protostome schizocoelous invertebrates that

occupy marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. Mollusks can be divided into seven
classes, each of which exhibits variations on the basic molluscan body plan. Two defining
features are the mantle, which secretes a protective calcareous shell in many species, and
the radula, a rasping feeding organ found in most classes. Some mollusks have evolved a
reduced shell, and others have no radula.

The mantle also covers the body and forms a mantle cavity, which is quite distinct from
the coelomic cavity—typically reduced to the area surrounding the heart, kidneys, and
intestine. In aquatic mollusks, respiration is facilitated by gills (ctenidia) in the mantle cavity.
In terrestrial mollusks, the mantle cavity itself serves as an organ of gas exchange. Mollusks
also have a muscular foot, which is modified in various ways for locomotion or food capture.
Most mollusks have separate sexes. Early development in aquatic species occurs via one or
more larval stages, including a trochophore larva, that precedes a veliger larva in some
groups.

Phylum Annelida includes vermiform, segmented animals. Segmentation is metameric

(i.e., each segment is partitioned internally as well as externally, with various structures
repeated in each segment). These animals have welldeveloped neuronal, circulatory, and
digestive systems. The two major groups of annelids are the polychaetes, which have
parapodia with multiple bristles, and oligochaetes, which have no parapodia and fewer bristles
or no bristles.

Oligochaetes, which include earthworms and leeches, have a specialized band of

segments known as a clitellum, which secretes a cocoon and protects gametes during
reproduction. The leeches do not have full internal segmentation. Reproductive strategies
include separate sexes, hermaphroditism, and serial hermaphroditism. Polychaetes typically
have trochophore larvae, while the oligochaetes develop more directly.

Superphylum Ecdysozoa
(Nematodes and Tardigrades)

The defining feature of the Ecdysozoa is a collagenous/ chitinous cuticle that covers
the body, and the necessity to molt the cuticle periodically during growth. Nematodes are
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roundworms, with a pseudocoel body cavity. They have a complete digestive system, a
differentiated nervous system, and a rudimentory excretory system.

The phylum includes free-living species like Caenorhabditis elegans as well as many
species of endoparasitic organisms such as Ascaris spp. They include dioeceous as well as
hermaphroditic species. Embryonic development proceeds via several larval stages, and most
adults have a fixed number of cells.

The tardigrades, sometimes called "water bears," are a widespread group of tiny
animals with a segmented cuticle covering the epidermis and four pairs of clawed legs. Like
the nematodes, they are pseudocoelomates and have a fixed number of cells as adults.
Specialized proteins enable them to enter cryptobiosis, a kind of suspended animation during
which they can resist a number of adverse environmental conditions.

Superphylum Ecdysozoa
(Arthropods)

Arthropods represent the most successful animal phylum on Earth, both in terms of
the number of species and the number of individuals. As members of the Ecdysozoa, all
arthropods have a protective chitinous cuticle that must be periodically molted and shed during
development or growth. Arthropods are characterized by a segmented body as well as the
presence of jointed appendages.

In the basic body plan, a pair of appendages is present per body segment. Within the
phylum, traditional classification is based on mouthparts, body subdivisions, number of
appendages, and modifications of appendages present. In aquatic arthropods, the chitinous
exoskeleton may be calcified. Gills, tracheae, and book lungs facilitate respiration. Unique
larval stages are commonly seen in both aquatic and terrestrial groups of arthropods.

Superphylum Deuterostomia

Echinoderms are deuterostome marine organisms; whose adults show five-fold

symmetry. This phylum of animals has a calcareous endoskeleton composed of ossicles, or
body plates. Epidermal spines are attached to some ossicles and serve in a protective
capacity. Echinoderms possess a watervascular system that serves both for respiration and
for locomotion, although other respiratory structures such as papulae and respiratory trees are
found in some species.

A large aboral madreporite is the point of entry and exit for sea water pumped into the
water vascular system. Echinoderms have a variety of feeding techniques ranging from
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predation to suspension feeding. Osmoregulation is carried out by specialized cells known as

podocytes associated with the hemal system. The characteristic features of the Chordata are
a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, a post-anal tail, and an
endostyle/thyroid that secretes iodinated hormones.

The phylum Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates,

salps, and larvaceans) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in the
Vertebrata. Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets are
suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other microorganisms. The sister taxon of
the Chordates is the Ambulacraria, which includes both the Echinoderms and the
hemichordates, which share pharyngeal slits with the chordates.

Learning Activity XVI.

1. Describe the different cell types and their functions in sponges.

2. What are the different ways in which nematodes can reproduce?

3. Compare the differences in sexual reproduction between Porifera and Cubozoans. How
does the difference in fertilization provide an evolutionary advantage to the Cubozoans?

4. Compare the structural differences between Porifera and Cnidaria

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UNIT V.
VERTEBRATES
Vertebrates are among the most recognizable organisms of the Animal Kingdom, and
more than 62,000 vertebrate species have been identified. The vertebrate species now living
represent only a small portion of the vertebrates that have existed in the past. The best-known
extinct vertebrates are the dinosaurs, a unique group of reptiles, some of which reached sizes
not seen before or after in terrestrial animals.
In fact, they were the dominant terrestrial animals for 150 million years, until most of
them died out in a mass extinction near the end of the Cretaceous period (except for the
feathered theropod ancestors of modern birds, whose direct descendents now number nearly
10,000 species).
Although it is not known with certainty what caused this mass extinction (not only of
dinosaurs, but of many other groups of organisms), a great deal is known about the anatomy
of the dinosaurs and early birds, given the preservation of numerous skeletal elements, nests,
eggs, and embryos in the fossil record.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, the student is able to:
1. Recognize the different phylums under vertebrates; and
2. Understand the characteristics of the different phylums.
Pretest.
Which of the following statements about common features of chordates is true?
a. The dorsal hollow nerve cord is part of the chordate central nervous system.
b. In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits become the gills.
c. Humans are not chordates because humans do not have a tail.
d. Vertebrates do not have a notochord at any point in their development; instead, they
have a vertebral column

Chordates
The five characteristic features of chordates present during some time of their life
cycles are a notochord, a dorsal hollow tubular nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, endostyle/thyroid
gland, and a post-anal tail. Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata
(tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates in the Vertebrata/
Craniata.
Lancelets are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other
microorganisms. Most tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Which of
the two invertebrate chordate clades is more closely related to the vertebrates continues to be
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debated. Vertebrata is named for the vertebral column, which is a feature of almost all
members of this clade. The name Craniata (organisms with a cranium) is considered to be
synonymous with Vertebrata.

Fishes
The earliest vertebrates that diverged from the invertebrate chordates were the
agnathan jawless fishes, whose extant members include the hagfishes and lampreys.
Hagfishes are eel-like scavengers that feed on dead invertebrates and other fishes. Lampreys
are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth, and most species are parasitic or
predaceous on other fishes.
Fishes with jaws (gnathostomes) evolved later. Jaws allowed early gnathostomes to
exploit new food sources. Gnathostomes include the cartilaginous fishes and the bony fishes,
as well as all other tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, mammals).
Cartilaginous fishes include sharks, rays, skates, and ghost sharks. Most cartilaginous
fishes live in marine habitats, with a few species living in fresh water for part or all of their lives.
The vast majority of present-day fishes belong to the clade Osteichthyes, which consists of
approximately 30,000 species. Bony fishes (Osteichthyes) can be divided into two clades:
Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes, virtually all extant species) and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned
fishes, comprising fewer than 10 extant species, but form the sister group of the tetrapods).

Amphibians
As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs,
although some species of salamanders and all caecilians are limbless. The most important
characteristic of extant amphibians is a moist, permeable skin used for cutaneous respiration,
although lungs are found in the adults of many species.
All amphibians are carnivores and possess many small teeth. The fossil record
provides evidence of amphibian species, now extinct, that arose over 400 million years ago
as the first tetrapods. Living Amphibia can be divided into three classes: salamanders
(Urodela), frogs (Anura), and caecilians (Apoda).
In the majority of amphibians, development occurs in two distinct stages: a gilled
aquatic larval stage that metamorphoses into an adult stage, acquiring lungs and legs, and
losing the tail in Anurans. A few species in all three clades bypass a free-living larval stage.
Various levels of parental care are seen in the amphibians.
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Reptiles
The amniotes are distinguished from amphibians by the presence of a terrestrially
adapted egg protected by four extra-embryonic membranes. The amniotes include reptiles,
birds, and mammals. The early amniotes diverged into two main lines soon after the first
amniotes arose. The initial split was into synapsids (mammals) and sauropsids. Sauropsids
can be further divided into anapsids and diapsids (crocodiles, dinosaurs, birds, and modern
reptiles). Reptiles are tetrapods that ancestrally had four limbs; however, a number of extant
species have secondarily lost them or greatly reduced them over evolutionary time.
For example, limbless reptiles (e.g., snakes) are classified as tetrapods, because they
descended from ancestors with four limbs. One of the key adaptations that permitted reptiles
to live on land was the development of scaly skin containing the protein keratin, which
prevented water loss from the skin. Reptilia includes four living clades of nonavian organisms:
Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators), Sphenodontia (tuataras), Squamata (lizards and
snakes), and Testudines (turtles). Currently, this classification is paraphyletic, leaving out the
birds, which are now classified as avian reptiles in the class Reptilia.

Birds
Birds are the most speciose group of land vertebrates and display a number of
adaptations related to their ability to fly, which were first present in their theropod
(maniraptoran) ancestors. Birds are endothermic (and homeothermic), meaning they have a
very high metabolism that produces a considerable amount of heat, as well as structures such
as feathers that allow them to retain their own body heat.
These adaptations are used to regulate their internal temperature, making it largely
independent of ambient thermal conditions. Birds have feathers, which allow for insulation and
flight, as well as for mating and warning signals. Flight feathers have a broad and continuously
curved vane that produces lift. Some birds have pneumatic bones containing air spaces that
are sometimes connected to air sacs in the body cavity. Airflow through bird lungs travels in
one direction, creating a counter-current gas exchange with the blood. Birds are highly
modified diapsids and belong to a group called the archosaurs.
Within the archosaurs, birds are most likely evolved from theropod (maniraptoran)
dinosaurs. One of the oldest known fossils (and best known) of a “dinosaurbird” is that of
Archaeopteryx, which is dated from the Jurassic period. Modern birds are now classified into
three groups: Paleognathae, Galloanserae, and Neoaves.

Mammals
Mammals are vertebrates that possess hair and mammary glands. The mammalian
integument includes various secretory glands, including sebaceous glands, eccrine glands,
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apocrine glands, and mammary glands. Mammals are synapsids, meaning that they have a
single opening in the skull behind the eye. Mammals probably evolved from therapsids in the
late Triassic period, as the earliest known mammal fossils are from the early Jurassic period.
A key characteristic of synapsids is endothermy, and most mammals are
homeothermic. There are three groups of mammals living today: monotremes, marsupials,
and eutherians. Monotremes are unique among mammals as they lay eggs, rather than giving
birth to young.
Marsupials give birth to very immature young, which typically complete their
development in a pouch. Eutherian mammals are sometimes called placental mammals,
because all species possess a complex placenta that connects a fetus to the mother, allowing
for gas, fluid, and nutrient exchange. All mammals nourish their young with milk, which is
derived from modified sweat or sebaceous glands.

Evolution of Primates

All primate species possess adaptations for climbing trees and probably descended
from arboreal ancestors, although not all living species are arboreal. Other characteristics of
primates are brains that are larger, relative to body size, than those of other mammals, claws
that have been modified into flattened nails, typically only one young per pregnancy,
stereoscopic vision, and a trend toward holding the body upright. Primates are divided into
two groups: strepsirrhines, which include most prosimians, and haplorhines, which include
simians. Monkeys evolved from prosimians during the Oligocene epoch. The simian line
includes both platyrrhine and catarrhine branches.

Apes evolved from catarrhines in Africa during the Miocene epoch. Apes are divided
into the lesser apes and the greater apes. Hominins include those groups that gave rise to our
own species, such as Australopithecus and H. erectus, and those groups that can be
considered “cousins” of humans, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans.

Fossil evidence shows that hominins at the time of Australopithecus were walking
upright, the first evidence of bipedal hominins. A number of species, sometimes called archaic
H. sapiens, evolved from H. erectus approximately 500,000 years ago. There is considerable
debate about the origins of anatomically modern humans or H. sapiens sapiens, and the
discussion will continue, as new evidence from fossil finds and genetic analysis emerges.
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Learning Activity XVII

1. Explain why frogs are restricted to a moist environment.

2. Describe the functions of the three extra-embryonic membranes present in amniotic

eggs

3. What characteristics differentiate lizards and snakes?

4. Based on how reptiles thermoregulate, which climates would you predict to have the
highest reptile population density, and why?
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UNIT VI.
HUMAN ANATOMY AND BODY SYSTEMS

The world’s population is expected to reach 9 billion by year 2050. More than 250
babies are born every minute, while 150,000 people die daily, with the population increasing
by almost three humans per second. Each of us lives, thinks, worries, and daydreams with
and within, that most complex and marvelous of possessions- a human body. The body is
comprised of 11 integrated systems. Each system carries out one major role or task. The
systems are, in turn, composed of main parts known as organs, the organ consists of tissues,
and tissues are made up of cells.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this unit, the student is able to:
1. Describe the 11 systems that comprises the human body;
2. Understand the different roles and functions of each system; and
3. Determine the factors that affects the body’s homeostasis.
Pretest.
Give at least 1 system and discuss the parts and roles its major organs.

Levels of Organization

Remember, the human body is organized in several levels, from the simplest to the most
complex.

 Cells- The basic unit of life

 Tissues- Clusters of cells performing a similar function
 Organs- Made of tissues that perform one specific function.
 Organ systems- Groups of organs that perform a specific purpose in the human body.

Cell types

 Muscle tissue- Most abundant tissue controls internal movement digestion, blood
through veins external movement of body
 Epithelial tissue- Covering for body & organs linings of organs & vessels
 Connective tissue- Holds organs in place ligaments, tendons, some keep organs in
place
 Nervous tissue- Receives messages from body’s internal and external messages
analyze data & direct response
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The 11 human body systems

 Nervous system  Integumentary system

 Respiratory system  Digestive system

 Excretory system  Skeletal system

 Muscular system  Circulatory system

 Endocrine system  Reproductive system

 Lymphatic (immune) system

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

 Purpose- to deliver oxygenated blood to the various cells and organ systems in your
body so they can undergo cellular respiration

Cell type

 Muscle

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Heart – the major muscle of the circulatory system, it pumps deoxygenated blood into
the lungs, where it gets oxygenated, returned to the heart, and then pumped out
through the aorta to the rest of the body -- valve regulate the flow of blood between the
chambers.

Organ system Interactions

 With lungs – exchange O2 & CO2

 With digestive system - pick up nutrients for transport throughout the body
 With excretory – blood is filtered to remove toxins and some water
 Nervous system – heart-beat regulation & blood pressure
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Figure 6.1. Image of the Circulatory System.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Purpose- To coordinate the body’s response to changes in its internal and external
environment

Cell type

 Nerve

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Brain – Control center of the body, where all processes are relayed through -- consists
of cerebrum (controls though and senses) and cerebellum (controls motor functions).
 Spinal Cord – Sends instructions from the brain to the rest of the body and vice versa,
any organism with a major nerve cord is classified as a chordate
 Nerves – Conduct impulses to muscle cells throughout the body

Nerves – neurons clustered into bundles of fibers (axons)

3 types of Nerves:

1. Sensory – Carry impulses from sense organs to brain and spinal cord.

2. Motor – From brain or spinal to other organs.

3. Interneuron – Connects sensory and motor neurons.

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Synapse

 Point at which a neuron can transfer an impulse to another cell.

Human Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – the control center.

A. Brain – 100 billion cells neurons

a. Cerebrum – largest part, responsible for learning, intelligence, and judgment.

b. Cerebellum – coordinates and balances actions of muscles. (Posture,
movement, and balance.)
c. Brainstem – regulates blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, and swallowing.
(Thalamus, hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.)

Figure 6.2. Diagram of Nerve Cell

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Organ system Interactions

 Nervous system is interactive with all other systems in the body – you name it it’s
involved

Figure 6.3. Diagram of Nervous System

Respiratory System

 Purpose- To provide the body with a fresh supply of oxygen for cellular respiration and
remove the waste product carbon dioxide

Cell type

 Epithelial

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Nose – Internal entry and exit point for air

 Pharynx – Serves as a passage way for both air and food at the back of the throat
 Larynx – Your “voicebox”, as air passes over your vocal chords, you speak
 Trachea – The “windpipe”, or what connects your pharynx to your lungs -- a piece of
skin, called the epiglottis, covers the trachea when you swallow, preventing food from
entering
 Bronchi – The two large passageways that lead from the trachea to your lungs (one
for each lung).
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 the bronchi are further subdivided into bronchioles -- eventually; the further
subdivisions lead to tiny air sacs called alveoli
 alveoli are in clusters, like grapes
 capillaries surrounding each alveolus is where the exchange of gases with the blood
occurs
 Lungs – contain the alveoli, bronchi and connective tissue
 The diaphragm is the muscle that causes you to breath- hiccups are involuntary
contractions of the diaphragm

WHY ARE ALVEOLI SO IMPORTANT?

 Alveoli are the air sacs of the lungs

 They have thin walls made of simple cells and are surrounded by blood capillaries.
 Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli.
 Oxygen gas is in higher concentration in the alveoli than in the blood and so it
diffuses into the blood through a layer of cells.
 Carbon dioxide is in higher concentration in the blood than the alveoli and so it
diffuses into the alveoli through a layer of cells.

The surface of alveoli is covered in a thin lipoprotein layer and it prevents them from collapsing
during exhalation.

Figure 6.4. Bronchiole with Alveoli

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Organ system Interactions

• The respiratory system directly interacts with the circulatory system

• Indirectly interacts with the immune system (lining of the nasal and bronchiol
cavities/tubes)
• Nervous system (smell & taste) – regulation of breathing

Figure 6.5. Image of the Respiratory System

Digestive System

 Purpose- To convert food particles into simpler micro molecules that can be absorbed
into the bloodstream and used by the body.

Cell Type

 Epithelial and Muscle

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Mouth – To chew and grind up food -- saliva also begins the chemical breakdown
 Esophagus – Pipe connecting mouth to stomach
 Stomach – Secretes an extraordinarily strong acid (pH = 2) that leads to breakdown
of food, once the food is broken down in the stomach and mixed with digestive juices,
it is called chime
 Pancreas – Secretes digestive enzymes, produces the hormone insulin that regulates
blood sugar levels, also help neutralize stomach acid
 Liver – Produces bile, which breaks down fats in foods
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 Gallbladder – Pouch-like organ that stores bile for future use

 Small Intestine – After digestion is complete, the chyme enters the small intestine
where it is absorbed into the bloodstream, the chyme is propelled along by folded
surfaces called villi, on the intestine.
 Large Intestine – Removes water from the chyme and gets the waste ready for
excretion

Organ System Interactions

 Circulatory system – Move nutrients to other parts of body

 Nervous system – Regulation of peristaltic activity
 Endocrine system – Hormones that regulate apatite and digestive enzyme release
 Excretory – Removal of solid waste.

Figure 6.6. Image of the Digestive System

Lymphatic/ Immune System

 Purpose- To remove infectious diseases and other pathogens from the human body
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Cell type

 Epithelial

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Skin – Also called the integumentary system, the skin is the body’s first line of defense
 White Blood Cells – Recognize disease agents (antigens) and create antibodies to
tag and remove these antigens -- phagocytes are the white blood cell type that actually
eats and destroys these antigens
 Lymph Nodes – Help restore fluid lost by the blood and return it to the circulatory
system
 Spleen – Produces and stores white blood cells
 Thymus – Site of white blood cell maturation

Organ System Interactions

 Integumentary – First line of defense

 Respiratory – Mucus membranes
 Circulatory – Transport of antibodies & white blood cells.
 Endocrine – Chemical stimulus response.
 Excretory & digestive – Elimination of pathogens.

Figure 6.6. Image of the Lymphatic System

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Integumentary System

 Purpose- Temperature regulation, waste removal, sensory info, and protection

Cell type

 Epithelial

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Skin- Absorbs radiation from the sun that maybe harmful, reduces loss of heat, filters
out dust and dirt, shows gender, sensitive to movement.
 Nail- Protects tips of fingers or toes, helps pick up small objects, enhances sensation
of the finger by acting as a counterforce, scratching

Epidermis

 Outermost layer of skin, made of layers of epithelial cells, outermost layer of cells are
flattened, dead, and keratin filled, keratin makes skin tough and waterproof, skin is
continually damaged, but replaces cells instead of repairing them, layer of actively
dividing cells at base of epidermis make new cells that move up to replace old ones
on surface, producing keratin as they go, Epidermal cells contain melanin, a pigment
that absorbs UV radiation, Melanin ranges from reddish brown to black.

Figure 6.7. Image of the Epidermis

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Dermis

 Purpose- Supports epidermis. Contains nerve endings, blood vessel, and smooth
muscles.

2 types of glands

A) Sweat glands - controlled by nervous system

B) Sebaceous glands - produce oily secretions that helps keep the epidermis flexible
and waterproof.

Subcutaneous Tissue

 Located beneath the dermis, it’s a layer of connective tissue made of fat, it’s a shock
absorber, insulator, and energy storage, Anchors skin to underlying organs, Thickness
varies throughout the body.

Organ System Interactions

 Immune system - First line of defense

 Circulatory system - Brings nutrients and water
 Excretory system – Sweat
 Nervous system – Touch
 Endocrine – Thermoregulation

Endocrine System

 Purpose- To control growth, development, metabolism and reproduction through the

production and secretion of hormones

Cell type

 Epithelial

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Hypothalamus- The function of the hypothalamus is to maintain your body's internal

balance, which is known as homeostasis. To do this, the hypothalamus helps stimulate
or inhibit many of your body's key processes, including: Heart rate and blood pressure
 Pituitary Gland- Is an important pea-sized organ. If your pituitary gland doesn't
function properly, it affects vital parts like your brain, skin, energy, mood, reproductive
organs, vision, growth and more. It's the “master” gland because it tells other glands to
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release hormones.
 Thyroid- Produces hormones that regulate the body's metabolic rate controlling heart,
muscle and digestive function, brain development and bone maintenance. Its correct
functioning depends on a good supply of iodine from the diet.
 Parathyroid- Produce parathyroid hormone, which plays a key role in the regulation
of calcium levels in the blood. Precise calcium levels are important in the human body,
since small changes can cause muscle and nerve problems.
 Adrenal Glands- Produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune
system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.
 Pancreas- During digestion, your pancreas makes pancreatic juices called enzymes.
These enzymes break down sugars, fats, and starches. Your pancreas also helps your
digestive system by making hormones. These are chemical messengers that travel
through your blood.
 Testes- The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex
hormone, and for producing sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called
seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells
through a process called spermatogenesis.
 Ovaries- The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of
the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones.

Endocrine System

 Controls all the metabolic activities of the body.

 Made up of a series of glands – organs which produce and release chemical
messengers, generally into the bloodstream.
 The chemical messengers are called hormones and they affect the behavior of cells.

Glands of the Endocrine System

 The major gland is the pituitary gland – produces many of the hormones that regulate
the endocrine glands.
 The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland.
 Thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries and testes.
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Examples of Hormones

Endocrine Glands Hormone Effect on Target Cells

Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolic rate of

cells

Adrenal medulla Adrenaline and Prepare the body for “fight or

noradrenaline flight” by increasing body
activities

Pancreas – Islets of Insulin Regulates the amount of

Langerhans sugar in bloodstream

Posterior pituitary Oxytocin Stimulates contractions of

uterus during childbirth

Organ System Interactions

 You name it – it interacts with it for regulation especially in conjunction with the nervous
system and circulatory system

Excretory System

 Purpose- To eliminate the body of wastes, including excess water and salts.

Cell Type

 Epithelial

Major Organs and Their Functions

 Kidneys – The main organs of the excretory system -- waste-laden blood enters the
kidney and the kidney filters out urea, excess water and other waste products, which
eventually travel out of the kidney as urine -- eventually they travel through the ureter
to the urinary bladder
 Rectum – Solid (food) waste travels out of the body through the rectum
 Skin – Sweat glands remove excess water and salts from the body
 Lungs – Expel the waste gas carbon dioxide
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Organ System Interactions

 Circulatory system – Filters blood

 Digestive system – Removes undigested food
 Nervous system – Response & regulation
 Endocrine system – Response regulation

Figure 6.7. Image of the Excretory System

Skeletal System

 Purpose- To provide structure and support to the human body Bones are where new
blood cells are generated (in the marrow), and require the mineral calcium for strength.

Cell Types

 Osteocytes and bone marrow

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Major Bones in the Human Body

Femur (thigh bone) Humerus (upper arm) Radius and ulna (lower arm)

Cranium (skull) Sternum (breastbone) Clavicle (shoulder blade)

Fibula and tibia (calf) Vertebrae (back) Scalpula (shoulder)

Pelvic bone Coccyx (tail bone) Phalanges (fingers/toes

What are joints, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage?

 Joints are where to bones meet and can withstand pressure.

 Ligaments are strong bands of connective tissue that hold joints together and prevent
them from moving too far.
 Tendons are strips of dense connective tissue attached to bone.
 Cartilage is light weight, strong, flexible tissue.

Organ system Interaction

• Nervous system – Movement

• Muscle system – Movement
• Circulatory system – Oxygen & nutrients
• Digestive system – Digestion (stomach & peristaltic activity
• Excretory – Sweat

Reproductive System

 Purpose- Produces, matures, nourishes, and stores gametes. – For the first 6 weeks
of development, male and female embryos are identical. – At the 7th week, if a Y
chromosome is present, the testes develop and begin to produce androgens
(hormones) that cause male physical characteristics and reproductive structures to
develop.

Cell type

 Epithelial
182

Male Reproductive System

Penis The male sex organ, reaching its full size during puberty. In addition
to its sexual function, the penis acts as a conduit for urine to leave
the body

Seminal Vesicle Important for semen coagulation, sperm motility, and stability of
sperm chromatin and suppression of the immune activity in the
female reproductive tract. In conclusion, the function of seminal
vesicle is important for fertility.

Prostate Located just below the bladder in men and surrounds the top portion
of the tube that drains urine from the bladder (urethra). The prostate's
primary function is to produce the fluid that nourishes and transports
sperm (seminal fluid).

Vas deferens A long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic
cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature
sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.

Epididymis A long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It
carries and stores sperm cells that are created in the testes. It's also
the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity — the sperm
that emerge from the testes are immature and incapable of
fertilization.

Testes Responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone,
and for producing sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes
called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for
producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis.
183

Figure 6.7. Image of the Male Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Ovary Small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus.
The ovaries produce eggs and hormones. Fallopian tubes: These are
narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as
pathways for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus.

Uterus Nourish the developing fetus prior to birth.

Cervix Acts as the door to the uterus which sperm can travel through to fertilize
eggs. When your body is not carrying a child, your cervix helps keep
unhealthy things out of your body, like tampons and bath water. When
you're pregnant, the cervix helps keep the baby in place until it's fully
developed.

Fallopian Female structures that transport the ova from the ovary to the uterus
Tube each month. In the presence of sperm and fertilization, the uterine tubes
transport the fertilized egg to the uterus for implantation.

Endometrium One of the stars of the female reproductive system, playing key roles
during the menstrual cycle as well as during pregnancy.

Vagina Provides a passageway for blood and mucosal tissue from the
uterus during a woman's monthly period. receives the penis during sexual
intercourse and holds the sperm until they pass into the uterus. provides a
passageway for childbirth.
184

Figure 6.8. Image of the Female Reproductive System

Organ system Interaction

 Endocrine – hormones for gamete production & reproductive cycle

 Nervous system
 Circulatory system

Muscular System

 Purpose- Works with the skeletal and nervous system to produce movement, also
helps to circulate blood through the human body.
 muscle cells are fibrous
 muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary
 makes up to 40 – 50% of the body mass

Major Muscles in the Human Body

 Biceps
 Glutes
 Triceps
 Hamstrings
 Deltoids

Three Types of Muscles

 Skeletal - Attached to bones, voluntary control, multinucleated, striated.

 Smooth - Internal organs (except heart), one nucleus, nonstriated, involuntary control.
 Cardiac - Heart, one nucleus, striated, involuntary control.
185

Muscle Structure

 Tendons- Dense strips of connective tissue. flexor- muscles that cause a joint to bend.
 Extensor- Muscles that cause the joint to straighten.
 Actin & myosin- Enable muscles to contract.
 Myofibrils- Fiber found in straighten muscle cells and that is responsible of muscle
contractions.
 Sarcomere- Basic unit of contraction in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
 Origin- Muscle pulls against origin.
 Insertion- Bone that moves when muscle contracts.

Muscular System

 Muscles work in antagonistic pairs (opposite each other) and are always in a state of
slight contraction.
 Muscles always pull; bones do not push them. * flexor - decreases the angle of the
joint (bends), examples are biceps and hamstrings * extensor - opens a joint to normal
position (extends), examples triceps and quadriceps * abductor - moves bone away
from midline of the body, like the deltoids * adductor - moves bone towards the midline
of the body, like the latisimus dorsi.

Organ system Interaction

 Circulatory – Heart
 Skeletal – Movement
 Nervous – Movement & vision (focus)
 Digestive – Stomach & peristaltic activity
 Endocrine – Release of some hormones a& enzymes

Learning I
186

Glossary

Abiotic factors Non-living factors that impact an ecosystem (McLaughlin, 2020).

Active transport Process of transferring substances into, out of, and between cells,
using energy (McLaughlin, 2020).

Adaptation A feature produced by DNA or the interaction of the epigenome with

the environment (McLaughlin, 2020).

Adenosine A molecule that carries energy within cells. It is the main energy
triphosphate (ATP) currency of the cell, and it is an end product of the processes of
photophosphorylation (McLaughlin, 2020).

Aerobic respiration Process by which organisms use oxygen to turn fuel, such as fats
and sugars, into chemical energy.

Algae A term used to describe a large, diverse group of eukaryotic,

photosynthetic organisms.

Allele Specific variation of a gene

Amoeba A highly motile eukaryotic, unicellular organism (B. D. Editors, 2019).

Amphipathic An amphipathic molecule is a molecule that has both polar and non-
polar parts (Buckley, 2020).
187

Anabolism Refers to all the processes of chemical reactions that build larger
molecules out of smaller molecules or atoms; these processes are
also known as anabolic processes or anabolic pathways.

Anaerobic Those that live an anoxic environment – one which lacks oxygen.
organisms

Anaerobic type of respiration through which cells can break down sugars to
Respiration generate energy in the absence of oxygen (McLaughlin, 2020).

ATP Synthase An enzyme that directly generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

during the process of cellular respiration.

Autosomes A chromosome in a eukaryotic cell that is not a sex chromosome.

Binary fission The process through which asexual reproduction happens in

bacteria.

Binomial System of scientifically naming organisms developed by Carl

Nomenclature Linnaeus.

Biodiversity Term which describes every living organism within a single

ecosystem or habitat, including numbers and diversity of species
and all environmental aspects such as temperature, oxygen and
carbon dioxide levels and climate.

Biotic Factors Living parts of an ecosystem.

188

Blood Body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers the essential
materials for life to the body’s cells.

Calvin Cycle Cycle of chemical reactions performed by plants to “fix” carbon from
CO2 into three-carbon sugars.

CAM Plants CAM – short for “Crassulacean Acid Metabolism” – is a method of

carbon fixation evolved by some plants in dry circumstances.

Carbon Cycle Cycle by which carbon moves through our Earth’s various systems.

Carbonyl Group A functional group characterized by a carbon atom double bonded

to an oxygen, found within a larger carbon-based molecule.

Carboxyl Group One of many functional groups that attaches to larger molecules and
gives them certain properties.

Carotenoids Type of accessory pigment, created by plants to help them absorb

light energy and convert it to chemical energy.

Carrier Protein Proteins that carry substances from one side of a biological
membrane to the other.

Catabolism Part of the metabolism responsible for breaking complex molecules

down into smaller molecules.

Cell Differentiation Process through which a cell undergoes changes in gene

expression to become a more specific type of cell.
189

Cell Signaling Process of cellular communication within the body driven by cells
releasing and receiving hormones and other signaling molecules.

Cellular Process through which cells convert sugars into energy.

Respiration

Cellular A state in which cells can no longer divide.

Senescence

Channel Protein A special arrangement of amino acids which embeds in the cell
membrane, providing a hydrophilic passageway for water and small,
polar ions.

Chemiosmosis Diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane, such as the

membrane inside mitochondria.

Chemoautotroph Cells that create their own energy and biological materials from
inorganic chemicals.

Chemoheterotroph An organism which derives its energy from chemicals, and needs to
consume other organisms in order to live.

Chemosynthesis Conversion of inorganic carbon-containing compounds into organic

matter such as sugars and amino acids.

Chromatid Allow cells to store two copies of their information in preparation for
cell division.
190

Cleavage Furrow An indentation that appears in a cell’s surface when the cell is
preparing to divide.

Coenzyme A coenzyme is an organic non-protein compound that binds with an

enzyme to catalyze a reaction.

Decomposer Organism that decomposes, or breaks down, organic material such

as the remains of dead organisms.

Dendrite Projections of a neuron (nerve cell) that receive signals (information)

from other neurons.

Deoxyribose Five-carbon sugar molecule that helps form the phosphate

backbone of DNA molecules. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid is a
polymer formed of many nucleic acids.

Diffusion Physical process that refers to the net movement of molecules from
a region of high concentration to one of lower concentration.

Ectoderm Germ layer, or tissue layer, that forms in an animal embryo during
development.

Ectotherm An organism which derives the heat it requires from the

environment.

Endoderm An embryonic germ layer that gives rise to tissues that form internal
structures and organs.
191

Facilitated A form of facilitated transport involving the passive movement of

Diffusion molecules along their concentration gradient, guided by the
presence of another molecule – usually an integral membrane
protein forming a pore or channel.

Facultative An organism which can survive in the presence of oxygen, can use
Anaerobe oxygen in aerobic respiration, but can also survive without oxygen
via fermentation or anaerobic respiration.

Fauna Term which refers to all of the animal life within a specified region,
time period, or both.

Fecundity A measure of the number of offspring produced by an organism over

time.

Feedback A cellular control mechanism in which an enzyme’s activity is

Inhibition inhibited by the enzyme’s end product. This mechanism allows cells
to regulate how much of an enzyme’s end product is produced.

Fermentation Refers to the metabolic process by which organic molecules

(normally glucose) are converted into acids, gases, or alcohol in the
absence of oxygen or any electron transport chain.

Flagellum A microscopic hair-like organelle used by cells and microorganisms

for movement.

Fluid Mosaic Model Components of a membrane such as proteins or glycolipids, form a

mobile mosaic in the fluid-like environment created by a sea of
phospholipids.
192

Gamete Haploid reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms that

fuse with one another during fertilization.

Gametophyte Stage which produces sex cells in plants and algae that undergo
alternation of generations.

Gene Extremely specific sequence of nucleotide monomers that has the

ability to completely or partially control the expression of one or more
traits in every type of living organism.

Gene Flow Exchange of alleles between two or more populations. For this
reason, it is sometimes referred to as allele flow or gene migration.

Gene Pool Collection of different genes within an interbreeding population.

Genetic Code Code our body uses to convert the instructions contained in our DNA
the essential materials of life.

Genetic Occurs when genetic material is exchanged between two different

Recombination chromosomes or between different regions within the same
chromosome.

Genetic Variation Described as the differences between organisms caused by

alternate forms of DNA.

Genotype Genotype of an organism is the chemical composition of its DNA,

which gives rise to the phenotype, or observable traits of an
organism.
193

Genus A group of species that are closely related through common decent.

Germination Refers to the process by which an organism grows from a seed or a

spore.

Gibberellin One of 5 major groups of plant hormones, the others being auxins,
cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid.

Gluconeogenesis The formation of new glucose molecules in the body as opposed to

glucose that is broken down from the long storage molecule
glycogen.

Haploid The condition of a cell having a one set of chromosomes.

Heme A heme is capable of holding, or “hosting” an iron molecule.

Herbaceous Non-woody plants, such as most ferns and grasses, which either
form tiny amounts of hard woody tissue, or none at all.

Heredity The passing of traits from parent to offspring.

Heterotroph An organism that cannot manufacture its own food by carbon fixation
and therefore derives its intake of nutrition from other sources of
organic carbon, mainly plant or animal matter.

Heterozygous A diploid organism with two alleles, each of a different type.

Individuals with alleles of the same type are known as homozygous
individuals.
194

Homeostasis An organism’s process of maintaining a stable internal environment

suitable for sustaining life.

Homologous Similarity in internal or chromosomal structures.

Hormone A biological compound used by multicellular organisms to organize,

coordinate, and control the functions of their cells and tissues.

Hydrochloric Acid A corrosive acid produced through the dissolving of hydrogen

chloride (HCl) in water and is, therefore, an aqueous hydrogen
halide solution.

Hydroxyl Group A functional group that attaches to some molecules containing an

oxygen and hydrogen atom, bonded together.

Hypertonic Hypertonic fluids have a greater osmotic pressure than other fluids,
and hypertonic solutions have a higher solution concentration than
another, more diluted solution.

Hypotonic Refers to a solution’s having less osmotic pressure, or

concentration, than another solution between a semi-permeable
membrane.

Isotonic A solution is said to be isotonic when it has the same concentration

of solutes as another solution across a semipermeable membrane.

Leaf Refers to the organ that forms the main lateral appendage on the
stem of vascular plants.
195

Leaf Cell Any cell found within a leaf. However, there are many different kinds
of leaf cell, and each plays an integral role in the overall function of
the leaf and the plant itself.

Lipid Bilayer A biological membrane consisting of two layers of lipid molecules.

Macromolecule Large, complex molecules. They are usually the product of smaller
molecules, like proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.

Mesoderm A germ layer present in animal embryos that will give rise to
specialized tissue types.

Molecule Two or more atoms bonded together to form a single chemical entity.

Moss A type of non-vascular plant, classified in the division Bryophyta in

the kingdom Plantae. typically associated with dark, damp
environments, has actually adapted to occupy many drier, sunny
regions.

Mutation Refer to changes in chromosomes and genes, which typically

manifest physically.

NADP+ A coenzyme that functions as a universal electron carrier, accepting

electrons and hydrogen atoms to form NADPH, or nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate.

NADPH A cofactor, used to donate electrons and a hydrogen to reactions

catalyzed by some enzymes.
196

Organ A self-contained group of tissues that performs a specific function in

the body.

Organ System A group of organs that work together to perform a certain function in
an organism’s body.

Osmosis A substance crosses a semipermeable membrane in order to

balance the concentrations of another substance.

Osmotic Pressure Can be thought of as the pressure that would be required to stop
water from diffusing through a barrier by osmosis.

Oxidative Refers to the redox reactions involving the flow of electrons along a
Phosphorylation series of membrane-bound proteins, coupled with the generation of
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Oxidizing Agent A chemical substance which causes another chemical species to

lose electrons.

Parenchyma Used to describe the functional tissues in plants and animals. This
tissue is “functional” – performing tasks such as photosynthesis in
plants or storing information in the human brain – as opposed to
“structural” tissues like wood in plants or bone in animals.

Parenchyma Cells Primarily consists of all of the simple, thin walled, undifferentiated
cells which form a large majority of many plant tissues.
197

Passive Transport Also known as passive diffusion, is a process by which an ion or

molecule passes through a cell wall via a concentration gradient, or
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Peptide Bond A covalent bond formed between two amino acids.

Phagocytosis “Cell eating”, is the process by which a cell engulfs a particle and
digests it.

Phenotype The physical expression of DNA.

Phosphate Group A chemical compound made up of one phosphorus and four oxygen
atoms.

Phospholipid A type of lipid molecule that is the main component of the cell
membrane.

Photoautotroph Organisms that can make their own energy using light and carbon
dioxide via the process of photosynthesis.

Phototropism The ability of a plant, or other photosynthesizing organism, to grow

directionally in response to a light source.

Phylogeny A hypothetical relationship between groups of organisms being

compared.

Pinocytosis The method by which a cell absorbs small particles outside the cell
and brings them inside.
198

Pyruvate An important molecule that is present at the intersection of multiple

biochemical pathways.

Receptor A protein which binds to a specific molecule.

Recessive Allele A variety of genetic code that does not create a phenotype if a
dominant allele is present.

Recessive Gene A gene whose effects are masked in the presence of a dominant
gene.

Recessive Trait A trait that is expressed when an organism has two recessive alleles,
or forms of a gene.

Saprophyte An organism that feeds and grows on dead organisms.

Selective A property of cellular membranes that only allows certain molecules

Permeability to enter or exit the cell.

Semipermeable A layer that only certain molecules can pass through.

Membrane

Signal Process of transferring a signal throughout an organism, especially

Transduction across or through a cell.

Somatic Cells Cell in the body that are not gametes (sperm or egg), germ cells
(cells that go on to become gametes), or stem cells.

Solute A substance that can be dissolved by a solvent to create a solution.

199

Solution A substance that dissolves another substance by pulling the

molecules apart through electrochemical interactions.

Solvent A molecule that has the ability to dissolve other molecules, known
as solutes.

Somatic Cells Any cell in the body that are not gametes (sperm or egg), germ cells
(cells that go on to become gametes), or stem cells.

Species A group of organisms that share a genetic heritage, are able to

interbreed, and to create offspring that are also fertile.

Tissue Groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to
perform a specific function.

Tonicity The concentration of a solution as compared to another solution.

Toxicity A measurement of the dosage needed of a particular substance to

damage a living organism.

Transport Protein Proteins that transport substances across biological membranes.

Unicellular A unicellular organism is an organism that consists of a single cell.

Vascular Plant A vascular plant is any one of a number of plants with specialized
vascular tissue.
200

Vascular Tissue An arrangement of multiple cell types in vascular plants which allows
for the transport of water, minerals, and products of photosynthesis
to be transported throughout the plant.

Viviparous An animal that is viviparous gives birth to developed live young.

201

Rubrics

Indicator 50 40 30 20 10

Accuracy and All the Almost all of Average Few No

Completeness important the number of important significant
of Details details are important important details are details could
present in details are details are present in be found in
the model. present in present in the model. the model.
the model. the model

Creativity and All materials Almost all of Some of the Few No

resourcefulness used in the the materials recyclable recyclable
model are materials used in the materials material are
recyclable. used in the model are are used in used.
model are recyclable. the model.
recyclable

Resemblance The model The model The model The model The model
of the model to is exactly is almost is somewhat is less likely has no
the original similar to similar to similar to similar to resemblance
image that of the that of the that of the that of the to that of the
original original original original original
image. image. image. image. image.

Writing rubric

Criteria Points Score

Details All important details 60

are included.
Details are original,
and convincingly
interpreted.

Order Ideas are 20

connected to make
the writing flow.
Sequence of ideas
is effective

Paraphrase Writes their own 10

words to create a
summary that
includes great word
choice
202

Convention No spelling, 10
grammar and
conventions errors.

Lesson plan rubric

Criteria Points

Organization and Complete package presented in well organized and

Presentation of the professional fashion; all components are accurate and
LP; Components of of high quality throughout the lesson plan
LP (15 points)

Instructional Materials All materials necessary for student and teacher to

Needed complete lesson clearly listed; application of
(15 points) technologies and other instructional materials are
appropriate for learning environment and outcomes.

Instructional Instructional strategies appropriate for learning

strategies/Procedures outcome(s). The lesson is introduced in a logical and
(10 points) engaging manner so that students know what to
expect and what is expected of them.

Accommodation and All necessary accommodations for target learners are

Adaptations for anticipated and fully described; descriptions of lesson
Diverse Learners(10 modifications such as extra enrichment activities, skill
points) work, tutoring or collaborative work are of superior
quality and clearly match content, objectives, and
standards.

Total points

Rubrics for Short Answer Response

Needs Approaching Good (3 Excellent (4

improvement standards (2 points) points)
(1 point) point)

Ideas and There is no You put What you are What you are
Content clear or thought into writing about is writing about is
specific this, but there clear. You clear and well-
explanation in is no real answered the expressed,
answer to the evidence of question. including
question. learning. More Some support specific
specific may be examples to
information is lacking, or your demonstrate
needed or you sentences may what you
need to follow be a bit learned. Well
the directions awkward. done!
more closely. Overall, a
decent job.
203

Use of terms No terms from Only one term Your answer Your answer
the lesson are from the lesson included included all the
used. is used in the several terms terms from the
answer. Try for from the lesson that
a few more, lesson, applied to the
next time. demonstrating question
adequate asked. All
understanding terms are fully
of the material. defined and
used in the
proper context.

Sentence Sentences are Some Sentences are Sentences are

Fluency incomplete or sentences are complete and complete and
too long. It complete and able to be they connect to
makes reading easy to understood. one another
them difficult. understand. easily when
Others require they are read
some work. out loud. Your
writing 'flows.'

Conventions Few end marks Mistakes using Use of No punctuation

or capital end marks or punctuation or structural
letters. capitals as well marks and mistakes. No
Answers as spelling capitals, as spelling errors.
contain mistakes make well as Your writing
numerous the writing hard spelling, is shows full
spelling or to read. mostly correct. awareness of
structural Few errors the rules of
errors. exist in your English use.
answer
Adapted from iRubric. www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?code=U66W43&sp=true.

Rubrics for Constructed Response Test

Criteria and Missing or Below Meets Excellent Points

Points Serious Expectations Expectations Work Earned
Assigned Problems

0 1 2 3

Relevance of The essay Answer is Answer is Answer is

answer to the did not incomplete. brief with complete;
question answer the Excessive insufficient sufficient
question. discussion of detail. detail
unrelated Unrelated provided to
issues and/ or issues were support
significant introduced assertions;
errors in and/ or minor answer
content. errors in focuses
content. only on
issues
related to
the
question;
204

factually
correct.

Thoroughness None of the Serious gaps Most of the Deals fully

of answer relevant in the basic basic details with the
details were details are included entire
included. needed. but some are question.
missing.

Organization Weak Minor Clear and

and logic of organization; problems of logical
answer sentences organization presentation;
rambling; or logic; good
ideas are needs work development
repeated. on creating of an
transition argument;
between transitions are
ideas. made clearly
and smoothly

Mechanics of Major Frequent Clear,

writing problems problems with readable,
(spelling, with mechanics of prose, good
punctuation, mechanics language; use of
grammar, of language; Occasional transitions; no
clarity of Awkward awkward problem with
prose) sentence sentences, spelling,
construction; and poor punctuation,
poor or transitions; or grammar.
absent reduce
transitions; readability.
frequently
difficult to
understand.

Total points (10 possible)

Adapted from University of West Florida. Academic Affairs Departments.

205

Rubric for Personal Blog

CRITERIA Points

Purpose The blog has a clear purpose to share and collect opinions and
(10 points) information about the topic.

Ideas & The student has many original ideas and expresses them
Content clearly. The great majority of ideas are related to the subject
(10 points) matter.

Writing Quality Posts are well written, and are characterized by elements of a
(10 points) strong writing style. The content demonstrates that the student
is well read, synthesizes learned content and constructs new
meaning.

Use of The student greatly enhanced their weblog space using video,
Enhancements audio, images and others. Links maybe provided.
(10 points)

Total points

Rubric for Vlog

Excellent (10 Good Fair Poor

points) (8 points) (7 points) (5 points)
Communicatio Excellent Good Communication Communicatio
n communicatio communication skills and n skills are
n skills. skills. Student interaction with poor
Student speaks somewhat camera are weak.
speaks clearly
clearly, and is
pleasant to
listen to and
watch.

Visual Content Footage is Most footage is Some footage is of Recording is of

consistently of above average in high quality and low quality
high quality quality. some is not.

Outline Outline is Outline is Outline is fair, with Outline is poor

organized and somewhat needed and in need of
easy to read. organized. Most of improvement. great
Each of the the Some of the improvement
ideas/reflectio ideas/reflections/ev ideas/reflections/ev
n s/events are e nts are included in e nts are included in
included in the the Vlog the Vlog.
Vlog.
206

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Jariet Siano-Adriatico is currently a faculty member of the College of

Education, Jose Rizal Memorial State University, Dipolog Campus
and the Program Chair of the Master of Arts in Biology of the
Graduate School, JRMSU, Dapitan City. She received her Master of
Science in Biology in Benguet State University and Master in
Biological Sciences at Saint Louis University, Baguio City as a
graduate study scholar by the Philippine InterUniversity Cooperation
Programme of the Vlaamse Interuniversitaire Raad- Flemish
Universities in Belgium.

She also finished her Bachelor of Science in Biology as an academic

scholar at Mindanao State University, Marawi City. She has been a Science
Research Assistant and a Program Management Coordinator in Benguet State
University, La Trinidad, Benguet and Saint Louis University, Baguio City respectively
from 2001-2009. At the end of the 10-year project of the VLIR-PIUC Programme, she
served as a part-time to full-time faculty in the Department of Biology, School of
Natural Sciences, Saint Louis University, Baguio City from June 2009 to July 2017.
She returned back to her birthplace when she finally found the one her soul loves.

Cris Anthony Q. Empeynado is a science instructor at Jose Rizal

Memorial State University-Main Campus under the College of
Education. He teaches basic sciences that are essential for the
development of students in understanding and comprehending
complex science subjects. He is a graduate of Bachelor of Science in
Agriculture: Major in Crop Science at Central Mindanao University,
University Town, Musuan Maramag Bukidnon.
He is currently taking up his master's degree at Jose Rizal Memorial
State University. He believes that every student should be adaptive
and responsive to the erratic changes that might happen in their environment for this
would help them to survive in this challenging world. Moreover, he believes that
students should apply the scientific method in every decision and plan that they might
do, not just in school but also in their personal lives.