MATH14 – ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Lecture Note

Lesson No. 1: Basic Concepts on Groups

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. define group and related terms
2. illustrate the properties of a group
3. solve problems involving groups

Definition
A group is a pair ¿ where G is a nonempty set and ¿ is a binary operation on G that
satisfies the following properties (axioms):
 associativity: ∀ a , b , c ∈ G , ( a∗b )∗c=a∗ ( b∗c )
 identity: ∃ e ∈G , ∀ a∈ G , a∗e=e∗a=a
 inverses: ∀ a ∈G , ∃a−1 ∈G , a∗a−1=a−1∗a=e

A semigroup is a nonempty set G with an associative binary operation. A monoid is a

semigroup with an identity. A group is a monoid with inverses for each element in G

The order of a semigroup, monoid, or group is the cardinality of set G , denoted by |G|. If
|G|< ∞, then a semigroup, monoid, or group is said to be finite. If x ∈ G and x k =e for some
positive integer k , then we call the order of x the smallest positive value n such that x n=e .

A group ¿ is called abelian if ∀ a , b ∈G . a∗b=b∗a.

The following are some of the common types of groups:

1. dihedral groups
2. permutation and symmetric groups
3. matrix groups
4. Klein 4-groups
5. Factor and quotient groups

Theorem
 In a group, there is only one identity element.
 Let ¿ be a group. Then, for all a ∈ G, there exists a unique inverse element to a .

Example: Show that the following set with a defined binary operation is a semi-group, a monoid,
a group, and an abelian group.

a. ℚ – {–1} with binary operation ¿ defined by a∗b=ab+ a+b

b. ℤ × ℤ with binary operation ¿ defined by ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad +bc ,bd )
Proof:
a. ℚ – {–1} with binary operation ¿ defined by a∗b=ab+ a+b

ℚ – {–1} with binary operation ¿ is a semigroup if ∀ a , b , c ∈ Q – – 1 , ( a∗b )∗c=a∗( b∗c ); that is,
( a∗b )∗c=( ab+a+ b )∗c
¿ ( ab+ a+b ) c + ( ab +a+b )+ c
¿ abc +ac +bc +ab+ a+b+ c
¿ abc +ab+ ac+ a+bc +b+ c
¿ a ( bc +b+ c )+ a+ ( bc +b+c )
¿ a∗( bc +b+ c )
¿ a∗( b∗c )

Since ℚ – {–1} with binary operation ¿ is a semigroup, then it will be a monoid if

∃ e ∈Q – – 1, ∀ a ∈Q – – 1, a∗e=e∗a=a; that is,
a∗e=a or e∗a=a
ae +a+ e=a ea+ e+ a=a
ae +e=0 ea+ e=a
( a+1 ) e=0 e ( a+1 )=0
e=0 e=0

Note that we can divide the equation by a+ 1 since a ≠−1.

Since ℚ – {–1} with binary operation ¿ is a monoid, then it will be a group if

−1 −1 −1
∀ a ∈Q – – 1 ,∃ a ∈Q – – 1 , a∗a =a ∗a=e ; that is,
−1 −1
a∗a =e or a ∗a=e
−1 −1 −1 −1
a a +a+ a =0 a a+a + a=0
( a+1 ) a−1=−a −1
a ( a+ 1 )=−a
−a −a
a−1= a−1=
a+1 a+1

Since ℚ – {–1} with binary operation ¿ is a group, then it will be abelian if

∀ a , b ∈Q – – 1. a∗b=b∗a ; that is,
a∗b=ab+ a+b
¿ ba+b +a
¿ b∗a

b. ℤ × ℤ with binary operation ¿ defined by ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad +bc ,bd )

ℤ × ℤ with binary operation ¿ defined by ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad +bc ,bd ) is a semigroup if

∀ ( a , b ) , ( c , d ) , ( e , f ) ∈ Z × Z , [ ( a , b )∗( c , d ) ]∗( e , f )=( a , b )∗[ ( c , d )∗( e , f ) ]
[ ( a ,b )∗( c , d ) ]∗( e , f ) =( ad +bc , bd )∗( e , f )
¿ ( ( ad +bc ) f + ( bd ) e , ( bd ) f )
¿ ( adf +bcf + bde , bdf )
¿ ( a ( df )+ b ( cf +de ) ,b ( df ) )
¿ ( a , b )∗( cf + de , df )
¿ ( a , b )∗[ ( c , d )∗( e , f ) ]

Since ℤ × ℤ with binary operation ¿ defined by ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad +bc ,bd ) is a semigroup, then it
is a monoid if ∀ ( a , b ) ∈ Z × Z ,∃ ( e 1 , e 2 ) ∈ Z × Z , ( a , b )∗( e 1 ,e 2 )=( e1 , e 2)∗( a , b )=( a , b )

( a , b )∗( e 1 ,e 2 )= ( a , b ) or ( e 1 , e2 )∗( a , b )= ( a , b )
( a e2 +be 1 , be 2 )=( a , b ) ( e 1 b+e 2 a ,e 2 b )= ( a , b )
a e 2 +be 1=a or be 2=b e 1 b +e 2 a=a or e 2 b=b

So, e 2=1 and e 1=0 for b ≠ 0. Hence, ℤ × ℤ is not a monoid but Z × Z – 0 is a monoid.

Since Z × Z – 0 with binary operation ¿ defined by ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad +bc ,bd ) is a monoid, then it
is a group if ∀ ( a , b ) ∈ Z × Z – 0 , ∃ ( a ,b−1 ) ∈ Z × Z – 0 , ( a , b )∗( a−1 , b−1 ) =( a−1 , b−1 )∗( a , b )=( e 1 ,e 2 );
−1

that is,

( a , b )∗( a−1 ,b−1 )=( e1 , e2 ) or ( a−1 ,b−1 )∗( a , b )=( e1 , e2 )

( a b−1 +b a−1 , b b−1 )=( 0 , 1 ) ( a−1 b+b−1 a , b−1 b )=( 0,1 )
−1 −1 −1
a b + b a =0 or b b =1

−1 1 −1 −a
So, b = and a = 2
b b

ℤ × ℤ with binary operation ¿ defined by ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad +bc ,bd ) is a semigroup but not a
monoid nor a group. But Z × Z – 0 is a group.

Properties of Groups
Let ¿ be a group.
 The identity in G is unique.
 For each a ∈ G, the inverse of a is unique.
−1
 For all a ∈ G, ( a−1 ) =a.
−1 −1 −1
 For all a , b ∈G , ( a∗b ) =b ∗a .
 For any a 1 , a2 , … , an ∈G , the value of a 1∗a2∗…∗an is independent of how you place the
parentheses.
 It satisfies the left and right cancellation laws.
a∗u=a∗v →u=v (left cancellation)
u∗a=v∗a →u=v (right cancellation)
 Let x ∈ G. Then, |x−1|=|x| .
 Let x ∈ G with x m=e and x n=e , then x d =e where d=gcd ( m ,n ).

Lesson No. 2: Cyclic Groups and Subgroups

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. define cyclic groups, subgroups, and related terms
2. illustrate the cyclic groups and subgroups
3. solve problems involving cyclic groups and subgroups

Definition
If a subset H of a group G is itself a group under the operation of G , then H is a subgroup
of G . The proper subgroup of H of a group G , denoted by H <G , indicates that H is a
subgroup G but not equal to G itself; otherwise H of an improper subgroup of G , denoted by
H ≤G . The subgroup \{ e \} is called the trivial subgroup while other subgroups are called
nontrivial subgroups.

Theorem
A subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G if and only if
 H is closed under the binary operation of G.
 the identity element e of G is in H
 for all a ∈ H , a−1 ∈ H

Subgroup Tests

A. One-Step Subgroup Test

Let G be a group and H a nonempty subset of G. If a b−1 is in H whenever a and b are in H ,

then H is a subgroup of G .

Principle:
1. Identify the property P that distinguishes the elements of H ; that is, identify a defining
condition.
2. Prove that the identity has property P. (This verifies that H is nonempty.)
3. Assume that two elements a and b have property P.
4. Use the assumption that a and b have property P to show that a b−1 has property P.
B. Two-Step Subgroup Test

Let G be a group and H a nonempty subset of G. If ab is in H whenever a and b are in H (

H is closed under the operation), and a−1 is in H whenever a is in H ( H is closed under taking
inverses), then H is a subgroup of G .

Principle:
1. Identify the property P that distinguishes the elements of H ; that is, identify a defining
condition.
2. Prove that the identity has property P. (This verifies that H is nonempty.)
3. Assume that two elements a and b have property P.
4. Use the assumption that a and b have property P to show that ab has property P.
5. Use the assumption that a and b have property P to show that a−1 has property P.

C. Finite Subgroup Test

Let H be a nonempty finite subset of a group G . If H is closed under the operation of G , then
H is a subgroup of G .

Example: Show that H=\{ x ∈ G∨x 2=e \} is a subgroup of an abelian group G with identity e .

Proof:
The identifying property of H is the condition x 2=e . Note that H is nonempty since it contains
the identity element e 2=e . Now assume that a and b belong to H ; that is a 2=e and b 2=e .
2
Finally, w.t.s. (wish to show) that ( a b−1 ) =e. Since G is abelian,
−1 2 −1 2 2 −1
( a b ) =a b a b =a ( b ) =( a ) ( b ) =e e =e .
−1 −1 2 2 −1
Therefore, a b −1
belongs to H and by One-
Step Subgroup Test, H is a subgroup of G.

Example: Show that H=\{ x ∈ G|x 2=e } is a subgroup of an abelian group G with identity e .

Proof:
The identifying property of H is the condition x 2=e . Note that H is nonempty since it contains
the identity element e 2=e . Now assume that a and b belong to H ; that is a 2=e and b 2=e .
2
Finally, w.t.s. that ( ab )2=e and ( a−1 ) =e . Since G is abelian, ( ab )2=abab=a2 b2=ee=e and
2 −1
( a−1 ) =( a2 ) =e−1 =e.

Other Examples of Subgroups

 Let G be a group and let a be any element of G . Then, ⟨ a ⟩ is a subgroup of G .
 The center of a group G is a subgroup of G .
 For each a in a group G , the centralizer of a is a subgroup of G .

Definition
The center, Z ( G ) – Zentrum of G , of a group G is the subset of elements in G that
commute with every element of G . In symbols, Z( G)=\{ a ∈G∨ax=xa , ∀ x ∈G \}.
Let a be a fixed element of a group G . The centralizer of a in G , C ( a ), is the set of all
elements in G that commute with a . In symbols, C (a)=\{ g ∈ G∨ga=ag \}.

Example: List the elements of the subgroup generated by \{ 2, 3 \} and \{ 2, 4 \} of Z12 .

Solution:
Begin by adding the elements by itself and/or add them to produce the other elements. Repeat
the process until all possible sums have been generated or the identity is produced.

⟨ 2,3 ⟩ =\{ 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ,9 , 10 , 11 \}
⟨ 2, 4 ⟩ =\{ 0 ,2 , 4 ,6 ,8,10 \}

Example: List the elements of the subgroup generated by \{12 , 42 \} of Z .

Solution:
⟨ 12,42 ⟩=\{ … ,−24 ,−12 ,−6 , 0 ,6 ,12 , 24 , 36 , 42 , … \}

Definition (Cyclic Subgroups)

If G is a group and a ∈ G, then
n
H=\{ a ∨n ∈ Z \}
is a subgroup of G . This group is the cyclic subgroup ⟨ a ⟩ of G generated by a . Also, given a
group G and an element a in G , if
G=\{ a n∨n ∈ Z \}
then a is a generator of G and the group G= ⟨ a ⟩ is cyclic.

Elementary Properties of Cyclic Groups

 Every cyclic group is abelian.
 A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic. If |⟨ a ⟩|=n, then the order of any subgroup of ⟨ a ⟩ is
a divisor of n ; and, for each positive divisor of order of k of n , the group ⟨ a ⟩ has exactly
one subgroup of order k – namely, ⟨ an / k ⟩ .
 For each positive k of n , the set ⟨ n / k ⟩ is the unique subgroup of Z n of order k ;
moreover, these are the only subgroups of Z n.
 If d is a positive divisor of n , the number of elements of order d in a cyclic group n is
ϕ ( d ) . In a finite group, the number of elements of order d is a multiple of ϕ ( d ).
 An integer k in Z n is a generator of Z n if and only if gcd ( n ,k )=1.
 Let |a|=n. Then ⟨ a ⟩ =⟨ a j ⟩ if and only if gcd ( n , j )=1 and |a|=|⟨ a j ⟩| if and only if
gcd ( n , j )=1.

Definition (Euler’s Totient Function)

It is the value representing the number of integers less than n that are coprime with n .
The formula is

ϕ ( n )=n ∏ 1−
p∨n
( 1
p )
Example: Find the generators of Z30 and its subgroups. Then, draw its lattice diagram.

Solution:
Note that Z30=\{ 0 , 1 ,2 , 3 , … ,29 \} under the binary operation addition module 30. Based on
the Euler’s Totient Function, there are 8 coprimes – 1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29. These 8
coprimes of 30 are the complete generators of Z30 (improper subgroups).

( 12 )(1− 13 )(1− 15 )=8

ϕ ( 30 )=30 1−

Order
Subgroup Type gcd ( 30 , k )
(n / k )
⟨ 1 ⟩= ⟨ 7 ⟩= ⟨ 11 ⟩= ⟨ 13 ⟩ =⟨ 17 ⟩ =⟨ 19 ⟩= ⟨ 23 ⟩ =⟨ 29 ⟩=Z 30 Nontrivial, 1 30
Improper
⟨ 2 ⟩= ⟨ 4 ⟩ =⟨ 8 ⟩ =⟨ 14 ⟩ =⟨ 16 ⟩= ⟨ 22 ⟩ =⟨ 26 ⟩= ⟨ 28 ⟩=\{ 0 ,2 , 4 , 6 ,8 ,10 ,Nontrivial,
12 ,14 ,16 , 18 , 202,22 , 24 , 2615, 28 \}
Proper
⟨ 3 ⟩ =⟨ 9 ⟩= ⟨ 21 ⟩ =⟨ 27 ⟩ =\{ 0 , 3 , 6 , 9 ,12 , 15 ,18 , 21 , 24 , 27 \} Nontrivial, 3 10
Proper
⟨ 5 ⟩ =⟨ 25 ⟩=\{ 0 , 5 ,10 , 15 ,20 ,25 \} Nontrivial, 5 6
Proper
⟨ 6 ⟩ =⟨ 12 ⟩= ⟨ 18 ⟩ =⟨ 24 ⟩ =\{0 , 6 , 12 ,18 , 24 , \} Nontrivial, 6 5
Proper
⟨ 10 ⟩ =⟨ 20 ⟩=\{ 0 ,10 ,20 \} Nontrivial, 10 3
Proper
⟨ 15 ⟩ =\{ 0 , 15 \} Nontrivial, 15 2
Proper
⟨ 0 ⟩ =¿{0} Trivial, Proper 30 1

The lattice diagram is

Example: Find the generators of the subgroup of order 9 in Z36 .

Solution:
Note that gcd ( 36,4 )=9 , hence all the generators of the subgroup of order 9 in Z36 has the form
4 j where gcd ( 9 , j )=1 That is, ⟨ 4 ⟩= ⟨ 8 ⟩= ⟨ 16 ⟩ =⟨ 20 ⟩ =⟨ 28 ⟩= ⟨ 32 ⟩ .

WORKSHEET NO. 1

Directions: Solve the following problems completely.

1. Show that the following binary operations defined on the given sets are semi-group, monoid,
group, and/or abelian group.

a. set of 2 x 2 matrix with real entries, [ ac bd ], under componentwise addition,

[ ][ ][
a1 b1 a2 b2
+
c 1 d1 c 2 d 2
a + a b +b
= 1 2 1 2
c 1+ c 2 d1 +d 2 ]
b. ¿ defined on the set ℝ by letting a∗b=√ ab
+

¿
c. ¿ defined on the set Z × Z by letting ( a , b )∗( c , d )=( ad , b+c )
d. set {4, 8, 12, 16} under multiplication modulo 20

2. Suppose the table below is a group table. Fill in the blank entries.
e a b c d
e e ___ ___ ___ ___
a ___ b ___ ___ e
b ___ c d e ___
c ___ d ___ a b
d ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
3. Let a , b , c be elements of a group. Solve the following equation for x .
a. axb=c
b. xab x−1=b a

4. Find all the generators and subgroups of Z10 0. Draw its lattice diagram.

5. Describe all the elements in the cyclic subgroup of the following set generated by the given
element.
a. subgroup of Z1 6 generated by 12.
b. subgroup of Z10 generated by {2, 4}.

c. subgroup of a general linear matrix with real entries generated by [ 30 02]

.

d. subgroup of Z generated by {18, 24, 39}

6. Find the generators of the subgroup of order 5 in Z75 .

7. Let G be a group \{ e , a , b , b2 , ab , a b2 \} whose generators satisfy a 2=e , b 3=e ,ba=a b 2.

Write the table of G .