ETHICS REVIEWER VALUES-enduring beliefs about what is

good and desirable or not.

TERRANCE MC CONNEL (1994)-morality is
characterized as an end- governed rational ETHICAL RELATIVISM or MORAL
enterprise whose object is to equip people RELATIVISM-ethical or moral values and
with a body of norms. beliefs are relative to the various individuals
or societies that hold them.
NORMATIVE ETHICS(PRESCRIPTIVE)- seeks
to set norms or standards that regulate TWO FORMS OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM
right and wrong, good or bad conduct. -PERSONAL OR INDIVIDUAL ETHICAL
RELATIVISM
METAETICS(DESCRIPTIVE)-aims to
-SOCIAL OR CULTURAL ETHICAL RELATIVISM
understand the nature and dynamics of
ethical principles, and the way we learn and PERSONAL OR INDIVIDUAL ETHICAL
aquire moral belief. RELATIVISM-ethical judgements and beliefs
are the expressions of the moral outlook
APPLIED ETHICS-actual application of
and attitudes if individual persons.
ethical or moral theories for the purpose of
deciding with ethical or moral actions are SOCIAL or CULTURAL ETHICAL RELATIVISM
appropriate in a given situation. – ethical values and beliefs vary from
society.
CASUISTS-adherents of ethics
REASONS THAT SUPPORT ETHICAL
DIFFERENT FIELDS
REALATIVISM
-BUSINESS ETHICS
-BIOMEDICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL DIVERSITY OF MORAL VALUES- presence of
ETTHICS disagreements on many ethical issues or
-SOCIAL ETHICS even on basic moral values.

MORAL STANDARDS-force others to act MORAL UNCERTAINTY- there is great

accordingly. difficulty in knowing what is the morally
-are norms that individuals or groups have right thing to do or believe.
about the kids of actions believed to be
SITUATIONAL DIFFERENCES- situations and
morally right or wrong as well as the values
life of different people vary so much.
placed on what we believed to be morally
good or morally bad. THE THREE-FOLD NATURAL INCLINATION
OF THE HUMAN PERSON:
NON-MORAL STANDARDS- we have no
right to impose on others. SELF RESERVATION-natural inclination to
-refer to standards by which we judge what take care of one’s health or not to kill or put
is good or bad and right or wrong in a non- one’s self in danger.
moral way.
JUST DEALING WITH OTHERS-treat others
NORMS- general rules about actions or with the same respect that we accord
behaviors. ourselves
PROPAGATION OF HUMAN SPECIES- the people and society in general would
reproductive organ is by nature designed to naturally and expectedly deteriorate and
reproduced and propagate human species. collapsed.
-Every corporation and organizations there
THREE DETERMINANTS OF MORAL
is always that code of ethics.
ACTION;
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND
OBJECT OF THE HUMAN ACT- which will
LAW-Legality is not identical with morality.
intend primarily and directly.
What legal is not always moral and also,
CIRCUMSTANCE- the conditions affecting what is moral is not always legal.
the morality of an action. -laws are concerned in “public” actions
- Law more often than not, are decided by
END-the purpose of a doer.
majority vote.
ETHICS- is the systematic study of the -Morality is not all about how many people
rightness and wrongness of human actions. say that something is good or bad, right or
-Greek word= “ethos” meaning Customary wrong. It is much deeper than that.
behavior.
THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ETHICS AND
-word/theory
RELIGION- Ethics as a philosophical
MORALITY-is the rightness and wrongness discipline, as mentioned, solely relies on
of human actions. natural reason, logic, and experience,
-Latin Word= “mos” or “mores” meaning specially in the justification and validation
customary behavior of certain theories and principles
-flesh/action concerning good and bad.
-Religion, on the other hand, relies primarily
ETHICS: A PHILOSOPHY OF ACTION-It does
and mainly on supernatural reason, that is
not necessarily follow that knowledge leads
divine revelation or divine authority.
or results to practical action.
-does not actually guarantee morality on Philosophically, Ethics- Is defined as the
the persons concrete and practical conduct practical science of the morality of human
and behavior. act or conduct and of good life.

ETHICS: A PRACTICAL DISCIPLINE-Ethics Science, Ethics- is a body of knowledge

should be taken not just an Academic study, systematically arranged and presented in
but as fundamentally, a “way of life” such manner that it arrives at its
-Knowing what is right without actually conclusions coherently and logically.
changing the way we behave morally is
Material object- is human conduct or the
nothing but useless knowledge
human act of ethics.
ETHICS: IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING
Human conduct- is done by a human
ETHICS-If one does not have a sense of
person
morality, of what is right and wrong in
relation to their conduct and behavior,
Formal Object of Ethics- is the morality or comes to the question as to who are its
the moral rectitude of human act or human recipients.
conduct.
PRESCRIPTIVITY- this refers to the practical,
NORM- A norm is here understood as a or action guiding nature of morality. This is
rule, standard, or measure. also the commanding aspect of morality.
-specifically, it is something by which an act
OVERRIDINGNESS- moral standards must
or conduct is measured as good or bad,
have hegemony. This means that they
right or wrong, moral or immoral.
should reign supreme over all the other
RICHARD GULA-Defines norms as “the standards or norms of valuation, whatever
criteria of judgement about the sorts of they may be.
person we ought to be and sort of actions
AUTONOMOUS FROM ARBITRARY
we ought to perform”
AUTHORITY – moral standards should stand
TYPES OF NORMS on their own logic independent of the
arbitrariness of the majority.
TECHNICAL NORM- “This refers mainly to
man needs which come from his body PUBLICITY-this means that moral rules and
space-time limitations. This norm has to do principles must be made public if they are
with survival, health and well-being. to serve as clear guidelines of actions.
SOCIETAL NORM- “This norm has PRACTICABILITY- moral rules should not be
something to do with the need of group impossible to achieve or else they are not
cohesion and for strengthening the bonds for men but for angels.
that keep the community together.
UNIVERSALIZABILITY- a moral rule or
AESTHETIC NORM- “This refers to typical principle must be applicable to everyone,
perceptual forms regarding color, shape, without exception, provided of course that
space, movement, sound, feeling and all people are in relevantly similar situation
emotion, touch and texture, taste, scent or context.
and odor.
THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACTS AND
ETHICAL or MORAL NORM- “This moral or MORAL ACOUNTABILITY
ethical norm refers to some ideal vision of a
DEFINITION OF HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF
human person, an ideal stage of perception,
MAN
which serve as the ultimate goal and norm.
Human acts (actus humani) are those
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL PRINCIPLE
actions done by a person in a certain
REASONABILITY- moral judgements must situation which are essentially theresult of
be backed by good reasons or arguments. his/her conscious knowledge, freedom and
voluntariness.
IMPARTIALITY- this means that an ethical
or moral rule should be neutral when it Acts of man - are actions which happen in
the person“naturally”, even without his/her
awareness of himself/herself while doing Speaking/Talking is good or bad….
them. These actions are done without depending on the intention of your
deliberation, reflection and consent. talking/speaking ‘….to voice your
idea or you destroy someone’s
BASIC ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS
reputation 2. An
1.) The act must be deliberate. It must be
objectively good act becomes
performed by a conscious agent who is very
morally evil due to a wrong or bad
much aware of what he/she is doing and of
motive. -Helping or
its consequences good or evil.
praying is good but it will become
2.) The act must be performed in freedom.
evil depending on the intention
It must be done by an agent who is acting
(election or curse)
freely, with his/her own volition and
3. An intrinsically (objectively)
powers.
morally good act can receive added
3.) The act must be done voluntarily.
goodness, if done with an equally
It must be performed by an agent who
noble intention or motive. -
decides willfully to perform the act. The act,
Helping or praying is better when
to be truly a voluntary one, must come from
you pray for peace, give thanks to
the core of a person’s being.
the Lord for the graces you received,
MAJOR DETERMINANTS OF THE MORALITY or glorify HIM.
OF HUMAN ACT 4. An intrinsically evil act can never
become morally good even if it is
1.The Act Itself or the Object of the Act
done with a good motive or
*The action that is done or performed by an
intention.
agent
- Robinhood is stealing to help the
*It is WHAT the person does.
poor
*This is “the substance of the moral act”
-Cheating to pass the board exam
2.The Motive or the Intention
-Killing the drug Lord
*The motive is the purpose or intention of
which something is done. THE CIRCUMSTANCES-The moral goodness
*It is the reason behind our acting. or badness of an act is determined not only
*It answers the question “WHY the person by the object or act itself, plus the motive or
does what he does?” intention of the moral agent, but also on
*One normally performs an act as a means the circumstances or situation surrounding
to achieve an end or goal, the performance of the action.

THE FOUR PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVES OR FOUR TYPES OF CIRCUMSTANCES

INTENTION
1.Mitigating or extenuating circumstances
1. An indifferent act can become It diminish the degree of moral good or evil
morally good or morally evil in an act. To kill an innocent person is
depending upon the intention of the homicide or murder. circumstances lessen
person doing the act. - the severity of the act and its punishment.
2. Aggravating circumstances embarrassing words, lewd remarks, vulgar
it increases the degree of moral good or evil statements, insensitive comments?
The same act of murder can be made worse
4. WHY – is the intention or the motive that
if it is carried out at night and with the use
moves the agent to an action.(#2
of superior arms by a known recidivist.
determinants of the morality of human act)
3.Justifying circumstances It answers the question “WHY the person
It shows adequate reason for some acts does what he does?”
done. A person charged with murder can
5. HOW – (By what means) This
vindicate himself/herself if he/she can
circumstance also involves different
prove that he/she killed a superior
conditions or modalities such as
aggressor and that he/she did so in defense
voluntariness, consent, violence, fear,
of his/her own life. (Hold up, robbery)
ignorance.
4. Specifying circumstances It also includes the particular
It gives a new and distinct species of moral weapon/equipment/tools/gadgets/etc. that
good or evil of the act. the person used or employed in the
The moral quality of the act of murder performance of the act.
changes if the murderer is wife of the
Was the action performed in “cold blood,”
victim, or if the murderer and the victim are
“in a painful manner,” “in a very brutal way
one and the same.
(as in torture),” “maliciously,” etc.?
the circumstances which served as a reason
for it, render it worthy of approval or 6. WHEN –Every act is done at a particular
condemnation. and specific time. The element of time is
also important and even vital as to the
SEVEN KINDS OF CIRCUMSTANCES
moral assessment and judgment of the
These circumstances will affect the
human act.
morality of human action
Was the act performed in broad daylight or
1. Who - the person who does or was it done during nighttime? Was it
receives the action. committed when the victim was in the act
* Status, Position, Education, Age, of praying or while asleep and unaware?
Illiterate, Out of school Youth,
7. TO WHOM—refers to the recipient of the
Gangster
action, or the person to whom the act is
2. WHERE – is the setting of an action. done. (refer to # 1- The who)
Every act is done in a particular place.
PRINCIPLE GOVERNING CIRCUMSTANCES
* Is the act done inside the house,
street, way going home, etc 1. Circumstances may either increase or
decrease the wrongfulness of an evil act.
3. BY WHAT MEANS – Intentional or
accident? 2. Circumstances may either increase or
Is there any use of force, compulsion, decrease the merits of a good act.
threats, coercion, intimidation,
3. Circumstances may exempt temporarily PRINCIPLES GOVERNING
someone from doing a required act. IGNORANCE
4. Circumstances do not prove the guilt of a
a. Invincible ignorance renders an act
person. The presence of a person when a
involuntary. A person cannot be
crime is committed does not prove he is the
held morally responsible or liable if
criminal when a crime is committed.
he or she is not aware of the state of
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS his or her ignorance.

1.1 Vincible Ignorance can easily be

b. Vincible ignorance does not destroy,
remedied through ordinary
but lessens the voluntariness and
diligence and reasonable efforts
the corresponding accountability
on the part of the person who is in
over the act. A person who becomes
this particular mental state. This
aware and conscious of the state of
specific type of ignorance is
ignorance he or she is in the moral
therefore conquerable since it is
obligation to correct it by employing
correctible. -Medical
enough diligence in finding the
practitioner
information required to make one’s
-Student
ignorance disappear. “To act with
1.2 Invincible ignorance is the kind of
vincible ignorance is to act
ignorance which an individual may
imprudently.”
have without being aware of it, or,
having knowledge of it, simply
c. Affected or pretended ignorance
lacks the necessary means to
does not excuse a person from
correct and solve it. This type of
his/her bad actions; on the contrary
ignorance is unconquerable, and
it actually increases their malice.
thus not correctible
This specific kind of ignorance
-Restaurant – waiter and chef
happens when a person really wants
-School – student and parent
and chooses to be ignorant so that
1.3 Affected vincible ignorance This is
he/she can eventually escape any
the kind of ignorance which an
accountability arising from the
individual keeps by positive
wrongfulness of the act later on.
efforts in order to escape blame
and accountability.
-Student ignores the text of the 2. Passion or Concupiscence
class president
-Passion or concupiscence is a strong or
powerful feeling or emotion.
-Positive emotions – love, desire, delight,
hope and bravery
-Negative emotions - hatred, despair,
horror, sadness, anger, grief and the like.
Passions are either classified as antecedent VIOLENCE refers to any physical force
or consequent. exerted on a person & another free agent
for the purpose of compelling said person
1. Antecedent are those that precede an
to act against his will.
act. It may happen that a person is
emotionally aroused to perform an act. Principles governing Violence When a
person experiences so much fear in the face
2. Consequent – are those that are
of an unjust aggressor who is armed and
intentionally aroused and kept.
extremely dangerous, he or she is not held
Principle governing Antecedent Passions – morally responsible of his or her action.
do not always destroy voluntariness but
Habit, is a “constant and easy way of doing
they diminish accountability for the
things acquired by the repetition of the
resultant act.
same act” (Panizo 1964:37).
Principle governing Consequent Passion -
Principles governing Habit *When a person
Consequent passions do not lessen
will simply let his/her habit take control of
voluntariness, but may even increase
his/her action without doing anything about
accountability. Here, the person concerned
it whatsoever, then we can say that he/she
who willfully acts following his/her passion,
is morally accountable of his/her action by
allows himself/herself to be completely
allowing the habit to determine his/her
controlled by it and hence, is considered
conduct.
morally responsible for it.
3.Fear is defined as “the disturbance of the
mind of a person who is confronted by an
impending danger or harm to himself or
loved ones”
Principles governing Fear
Acts done “with” fear are voluntary. This is
so since the person acting with fear is acting
in spite of his/her fear, and thus, still very
much in control of his/her conduct.
Therefore the person concerned remains
morally responsible of his/her
action,whether good or bad, right or wrong.
Acts done “because of” intense fear or
panic are simply involuntary. A person
when acting out of extreme fear is not
morally accountable of his/her action or
conduct.