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9 - C Predicate Logic - Logic Agents

This document provides an introduction to predicate logic and logical agents. It discusses [1] the limitations of propositional logic and how predicate logic addresses these limitations by allowing the representation of objects, properties, and relationships. It then [2] explains the basic syntax of predicate logic, including predicates, terms, quantifiers, and examples of how to represent sentences. Finally, [3] it gives examples of how predicate logic can be used to represent problems and inferences can be drawn from a knowledge base expressed in predicate logic.

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Pratik Raj
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79 views

9 - C Predicate Logic - Logic Agents

This document provides an introduction to predicate logic and logical agents. It discusses [1] the limitations of propositional logic and how predicate logic addresses these limitations by allowing the representation of objects, properties, and relationships. It then [2] explains the basic syntax of predicate logic, including predicates, terms, quantifiers, and examples of how to represent sentences. Finally, [3] it gives examples of how predicate logic can be used to represent problems and inferences can be drawn from a knowledge base expressed in predicate logic.

Uploaded by

Pratik Raj
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Artificial Intelligence

Logical Agents – Predicate Logic


Contents
 Logical Agents
 Predicate Logic – Introduction
Limitations of PL Propositional logic

 limited expressiveness
 becomes impractical, even for very small worlds
 Not possible to represent relations like all, some, or none with
propositional logic
 Cannot represent objects, properties and relationships

Roommate Carrying Umbrella


there is an object we call Roommate,
there is an object we call Umbrella,
there is a relationship Carrying between these two objects
Formally, none of this meaning is there
Roommate Carrying Umbrella by P
Language of thoughts
 Natural languages are very expressive
 Natural languages also suffer from ambiguity, a problem for a
representation language
 Combining the formal and natural languages
 foundation of propositional logic—a declarative, compositional semantics
that is context-independent and unambiguous
 representational ideas from natural language while avoiding its drawbacks
 Nouns and noun phrases refer to objects (squares, pits, wumpuses)
 Verbs and verb phrases refer to relations among objects (is breezy,
is adjacent to, shoots)
 Relations are functions—relations in which there is only one
“value” for a given “input.”
Examples
 “One plus two equals three.”
 Objects: one, two, three, one plus two
 Relation: equals
 Function: plus
(“One plus two” is a name for the object that is obtained by applying the function “plus” to
the objects “one” and “two.” “Three” is another name for this object.)

 “Squares neighboring the wumpus are smelly.”


 Objects: wumpus, squares
 Property: smelly
 Relation: neighboring
 “Evil King John ruled England in 1200.”
 Objects: John, England, 1200
 Relation: ruled
 Properties: evil, king
predicate symbols stand for relations
Predicate Logic
 is built around objects and relations
 extends the syntax of propositional calculus with predicates
and quantifiers
P(X) – P is a predicate
 Atomic sentence is formed from a predicate symbol
optionally followed by a parenthesized list of terms/objects.
Atomic sentence = predicate (term1,...,termn)
 Ex:
Brother(Richard, John)
Married(Father(Richard), Mother(John))
Brother(Richard, John) ∧ Brother(John, Richard)
Syntax of FOL: Basic elements
The basic syntactic elements of FOL are the symbols that
stand for objects, relations & functions.

 Constants (stand for objects) Sarah, A, B,...


 Predicates (stand for relation) Brother, Round,...
 Functions (stand for function) FatherOf,...
 Variables x, y, a, b,...
 Connectives , , , , 
 Equality =
 Quantifiers , 

Older (S1, 20)  Younger(S1, 20)


Universal and Existential quantifier
 Quantifiers  and 
  - For all:
 x P(x) is read “For all x’es, P (x) is true”
 E.g., for all engineering students, they are smart.

  - There Exists:
 x P(x) is read “there exists an x such that P(x) is true”.
 E.g., there exist a engineering student who is not smart.

 Relationship between the quantifiers:


 x P(x)  ¬ (x)¬P(x)
 “If There exists an x for which P holds, then it is not true that for all x
P does not hold”.

x, y, z, … can refer to multiple objects


Examples
 All cats are mammals - x Cats(x) => Mammals(x)
 for all x, if x is a cat, then x is a mammal

 Everyone at IIITK is smart - x At(x, IIITK) => Smart(x)

 Someone at PSU is smart - x At(x, PSU)  Smart(x)

 Nested quantifiers - ∀ x ∀ y Brother(x, y) ⇒ Sibling(x, y)

 mixtures
∀x ∃y Loves(x, y) - Everybody loves somebody

∃y ∀x Loves(x, y) - There is someone who is loved by everyone


Try
 All food are edible
 Brothers are siblings
 One's mother is one's female parent
 Richard has at least two brothers
Try
 All food are edible
 x food( x) => edible( x)

 Brothers are siblings


 x,y Brother(x, y)  Sibling(x, y).

 One's mother is one's female parent


 m,c Motherof(c) = m  (Female(m)  Parent(m, c))

 Richard has at least two brothers


∃x,y Brother(x, Richard) ∧ Brother(y, Richard) (why?)
∃x,y Brother(x, Richard) ∧ Brother(y, Richard) ∧ ¬(x = y)
Activity
Aditya, Mahesh and Lokesh belong to the Dept Champions
Club.
 Every member of the club is either a soccer or a cricketer .

 No cricketer likes rain, and all soccers like snow

 Lokesh dislikes whatever Aditya likes and likes whatever

Aditya dislikes
 Aditya likes rain and snow

 Is there any member of the club who is cricketer but not


soccer?

 Translate this problem into FOL Sentences?


Activity
 S(x) means x is a soccer
 C(x) means x is a cricketer
 L(x,y) means x likes y

 The English sentences in the prev slide can be translated into


the following FOL:
x Clubmember(x) => S(x) V C (x)
~ x C(x)  L(x,rain)
x S(x) => L(x,snow)
y L(Lokesh, y) <=> ~L(Aditya,y)
L(Aditya, rain) ^ L(Aditya,snow)
Example of inference rules
 “It is illegal for students to copy music.”
 “Joe is a student.”
 “Every student copies music.”
 Is Joe a criminal?
 Knowledge Base:

x, y Student( x)  Music( y )  Copies( x, y ) (1)


 Criminal(x)
Student(Joe) (2)
x y Student(x) Music(y) Copies( x, y ) (3)
Example cont...

From : x y Student(x) Music(y) Copies( x, y )


y Student(Joe)  Music(y) Copies( Joe, y )
Existential Elimination Universal Elimination

Student(Joe)  Music(SomeSong)  Copies( Joe, SomeSong)

Modus Ponens

Criminal(Joe)

Example partially borrowed from http://sern.ucalgary.ca/courses/CPSC/533/W99/presentations/L1_9A_Chow_Low/main.html


Prolog
 Prolog is a logic programming language
 Used for implementing logical representations and for
drawing inference

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Prolog

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Example 1
Example 2
The End…

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