International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering, ISSN(p): 2320-2092, ISSN(e): 2321-2071

Volume- 6, Issue-3, Mar.-2018, http://iraj.in

TURBOCHARGER DESIGN CRITERIA, SELECTION AND FAILURE
RAJVARDHAN NALAWADE

UNDERGRADUATE, COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING PUNE, WELLESLEY ROAD, SHIVAJINAGAR, PUNE-05

Email: [email protected]

Abstract - This paper presents step by step design procedure and considerations while matching a turbocharger to a specific
engine. One simple and efficient way of matching a turbocharger to an engine is the “Ballpark Matching” technique.
Turbochargers are the most efficient horsepower supplementing unit in a vehicle, and its installation requires changing
certain components of an engine, and sometimes even installing completely new parts in the engine, like aftercoolers. For
heavy duty purposes where it is targeted to increase the horsepower by more than 50%, we have to do certain changes in the
crankshaft, piston and other parts of an engine. Once a turbocharger is selected and installed, the next step is tuning the
turbocharger according to the fuel injection characteristics and extracting maximum out of the turbocharger. The last and
most important phase is the failure analysis and detection in a turbocharger. Certain typical turbocharger failures will be
discussed along with troubleshooting.

Indexterms - Turbocharger Matching, Tuning, Compressor, Wastegates, Anti Lag Systems

I. INTRODUCTION thereby choking. It is the simplest application of a

variable geometry turbine.
A turbocharger works on the basic principle of
extracting air from exhaust and directing it to rotate II. PARTS OF A TURBOCHARGER AND
the turbine. This rotation of the turbine leads to FUNCTIONING
rotation of the shaft on which the turbine and turbine
housing is mounted. This rotation of the shaft causes The main parts of a turbocharger system are turbine,
the compressor wheel on the other side to rotate. This compressor, bearings and intercooler. The function of
compressor, compresses the static air present around a compressor is to compress the air present in the
it thus, increasing the number of air molecules per volute portion of the compressor cover. Air flows
unit volume. This dense air is pumped inside the through the bellmouth nozzle along the inducer
engine, Hence, in this way the volumetric efficiency diameter. This diameter of the inducer decides the
of the engine will increase. Volumetric efficiency is flow rate or capacity of the compressor. The diffuser
the volumetric flow rate of air versus the capability or portion of a compressor is very vital as it governs the
theoretical flow rate possible. flow of the air from the compressor to the cover. The
compressor and cover have a gap of nearly 0.01 inch.
A 100% volumetric efficient engine is not possible, Most diffusers are vaneless type and are formed by
because of many reasons like installation of air filter, parallel walls between cover and bearing housing
etc. Small increments can be made in the volumetric face. The vane type diffuser, being restrictive is only
efficiency can be made by increasing the valve open used in engines with a very narrow RPM operating
times, and increasing their sizes. However, if dense range. The volute diameter increases as it gradually
and more air is pumped into the engine, its volumetric approaches he engine as it has to convert the highly
efficiency will drastically increase. The types of dense moving air into static pressure air. At times, an
installation of turbos are of three types, namely single inducer bleed is installed before the inlet of the
turbos, twin turbos or series turbos.In twin turbos, compressor, which diverts excess flow and allows its
two turbos give the input to an engine. Whereas, in re-entry into the compressor. This prevents
series turbos, the output of one compressor is fed to compressor from surging. The range of operating and
the second turbine. This leads to high level of maximum efficiency RPM for a compressor with a
compressing and used in heavy duty operations like particular A/R (area over radius) ratio can be found
tractors and cranes. In case of passenger vehicles with by plotting its pressure ratio against air flow
inline cylinder arrangement, single turbochargers are compressor map. Some compressor types are straight
preferred. Whereas in case of V engines, twin radial, backward curved impellor and splitter blade
turbochargers are preferred. In today’s world, type.
wastegates and variable geometry turbochargers are
being widely used. A wastegate is nothing but a valve The next vital component is the turbine which is
which opens to relieve excess exhaust gases. If the rotated by the exhaust air moving through the turbine
exhaust gas pressure is too much for the current speed housing tongue. Turbine shafts are manufactured by
of the vehicle, then an input is given to the wastegate rolling to keep intact the grain structure of parent
from the compressor, which leads to opening of the metal. There are two basic types of turbine, namely,
wastegate and diverting a portion of the exhaust flow. tangential entry and divided type. A divided type
This prevents the turbo from overcharging and allows the air to reach the turbine tip and lets out a
Turbocharger Design Criteria, Selection and Failure

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International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering, ISSN(p): 2320-2092, ISSN(e): 2321-2071
Volume- 6, Issue-3, Mar.-2018, http://iraj.in
collective uniform stream of air. However, the air inside the turbine housing. The exhaust air velocity
tangential entry type is less restrictive and delivers depends on the radius of the housing. It varies inversely
output in form of exhaust pulses. Turbine sizing is with the radius, to be more specific. Hence, turbines
also done by A/R ratio. It is the area of the volute having same A/R ratio have similar turbine maps,
divided by the radius from center to the volute however their magnification differs. It is important to test
centroid. the turbine pressure while installing a turbine on an
engine. Hence, a pressure tap must be fitted in the turbine
Bearing system consists of two journal bearings and a for testing purpose to check that the pressure of the
flat thrust bearing. This has now been replaced by turbine does not vary drastically with respect to
ball bearings. Ball bearings, when installed give a compressor.
better initial response than the journal bearings.
IV. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF
III. SELECTING A TURBOCHARGER TURBOCHARGER AND ENGINE

The method of selecting a turbocharger is called the The design of a turbocharger begins with the
“Turbocharger matching” technique. In this, we have decision, should the turbocharger be two twin
to first match the compressor and then the turbine. turbochargers or 1 large single turbocharger.
Depending upon the capacity of the engine, the Logically, when the size of a turbocharger increases
displacement of the engine is used to calculate the the moment of inertia increases. Hence, as the
airflow. moment of inertia increases, the resistance to the
Displacement × RPM rotatory parts of a turbocharger increases. If we take
Air low = two small turbochargers and arrange them in parallel,
2
With this, the airflow is found out and is multiplied the resultant moment of inertia is clearly, less than
by a factor of 0.85, so as to compensate the various that of a large single turbocharger. However, there is
losses contributing to the volumetric efficiency. The a disadvantage to twin turbocharger system too. As
amount of boost pressure is decided and a ratio called there are two turbochargers involved, it means there
pressure ratio is defined as will be frictional losses in the clearance between
turbine housing and turbine in two turbochargers.
Pressure ratio Therefore, more losses and less efficiency is a result.
Boost pressure + Surrounding Pressure Twin turbochargers should only be used in large
= applications.
Surrounding pressure

The pressure ratio against density ratio graphs are Intake filters of a turbocharger system have to be less
used to find the corresponding density ratio. This restrictive as compared to general intake air filters of
density ratio, when multiplied with the corrected vehicles, made of filter paper. A fine filter will clog
airflow, it gives us the turbocharged airflow. With too many particles, thus causing a high pressure drop
these data in hand, we refer to air flow versus and choking the turbocharger. Instead, a filter made
pressure ratio graphs of several compressors and see of surgical gauze must be used, which will be less
which compressor gives us the best results for the restrictive. If a K&N filter is to be used, we can use
given data. The central regions of such compressor the following formulae provided by K&N to
maps usually represent the highest efficiency island. determine filter characteristics
The trim of a compressor determines the capacity of Area(sq inch)of ilter
the compressor to handle large airflows. lbs of boost
= +1
Inducer × Inducer 14.7
Trim = × 100 × Cubic Inch Displacement
Exducer × Exducer
In case of turbines, pressure ratio is replaced by the × RPM ÷ 20839
term called expansion ratio. It is the reverse of sq inch of ilter
Filter height(inch) = + 0.75
pressure ratio. ilter diameter × 3.14
Expansion ratio
Exhaust Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure If we decide the boost pressure beyond 5-7lbs, an
= aftercooler is a must. According to the Ideal Gas
Turbine Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
Equation
Now, using a turbine flow map which has corrected PV = nRT
flow on Y axis and expansion ratio on X axis, we can We know that as the pressure of the air
find the corresponding corrected flow rate. Based on this inside compressor increases, the temperature will
flow rate and the size of the turbine or the A/R ratio, we increase. Hence intercoolers are required. Efficiency
can choose the appropriate turbine. A small A/R ratio of an intercooler can be found out by
shows increase in exhaust pressure. Two turbines having Ef icency
the same A/R ratio need not have the same volumetric Compressor − Intercooler
= Temperatures
efficiency due to difference in the velocity of the exhaust Compressor − Surrounding
Turbocharger Design Criteria, Selection and Failure

49
International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering, ISSN(p): 2320-2092, ISSN(e): 2321-2071
Volume- 6, Issue-3, Mar.-2018, http://iraj.in
change. Note that by grinding and polishing cam
The intercooler may be of shell and tube type or cross lobes, we cannot increase the time for which the cam
flow heat exchanger, depending upon the application. is open by a large amount. More importantly, we
Worm clamps must be used for tightening of hoses as cannot increase it, but can decrease it slightly.
they are easy to tighten and have high resistance to However, we can change the rise or lift at a particular
wear. One end of the turbocharger is connected to the cam position. This can be done by grinding and
plenum and the other end to the exhaust manifold. polishing the surface of the cam. A thick cam leads to
Flex tubes and expansion joints must be used high lifts or rises and a narrow cam profile leads to
throughout to increase durability and increase the short rises. Make sure to round the edges to smoothen
ability to withstand temperature. Ceramic paint acts the transition. These small edits to an engine and the
as a good heat shield for the turbocharger. design considerations while installing a turbocharger
will keep the engine healthy and running for quite a
If we are aiming to boost an engine above 50% of long period of time.
original power, we need to make certain changes in
the engine. The engine block is put through the V. TUNING A TURBOCHARGER
following processes. First, the block is heated for 30
minutes up to 500 degree Fahrenheit. Next, it is bead Tuning an engine can be best described as controlling
blasted and shaken well to remove debris. Magnaflux the amount of air and fuel being injected in the
test is performed to test for cracks and then, a sonic combustion chamber at once. With the installation of
check is done to see the thickness of the block and its a turbocharger, more air enters the combustion
variation. Lastly, honing plates are installed in the chamber than the stock values. Hence, to maintain the
bore of the engine block and its reading is taken when compression ratio, the fuel injected must be more as
the block head is installed and bolted. If the reading is well. Sometimes, there is a need to change the fuel
large enough, then it leads to buckling during injectors as well.
operation. Crankshafts must be forged and not cast.
Cast components often have pores in them leading to The first step while tuning a turbocharged engine is
loss in strength. A billet crankshaft, in which the the installation of an exhaust gas oxygen sensor after
whole crankshaft is made from a single block is even the exhaust header. The function of this sensor is to
better. The crankshaft must be properly balanced on measure the air fuel ratio, also denoted by lambda λ.
the main bearings. In case of pistons, the topmost
piston ring is usually very close to the piston crown. Next, the fuel injector duty cycle needs to be
This results in a very little area as a combustion dead increased. Duty cycle is the amount of time for which
spot between the topmost ring, piston crown and the injectors are open, delivering fuel. Care must be
cylinder wall. However, this small are is responsible taken that the duty cycle is not above 90% of the total
for leakage of air and fuel mixtures too. Hence, time, and in such cases, fuel injectors must be
bringing the piston rings down is not possible. This replaced with larger ones. Injectors have to be chosen
affect the turbochargers performance. Heat treated, depending upon the brake specific fuel consumption
hypereutectic pistons with 12% silicon content are of an engine. Generally, the turbocharged engines
ideal for high horsepower turbocharger applications. have a brake specific fuel consumption of 0.60.
Piston coatings like ceramic keep the piston cool and Injector ideal size can be found out by
fasten the heat transfer rate, however decrease the Horsepower × BFSC
clearances between piston and cylinder. Connecting Size =
Number of injectors × Duty cycle
rods must be preferably, of the H beam design as
compared to the I beam, for better wear resistance. Fuel pressure in the rails is related directly to the
The connecting rod bolts must be large enough to square of the mass flow rate of an injector. Keeping
withstand the new power and torque on it. these formulae in mind, the ideal injector for a
turbocharged engine can be tuned and chosen.
Valves must be modified such that they provide for
higher airflow and hence speed up the process of Blow off valves and compressor valves have to be
combustion. The valve seat, if narrowed by grinding installed. In cases where the throttle is suddenly shut
and polishing, will lead to higher airflow. In addition off, but the vehicle is in motion, the compressor is run
to this, it must be made sure that all the combustion due to exhaust being emitted. However, there
chambers have the same volume. Gaskets must be develops too much backpressure in the engine due to
used extensively and positive type head gasket such zero throttle condition and this leads to wear of the
as O-rings must be used. Also, head studs are turbocharger. This unwanted air in the compressor
recommended. can be let out using a blow off valve. This valve is
actuated when the throttle is deactivated and then it
The rate at which dense air will enter the engine diverts the exhaust flow out into the atmosphere. In
combustion chamber will be very high than the rate case of compressor valves, they divert the exhaust
of fuel injection. Hence, this needs a cam lobe profile flow back into the intake of an engine. This clearly

Turbocharger Design Criteria, Selection and Failure

50
International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering, ISSN(p): 2320-2092, ISSN(e): 2321-2071
Volume- 6, Issue-3, Mar.-2018, http://iraj.in
suggests that blow off valves give a noisy output as Contaminated lube oil leave markings on the journal
compared to compressor valves. bearing. Marks can be seen, predominantly on the
outer diameter of the bearings, due to trapped
In case of wastegate turbochargers, boost controllers particles. If contaminated oil is the only cause of
are used to limit the boost generation with the help of failure, scoring can be seen on the internal diameters
a needle valve. of the bearings too, to an extent. Contaminants in the
oil gallery and poor oil filter maintenance leads to
In extreme racing vehicles, we sometimes need contaminated lube oil.
immense horsepower the moment we start the race. In
such cases it is demanded that the turbocharger be Discoloration in the thrust and journal bearings, show
activated in the start as soon as the engine is switched a clear case of lack of lubrication. The first run of a
on and idling. This has been achieved by Anti Lag turbocharger is without the oil lubrication. This is a
Systems. When the throttle and clutch are pushed cause for failure. Any sludge in the bearing housing
simultaneously, the ALS system gets activated and it that blocks the oil or damaged oil line, lead to failures
misfires a cylinder, thus causing exhaust to rotate the due to lack of lubrication. When oil is found in both
turbine vigorously. This leads to violent firing inside the ends of housing, it means that there has been oil
the combustion chamber and leads to rapid rotation of leakage. This happens due to broken piston rings or
the turbine. Although this leads to high temperatures an improper placement of oil drain.
in the turbocharger and the engine, it is used by racers
to improve their pick up speed. The turbocharger bearing assembly is in continuous
motion. When the boost pressure acts on the back of
VI. FAILURE ANALYSIS compressor, the thrust bearing is pulled farthest away
towards the positive side. Hence, the bearing system
Turbocharger is a part of an engine that is subjected may fail after many cycles of sudden acceleration and
to extreme stresses, due to its extreme surrounding deceleration. In case of drag races, there is always a
conditions and number of cycles of operation. Hence, negative pressure differential generated across the
the failure of a turbocharger is a common event, ends as the compressor will never be able to cope up
especially in drag races. A turbocharger rarely lasts with the requirements of a turbine. Once we, move up
for an entire season of a racing event. The analysis of to the next gear, the boost pressure slowly overcomes
failures in turbochargers is a field in itself. There are the turbine pressure. This shows that in races, the
majorly, four main causes of turbocharger failure, bearings are in constant motion and may fail soon if
namely: External damage, contaminated oil, lack of not lubricated well.
lubrication and high exhaust temperatures.
CONCLUSION
External damage may be found out by making some
typical observations. The intercooler acts as a catch These are the basic design considerations that every
pot, in most cases. It prevents the entry of external individual needs to be familiar with before installing
particles into the compressor and hence protects the a turbocharger to an engine. The steps to do this are
engine. However, bolts and rocks may be found in the as follows: Selecting the appropriate turbocharger,
compressor housing which show that the reason of designing the turbocharger parts, changing the engine
failure is external object ingression. The particles according to the requirements and finally, tuning the
which do not enter the engine, often get dislodged turbocharger.
into the turbine housing, thus deteriorating the
performance. Valve and piston fragments, along with REFERENCES
heat baffle fragments may be found in the turbine
[1] Corky Bell, “Maximum Boost: Designing, Testing and
housing, leading to failure. Rather than this, the risks Installing Turbocharger Systems”
of a turbine failing by over speeding are excessively [2] Hugh MacInnes “How to Select and Install Turbo-chargers”
high. Turbines cannot last over 100,000 cycles in [3] Roland Merkle, Wolfgang Rapp, Friedrich Noltemeyer
general. The heat generated and the mass air flow “Installation of an exhaust gas turbo-charger at an internal
cannot be sustained after a limit and the turbine combustion engine”
[4] Jeff Hartman,“How to Tune and Modify Automotive Engine
blades start chipping off, thus affecting performance. Management Systems”
[5] Todd Curless, “Turbochargers: Theory, Installation,
Maintenance, and Repair”

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