Combinational

Circuits

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• Combinational circuits
• Half & Full adder
• Binary adder/ Subtractor
• CLA & BCD Adder
• Half & Full subtractor
• Binary multipliers
• Magnitude comparator
• Decoder and its applications for logic implementation
• Encoder & Priority encoder
• Multiplexor & De-multiplexer
• Logic diagrams using MUX
• Hazards

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• Combinational Logic Circuits are memoryless digital logic circuits
whose output at any instant in time depends only on the
combination of its inputs. i.e., the output is dependant at all times on
the combination of its inputs. It is memoryless.
• Combinational circuit is a circuit in which it combine the different
gates in the circuit, for example encoder, decoder, mux and demux.
Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are following −
• The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends
only on the levels present at input terminals.
• The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state
of input does not have any effect on the present state of the circuit.
• A combinational circuit can have an n number of inputs and m
number of outputs.

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Half Adder: adds two 1-bit
operands
• Truth table :

X Y HS=(X+Y) CO
0 0 0 0 X
HS
0 1 1 0 Y
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 CO
•
HS  X Y
CO  X Y

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Full Adders: provide for carries between bit
positions

• Basic building block is “full adder”

• 1-bit-wide adder, produces sum and carry outputs
• Truth table:
X Y Cin S Cout
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 4
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Full Adders: provide for carries between bit
positions

• Basic building block is “full adder”

• 1-bit-wide adder, produces sum and carry outputs
• Truth table:
X Y Cin S Cout
S is 1 if an odd number 0 0 0 0 0
of inputs are 1. 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
COUT is 1 if two or 0 1 1 0 1
more of the inputs are 1 0 0 1 0
1. 1 0 1 0 1
Recall: Table 2-3, pp32 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 5
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Full-adder
circuit

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Combinational logic implementation
Realize Full Adder using Decoder
concept.

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Ripple Adder

• Speed limited by carry chain

• Faster adders eliminate or limit carry chain
• 2-level AND-OR logic ==> 2n product terms
• 3 or 4 levels of logic, carry look-ahead

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74x283
4-bit
adder
• Uses carry look-ahead
internally

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16-
bit
grou
p
rippl
e
adde
r

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Subtractio
n
• Subtraction is the same as addition of the two’s complement.
• The two’s complement is the bit-by-bit complement plus 1.
• Therefore, X – Y = X + Y’ + 1

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Full Subtractor = full
adder, almost

 X,Y are n-bit unsigned binary numbers

 Addition : S=X+Y
 Subtraction : D = X - Y = X + (-Y) =
= X+ (Two’s Complement of Y)
= X+ (One’s Complement of Y) + 1
= X+ Y’+ 1
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Using Adder as a
Subtractor
• Ripple Adder can be used as a Subtractor by inverting Y and setting the initial carry (
CIN ) to 1

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Using Adder as a
Subtractor
• Ripple Adder can be used as a Subtractor by inverting Y and setting the initial carry (
CIN ) to 1

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Binary
Multipliers

• A Binary Multiplier is a digital circuit used in digital electronics to

multiply two binary numbers and provide the result as output.

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2:2
Multipliers

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2: 2
multipliers

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4*4
Multipliers

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COMPARATORS

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Magnitude
comparators
• Magnitude Comparator are digital circuits which have two ports
which accept and have three single bit outputs. It is used to
comparing individual bits, multi-bit comparators can be
constructed to compare whole BCD words to produce an output if
one word is larger, equal to or less than the other.

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1-bit
comparator

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1- Bit Comparator Logic
diagram

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2-BIT COMPARATORS

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2-bit
comparator

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2-bit Comparator Circuit
diagram

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4-bit comparator
The condition of A>B can be possible in the
following four cases:

1. If A3 = 1 and B3 = 0
2.If A3 = B3 and A2 = 1 and B2 = 0
3.If A3 = B3, A2 = B2 and A1 = 1 and B1
=0
4.If A3 = B3, A2 = B2, A1 = B1 and A0 = 1
and B0 = 0
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Similarly the condition for A<B can be
possible in the following four cases:

1.If A3 = 0 and B3 = 1
1.If A3 = B3 and A2 = 0 and B2 = 1
2.If A3 = B3, A2 = B2 and A1 = 0 and B1 = 1
3.If A3 = B3, A2 = B2, A1 = B1 and A0 = 0
and B0 = 1

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The condition A = B,
The condition of A=B is possible only when all
the individual bits of one number exactly
coincide with corresponding bits of another
number.

A=B: (A3 Ex-Nor B3) (A2 Ex-Nor 82) (Al Ex-Nor

BI) (AO Ex-Nor BO)

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4-BIT COMPARISION PROCESS
BIT BY BIT

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4-BIT COMP

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4-bit
Comparator

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N- bit
comparator

• For n- the bit comparator then, the number of

combinations for which
• A = B is 2n
• A > B or A < B is (22n – 2n)/2

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Decoder

s
A decoder is a multiple-input, multiple-output
logic circuit that converts coded inputs into coded
outputs, where the input and output codes are
different. The input code generally has fewer bits
than the output code, and there is one-to-one
mapping from input code words into output code
words.
input
code word output
enable code word
inputs Decoder
Return Next
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Decoder
s
 Binary decoder
 The most common decoder circuit is an n-to-2
n

decoder or binary decoder. Such a decoder has an

n-bit binary input code and a 1-out-of-2n output
code.
Truth table for a 2-to-4
binary decoder
2-to-4
Inputs Outputs Decoder
EN I1 I0 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 I0 Y0
0 X X 0 0 0 0 I1 Y1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Y2
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 EN Y3
1 1 ” do0n’t-ca0re” 1 0 0
1 1 n1otatio1n 0
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0 0 Return Back Next
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Decoder
s
Y 0  I1 I 0  EN Y1  I1 I 0  EN

Y 2  I1 I 0  EN Y 3  I1 I 0  EN

Simulation
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Decoder
s
It is not necessary to use all of the outputs of a
decoder, or even to decode all possible input
combinations, e.g. a decimal or BCD decoder.
 Logic Symbols for Lager-Scale Elements
The most basic rule is that logic symbols are

drawn with inputs on the left and outputs on the

right. The top and bottom edges of a logic symbol
are not normally used for signal connections.
However, explicit power and ground connections
are sometimes shown at the top and bottom,
especially if these connections are made on
“nonstandard” pins.
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Decoder
s
We use an inversion bubble to indicate an active-
low pin and the absence of a bubble to indicate an
active-high pin.
 Active-high pins are given the same name as the

internal signal, while active-low pins have the

internal signal name with an overbar.
1/2 74X139 external
pin
G G Y0 Y0
internal Y1 Y1
A
signal A Y2 Y2
B B Y3 Y3
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Decoder
s
 The 74x139 Dual 2-to-4 Decoder
Truth table for one-half of a 74X139
74x139 dual 2-to-4 decoder 1 4
1G 1Y0
Inputs Outputs 5
1Y1
G B A Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 2 6
1A 1Y2
1 X X 1 1 1 1 3 7
1B 1Y3
0 0 0 1 1 1 0
15 12
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 2G 2Y0 11
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2Y1
14 10
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 2A 2Y2
13 2B 9
2Y3
( Logic diagram see P355
Figure 5-35 )
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Decoder
s
 The 74x138 3-to-8 Decoder
Inputs Outputs
G1 G2A G2B C B A Y7 Y6 Y5 Y4 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 X X X X X
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
X 1 X X X
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( Logic diagram see P358 Figure 5-37)
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Decoder
s
It has three enable inputs, G1, G2A, G2B , all of
which must be asserted for the selected output to
be asserted.
 The equation for the internal output signal Y5:
Y 5  G1G2AG2B C  B  A
 The equation for the external output signal Y5:
Y 5  G1G2AG2B C  B  A
 G1 G2A  G2B  C  B  A
Active-low
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Decoder
s
 Traditional logic symbol of the 74x138
74X138
6 15
G1 Y0
4 14
G2A Y1
5 13
G2B Y2
12
Y3
11
1
Y4
A. Y5 10
2 9
B. Y6
3 C. Y7 7

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4 -16 DECODER USING 3TO 8 DECODER CASCADING:
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Decoder
s
 Cascading Binary Decoders
+5V 74X138
R 6 15
G1 Y0 DEC0
4 14
G2A Y1 DEC1
5 G2B Y2 13 DEC2
Y3 12 DEC3
U1 Y4 11
N0 1 A Y5 10
DEC4
DEC5
The top decoder
N1 2
N2 3
B
C
Y6
Y7
9
7
DEC6
DEC7
(U1) is enabled
N3 when N3 is 0, and
74X138
6 G1 Y0 15
DEC8
the bottom one
4
5
G2A Y1 14
13
DEC9
DEC10
(U2) is enabled
G2B Y2
Y3 12 DEC11 when N3 is 1.
U2 Y4 11 DEC12
1 10
A Y5 DEC13
2 9
B Y6 DEC14
3 C Y7 7 DEC15
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Example of a 5 to 32 Bit Decoder

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Decoder
s
 Seven-Segment Decoders
a Seven-segment display normally

f g b uses light-emitting diodes(LEDs) or

liquid-crystal display(LCD) elements.
e
A seven-segment decoder has 4-
c
d bit BCD as its input code and the
74X49 “seven-segment code”
11
3
BI
a
b
10 Truth table for a 74x49 seven-
5
c 9 segment decoder(See P374 table 5-21)
A d 8
1
B e 6 Logic diagram for a 74x49 seven-
2
C f 13 segment decoder(See P373 figure 5-
4
D g 12
45 )
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ENCODE
RS
• Multiple-input/multiple-output device.

• Performs the inverse function of a Decoder.

• Outputs ( m ) are less than inputs ( n ).

• Converts input code words into output

code words.

output
input code
code ENCODER

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Encoders vs.
Decoders

Decoder Encoder

Binary decoders/encoders
 n-to-2^n  2^n-to-n encoder
 Input code : Binary Code  Input code : 1-out-of-2^n.
 Output code :1-out-of-2^n.  Output code : Binary Code
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Encoders and
Decoders
• The combinational circuits that
modify the binary data into N output
lines are known as Encoders. The
combinational circuits that convert
the binary data into 2N output lines
are called Decoders.
• In digital electronic projects, the
encoder and decoder play an
important role. It is used to convert
the data from one form to another
form.

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4-2
Encoder

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Binary
Encoder Binary encoder
• 2^n-to-n encoder : 2^n inputs and n outputs. I0
• Input code : 1-out-of-2^n. I1
• Output code : Binary Code
I2 Y0
I3 Y1
I4 Y2
• Example : n=3, 8-to-3 encoder I5
• Inputs Outputs I6
I7

I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 Y2 Y1 Y0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

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8-to-3 encoder
Implementation

• Simplified implementation: I0
Y2
- From the truth I1
table Y0 = I1 + I3 +
I5 + I7 Y1 = I2 + I3 + I2
I6 + I7 Y2 = I4 + I5 +
Y1
I6 + I7 I3

• Limitations : I4
- I0 has no effect on the output I5
- Only one input can be activated Y0
I6
• Application:
Handling multiple devices requests I7

• But, no simultaneous
Establishing priorities requests
solve the problem of multiple requests

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Need of Priority
Encoder

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4-2 Priority encoder

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Need priority in most
applications

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Priority
Encoder
• Assign priorities to the inputs
• When more than one input are asserted, the output generates the code
of the input with the highest priority
• Priority Encoder :
H7=I7 (Highest Priority)
H6=I6.I7’ Priority encoder
H5=I5.I6’.I7’
H4=I4.I5’.I6’.I7’ Priority Circuit Binary encoder
H3=I3.I4’.I5’.I6’.I7’
H2=I2.I3’.I4’.I5’.I6’.I7’ I7 I7 H7 I7
H1=I1. I2’.I3’.I4’.I5’.I6’.I7’ I6 I6 H6 I6
H0=I0.I1’. I2’.I3’.I4’.I5’.I6’.I7’ I5 I5 H5 I5 Y2 A2
IDLE= I0’.I1’. I2’.I3’.I4’.I5’.I6’.I7’
I4 I4 H4 I4 Y1 A1
- Encoder
I3 I3 H3 I3 Y0 A0
A0=Y0 = H1 + H3 + H5 + H7
A1=Y1 = H2 + H3 + H6 + H7 I2 I2 H2 I2
A2=Y2 = H4 + H5 + H6 + H7 I1 I1 H1 I1
I0 I0 H0 I0
IDLE
IDLE
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8-input priority
encoder

• I7 has the highest priority,I0 least

• A2-A0 contain the number of the
highest-priority asserted input if
any.
• IDLE is asserted if no inputs are
asserted.

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74x148 8-input priority
encoder

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74x148 8-input priority
encoder

• Active-low I/O
• Enable Input
• “Got Something": Group Select
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• Enable Output 65
74x148 Truth
Table

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74x1
48
circui
t

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Cascading priority
encoders

• 32-input
priority encoder

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Multiplex
ers

•A multiplexer is a digital switch

- it connects data from one of n

sources to its output.

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Multiplexers or Data
Selectors

• An n-input and b-bit multiplexer has n soureces of

data, each of which b bits wide, and there are b
output bits.
• A multiplexer is a unidirectional device.
• Multiplexers are used in any application in which
data must be switched from multiple sources to a
destination.
e.g., processor’s registers to ALU

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Multiplexer
s

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74x151
8-input 1-
bit
multiplexer

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Multiplexers IC
Specifications
74x151
8-input, 1-bit-wide Multiplexer
8-input, 1-bit Multiplexer
1 bit, 8-to-1 Multiplexer
1, 8-to-1 Multiplexer
1, 1-of-8 Data Selector
Single, 1-of-8 Data Selector
74x157
2input, 4-bit-wide Multiplexer
2-input, 4-bit Multiplexer
4-bit, 2-to-1 Multiplexer
4, 2-to-1 Multiplexer
Quadruple 2-line to 1-line Data Selector/Multiplexer
Quad, 1-of-2 Data Selector
74x153
4-input, 2-bit-wide Multiplexer
2-bit, 4-to-1 Multiplexer
2, 1-of-4 Data Selector

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74x151 truth
table

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Other multiplexer
varieties
• 2-input, 4-bit-wide
• 74x157

• 4-input, 2-bit-
wide
– 74x153

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Multiplexers, De-
multiplexers
• A multiplexer is used to select one of n sources of data to
transmit on a bus.

• A demultiplexer is opposite of a multiplexer.

• A 1-bit, n-output demultiplexer has one data input and s

inputs to select one of n = 2s data outputs.
• A b-bit, n-output demultiplexer has b-data input and s inputs
to select one of n = 2s sets of b-data outputs.

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Decoder/Demultipl
exers

• A binary decoder with an enable input can be used as a

demultiplexer.
• The decoder’s enable input is connected to the data line, and its
select inputs determine which of its output lines is driven with the
data bit.

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Binary 2-to-4
decoder

Note “x” (don’t care) notation.

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MSI Comparator :
74x85

• 4 bit comparator 74x85

• 3 outputs : A=B, A<B, A>B A<BIN A<BOUT

A=BIN A=B OUT
• 3 Cascading inputs
A>BIN
• Functional Output equations : A>BOUT
(A>B OUT)= (A>B)+(A=B).(A>B IN) A0
(A<B OUT)= (A<B)+(A=B).(A<B IN)
B0
(A=B OUT)= (A=B).(A=B IN)
A1
• Cascading inputs initial values :
B1
(A=B IN) =1
A2
(A>B IN) =0
B2
(A<B IN) =0
A3
B3
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8 bit
Comparator
+5V

74x85 74x85
A<BIN A<BOUT A<BIN A<BOUT A<B
A=BIN A=B OUT A=BIN A=B OUT A=B
A>BIN A>BOUT A>BIN A>BOUT A>B
A0 A0 A4 A0
B0 B0 B4 B0
A1 A1 A5 A1
B1 B1 B5 B1
A2 A2 A6 A2
B2 B2 B6 B2
A3 A3 A7 A3
B3 B3 B7 B3
Least Significant bits
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8-bit Magnitude
Comparator

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Hazards
• A hazard, if exists, in a digital circuit causes a temporary fluctuation
in output of the circuit or a hazard is a temporary disturbance in
ideal operation of the circuit which if given some time, gets resolved
itself.
• Hazards are unwanted switching transients that appear at the
output of a circuit due to different propagation delays of different
paths. i.e., the unwanted switching which appears in the output, will
be very short in duration, like a glitch that will be removed after
some time. Such a transient is also called a glitch or a spike that
occurs due to the Hazardous behaviour of a circuit.
• Static hazard occur when an input changes and it causes the output
to change at the same moment before output becomes stable.
• Dynamic hazard occur when output changes for two adjacent
inputs while the output should change only once.

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Types of Hazards in Digital
Electronics
1.Static Hazards

• Static ‘1’-SOP & Static- ‘0’ -POS

2.Dynamic Hazards

• Happened in multilevel circuits

3.Essential Hazards

• Happened in sequential circuits

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Static
Hazards
• S-Hazards is those where the signal level should have been constant
but it changes for a small amount of time.
• If the signal is ‘1’ for all time but due to some static hazard it will
become from 1 to 0 for a small amount of time, or If a signal is ‘0’ for
all time but due to some static hazards it will become from ‘0’ to ‘1’.
• if any static hazard comes in digital circuits then both static ‘1’ and
static ‘0’ hazard will come in the circuit simultaneously. Only static
‘1’ or only static ‘0’ hazard will not generate in a digital circuit.

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• Static 1 Hazard:
• Static 1 hazard occurs due to different delays experienced by the signal
through the Gates connected in circuits.
• Static 1 hazard always occurs in SOP (Sum of Product) terms.

• Static 0 Hazard:
• Static 0 hazard occurs due to different delays experienced by the signal
through the Gates connected in circuits.
• Static 0 hazard always occurs in POS (Product of Sum) terms.
• Static hazard can be eliminated by adding redundant terms which
increases the hardware but removes the glitch.

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Dynamic
Hazards
• Dynamic Hazard occurs during a multilevel circuit where the output
must make a transition from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 but the output
makes multiple transitions then settles to a final value.
• Dynamic hazard occurs when the output changes for 2 adjacent input
combinations while changing, the output should change on just one
occasion . But it’s going to change three or more times briefly
intervals due to different delays in several paths.
• Dynamic hazards occur only in multilevel circuits.
• Dynamic hazards are more complex to resolve but note that if all
static hazards are eliminated from a circuit, then dynamic hazards
cannot occur

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Static & Dynamic
Hazards

• Static hazard occur when an input changes and it causes the output
to change at the same moment before output becomes stable.
• Dynamic hazard occur when output changes for two adjacent inputs
while the output should change only once.
• A static hazard is a change of a signal state twice in a row when the
signal is expected to stay constant. When one input signal changes,
the output changes momentarily before stabilizing to the correct
value.
• "A dynamic hazard is the possibility of an output changing more
than once as a result of a single input change" Dynamic hazards
often occur in larger logic circuits where there are different routes to
the output (from the input).

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Essential
Hazards
• This type of hazard is caused by unequal delays along two or more
paths that originate from an equivalent input.
• An excessive delay through an inverter circuit as compared to the
delay related to the feedback path may cause such a hazard.
• Essential hazards can’t be corrected by adding redundant gates as in
static hazards.
• To avoid essential hazards, each feedback circuit must be handled
with individual care to make sure that the delay within the feedback
path is long enough compared with delays of other signals that
originate from the input terminals.
• https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/hazards-in-
combinational-logic/

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Programmable Logic Devices
(PLD’S)

• Programmable Read-Only Memories (PROM)

• Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs)
• Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
• A combinational PLD is an integrated circuit with
programmable gates divided into an AND array and an
OR array to provide an AND-OR sum of product
implementation. There are three major types of
combinational PLDs and they differ in the placement of
the programmable connections in the AND-OR array.

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PLD’s
• A programmable logic device (PLD) is an electronic component used
to build reconfigurable digital circuits. Unlike digital logic
constructed using discrete logic gates with fixed functions, a PLD has
an undefined function at the time of manufacture.

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General Structure of
PLD
• Inputs to the PLD are applied to a set of
buffer/inverters. These devices have both the true
value of the input as well as the complemented value
of the input as its outputs.
• Outputs from these devices are the inputs to an array
of and-gates. The AND array generates a set of p
product terms.
• The product terms are inputs to an array of or-gates to
realize a set of m sum-of-product expressions.

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General Structure of PLD

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General Structure of
PLD
• One or both of the gate arrays are programmable.
• The logic designer can specify the connections
within an array.
• PLDs serve as general circuits for the realization of a
set of Boolean functions.

Device AND-array OR-array

PROM Fixed Programmable

PLA Programmable Programmable

PAL Programmable Fixed

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Programming a PLD

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Programming a PLD
• Erasable PLD—connections can be reset to their
original conditions and then reprogrammed.
• Can be achieved by exposing the PLD to ultraviolet light or
using electrical signals
• PLDs programmed by a user are called field
programmable.
• User can also specify the desired connections and
supply the information to the manufacturer.
Manufacturer prepares an overlay that is used to
complete the connections as the last step in the
fabrication process.
• Such PLDs are called mask programmable.
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PLD Notation

• Simplified notation. Each gate has only a single input

line.
• Inputs are indicated by lines at right angles to the
single gate lines.
• A cross at the intersection denotes a fusible link is
intact.

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PLD
Notation
• Lack of cross indicates the fuse is blown or no connection exists.

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PLD
Notation
• The occurrence of a hard-wired connection that is not fusible is
indicated by a junction dot.

• For the special case when all the input fuses to a gate are kept
intact, a cross is placed inside the gate symbol.

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Programmable Read-Only Memory
(PROM)

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PROM Structure

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PROM Structure

PLD Notation
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PROM example: 3-8 Decoder A, B
obtained from fixed AND array

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NOT, OR, NAND & XOR using PROM
device?

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• The first PLDs were Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs).
• APLAis a combinational, 2-level AND-OR device that can
be programmed to realise any sum-of-products logic
expression.
• APLAis limited by:
• the number of inputs (n)
• the number of outputs (m)
• the number of product terms (p)
• We refer to an “n x mPLAwith p product terms”. Usually,
p << 2 n.
• An n x mPLAwith p product terms contains p 2n-input
ANDgates and mp-input ORgates.

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• Each inputis connectedto a buffer that producesa true and a
complementedversionof the signal.

A4x3 PLAwith
6 product
terms.

•Potential connections are indicated by Xs.

•The device is programmed by establishing the needed
connections.
•The connections are made by fuses.
SWETA
4/27/2023 DIGITAL SYSTEM DESIGN ,PASULURRI 114
PLA

• Compact • O1 = I1·I2 +
representation of the I1’·I2’·I3’·I4’ O2 =
4x3 PLA with 6 I1·I3’ + I1’·I3·I4 + I2
product terms. O3 = I1·I2 + I1·I3’ +
I1’·I2’·I4’

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PLA

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PAL
• Another PLD is PAL
(ProgrammableArray Logic).

• APALdevice has a fixed OR

array.

• In a PAL, product terms are

not shared by the outputs.

• APALis usually faster than a

similar PLA.
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PAL
• Programmable Array Logic (PAL) is a type of semiconductor used to
implement logic functions in digital circuits. PAL is a type of
programmable logic device, which is a term for an integrated circuit
that can be programmed in a laboratory to perform complex
functions.
• PAL is a programmable logic device that has Programmable AND
array & fixed OR array. The advantage of PAL is that we can generate
only the required product terms of Boolean function instead of
generating all the min terms by using programmable AND gates. The
block diagram of PAL is shown in the following figure.

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PAL

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PAL structure

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Implement Boolean Functions F, F2 using
PAL?

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Realize BCD- Gray code converter
using PAL?

• Use K-maps to solve for

expressions and as follows:

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