Self Learning Module - version: 1.

0/2013

SELF LEARNING NOTES

Course Title : SDH Concept & Technology

Course Module : SDH Fundamental

MODULE OBJECTIVE

This module covers the following topics:

 Intro to SDH
 SDH Rates and Frame Structure
 STM-1 Frame and Overhead Bytes
 SDH Network Elements
 SDH Network Topology
 SDH Protection

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INTRODUCTION TO SDH

This slide shows the definition of SDH.

Definition of SDH

• SDH stands for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy and

is an International Standard for high capacity
optical telecommunications network.

• A synchronous digital transport system aimed at

providing a more simple, economical and flexible
telecommunications network infrastructure.

Objective -
Produce a worldwide standard for synchronous
transmission systems

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SDH is designed for optical transport (high bitrate). SDH is designed to have a direct mapping of lower
levels into higher ones. SDH could carry all PDH types in one universal hierarchy (different terminology
but interoperable). Improvement made from PDH is its overhead doesn’t increase with rate and
operation & maintenance (OAM) designed-in from beginning.

History

Attempts to formulate standards for transmission of synchronous signals began in US in 1984 by ANSI
accredited T1X1 Committee. In 1985 ‘SONET’ standard was born. IN 1985 ‘SONET’ STANDARD WAS
BORN. In 1986 CCITT (now ITU-T) became interested in SONET standard.

CCITT proposed canges to ‘T1X1’ committee tp accommodate both American & European hierarchies.
Final agreement was reached in 1988 and CCITT working group-XVII came out with recommendations on
SDH.

Driving Forces why SDH is needed

 New enhanced services needing synchronization solution

 QoS Requirement
 Multi-operator environment
 Limitation of today’s network
 Advantages of SDH

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This slide shows why we using SDH over PDH

Why using SDH ?

Although PDH was A breakthrough in the digital

transmission systems , it has a lot of weaknesses :

• No world standard on digital format (three

incompatible regional standards - European, North
American and Japanese).

• No world standard for optical interfaces.

Networking is impossible at the optical level.

• Rigid asynchronous multiplexing structure.

• Limited management capability

Changing Network Requirement for today’s telecommunication network:

Figure 1: Changing Network Requirement

Limititation of PDH Network:

Inflexible and expensive for telecommunication networking

 Based on step-by-step non synchronous multiplexing

 Extremely limited network management and maintenance support capabilities
 Limited signal capacity in plesiochronous frame structure
 Higher rate line systems are proprietary
 No possibility of inter-working.

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Slide shows the advantages of SDH Network

SDH Advantages

Designed for cost effective, flexible

telecommunication networking

based on direct synchronous multiplexing

Network Management
nearly 5% of signal structure is allocated for this
purpose
 Provide flexible signal transport capabilities
Can accommodate both existing and future
signals
World-wide standard
can interconnect network equipment from
different vendors
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SDH Advantages

• World standard in digital format.

• Optical Interfaces.
• Multi vendor environment
• Flexible synchronous multiplexing structure.
• Traffic add-and-drop and cross connect.
• Reduced number of back-to-back interfaces improves network reliability and service ability.
• Powerful management capability.
• Highly flexible and survivable self healing rings available.
• Transport compatibility to existing PDH & future signal.

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SDH has direct synchronous multiplexing which PDH don’t.

Figure 2: Direct Synchronous Multiplexing

SDH also designed to has an integrated network management and maintenance for the ease of
operation & maintenance work (OAM)

Figure 3: Integrated Network Management and Maintenance

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This slide show the SDH transport capabilities that allows all existing PDH rate to be transported
synchronously

Existing Signals:
CEPT ANSI
E1 = 2Mbit/s T1 (1.5Mbit/s)
E3 = 34Mbit/s T2 (6Mbit/s)
E4 = 140Mbit/s T3 (45Mbit/s)
Future Signals:

FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface

E/FE – Ethernet/
(standard for high-speed Local Area Network)
Fast Ethernet
DQDB - Distributed Queue Dual Bus
GE – Giga Bit Ethernet
(standard for Metropolitan Area Network)
ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Module SCON/FCON -
(standard for broadband ISDN)

SDH defines a multiplexing hierarchy that allows all existing PDH rates to be transported synchronously.

Figure 4: SDH accommodate existing signals

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SDH Rates and Frame Structure

This slide show the SDH Hierarchy and Line rate which is start from STM-1.

SDH/SONET Hierarchy and Line Rate

SYNCHRONOUS LINE RATE OPTICAL

TRANSPORT (Mb/s) CARRIER
MODE (STM - N) (OC - N)

STM-1 155.52* OC-3

STM-4 622.08 OC-12

STM-16 2488.32 OC-48

STM-64 9953.28 OC-192

STM-256 39813.12 OC-768

* Both Electrical and Optical Interfaces

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A SDH signal is called a Synchronous Transport Mode (STM)

The basic STM is STM-1; all others are multiples of it - STM-N

ƒ Basic rate for SDH: 155.52 Mbps

ƒ Equipment receives/transmits optical signal and converts into electrical signal for frame processing

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Slide shows the STM-1 Multiplexing Structure.

STM-1 Multiplexing Structure

139264kbit/s
X1
STM-1 AUG AU-4 VC-4 C-4

X1
X3 TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3

X3
X7

34/45M

AU-3 VC-3 C-3

X7

6312kbit/s
X1
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2 C-2

X3
2048kbit/s
MAPPING X4
C = CONTAINER
VC = VIRTUAL CONTAINER MULTIPLEXING TU-12 VC-12 C-12
TU = TRIBUTARY UNIT ALIGNING
TUG = TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP
AU = ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT
AUG = ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP 1544kbit/s
STM-1 = SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT MODULE (155.52MB/S FRAME) TU-11 VC-11 C-11

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The STM-1 Multiplexing Structure above can be reduced to only three containers which is used in TM as
per below (we only used E1, E3, & E4 signal in TM network):

Figure 5: Reduced STM-1 Mux Structure

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The Container (C)

– Basic packaging unit for tributary signals (PDH)

– Synchronous to the STM-1
– Bitrate adaptation is done via a positive stuffing
procedure
– Bit by bit stuffing

Figure 6: The Container (C-n)

• The Virtual Container (VC)

– Formation of the Container by adding of a POH (Path

Overhead)
– Transport as a unit through the network (SDH)
– A VC containing several VCs has also a pointer area

Two types of VCs: Figure 7: The Virtual Container (VC-n)

Lower order VC-n (n=1, 2)

Higher order Vc-n (n=3, 4)

 The Tributary Unit (TU)

– It is an information structure which provides adaptation between two layers:
-Between lower and higher order path layers for TU
-Between higher order path layer and section layer for A
– Is formed via adding a pointer to the VC

• The Tributary Unit Group (TUG)

– Combines several TUs for a new VC

• The Administrative Unit (AU)

– Is shaped if a pointer is allocated to the VC formed at last

Figure 8: The Administrative Unit (AU)

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• The Syncronous Transport Module Level 1 (STM-1)

– Formed by adding a Section Overhead (SOH) to AUs

– Clock justification through stuffing in the AU pointer area
– Byte by byte stuffing
Figure 9: The Synchronous Transport Module Level
1 (STM-1)
A brief look on STM-1 Multiplxing structure from C-4 is as
below:

Figure 10: STM-1 Mux structure from C-4

STM-1 Frame and Overhead Bytes

This slide show STM-1 basic frame which is consists of RSOH, Pointer, MSOH, POH and Payload.

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STM-1 frame:

ƒ 9 rows x 270 columns (2430 bytes)

ƒ 8,000 frames transmitted per second

Figure 11: STM-1 Basic Frame

Data Rate (kb/s) = Num of byte/ frame x Num of frame/second x Num of bits/byte

Data Rate (kb/s) = 2430 byte/ frame x 8000 frame/second x 8 bits/byte = 155.52Mb/s

 STM-1 rate = 155.52 Mb/s

Figure 12: The truck as an analogy to STM-1 frame structure

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This slide shows Section Overhead Layout (POH) in the STM-1 frame

STM-1 Section Overhead Layout

9 Columns

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0
1
RSOH B1 E1 F1
2

D1 D2 D3
3
9 Rows

B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
5

Bytes reserved for

national use
D4 D5 D6
6

MSOH

Bytes reserved for

D7 D8 D9
7

future international
standardization
D10 D11 D12
8

S1 M1 E2
9

AU Pointer Area

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Section Overhead Byte Assignment is as below:

Byte Assignment
A1 (frame alignment) 11110110
A2 (frame alignment) 00101000
SDH framing always uses equal numbers of A1 and A2 bytes
B1 (error monitor RS) BIP-8 of all bits after scrambling
B2 (error monitor MS) BIP-24 all bits except RSOH before scrambling
J0 (Regenerator Section Used to transmit respectively a Section Access Point Identifier (former C1)
Trace) 16 bytes frame (1st is CRC-7).
00000001 = Regenerator Section Trace unspecified
D1 to D3 192kbit/s Data Communication Channel Regenerator Section
D4 to D12 576kbit/s Data Communication Channel Multiplex Section
E1 EOW (orderwire) Regenerator Section
E2 EOW (orderwire) Multiplex Section
F1 64kbit/s User Channel

K1 (APS) Automatic Protection Switching for Multiplex Section Protection

K2 (APS) xxxxx110 MS RDI Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication (former FERF)
xxxxx111 MS AIS Alarm Indication Signal

M1 (MS REI) former FEBE Multiplex Section Remote Error Indication: conveys the count of the errors
detected by B2 byte check;
the range of errors number is from x0000000 = 0 to x0011000 = 24

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S1 bits 5, 6, 7 and 8 Synchronization Status Messages, see table below

0000 quality unknown

0010 G.811 1x10-11
0100 G.812 transit 1x10-9 per day
1000 G.812 local 1x10-8 per day
1011 G.813 ±4.6ppm
1111 Do not use for synchronization

SDH Network Elements

This slide shows Add-drop multiplexer (ADM)

ADD-DROP MULTIPLEXER (ADM)

STM-N A A STM-N
G G
(WEST) G G (EAST)

TRIB
AGG=AGGREGATE
TRIB=TRIBUTARY
CROSS-CONNECT
PDH SDH E/FE/GE

• PDH. SDH, E/FE/GE and others signal can be extracted from or inserted into high
speed SDH streams.
• This feature makes it possible to set up ring network, which have the advantage
automatic back-up path switching.
• The feature of ADMs also can possible to set up a linear and hubbing network with
multiplexing section protection (MSP) (1+1).

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ADM is used at the transition office in the SDH transmission network, such as the middle node of a chain
or a node in a ring. It is the most frequently used and most important network element in an SDH
network.
ADM has 2 line sides and 1 tributary side. For convenience of description, we call them the west (W) line
port and the east (E) line port. The ADM tributary side connects with the tributary ports, and the
tributary port signals are the added/dropped services to/from the line side STM-N signal. The functions
of an ADM are to cross-connect and multiplex low-speed tributary signal to the east/west line, or to
drop the low-speed tributary signal from the line signal received from the east/west line port; in

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addition, ADM can cross-connect the STM-N signals of the east/west line. For example, crossconnect the
third STM-1 of east STM-16 with the 15th STM-1 of west STM-16.
ADM is the most important NE in SDH since it may be used as the equivalence of other network
elements, i.e. it can accomplish the functions of other network elements. For example, one ADM is
equivalent to two TMs.

This slide shows Terminal Multiplexer as an element in SDH Network

TERMINAL MULTIPLEXER (TM)

A STM-N
G
G (EAST)

TRIB
AGG=AGGREGATE
TRIB=TRIBUTARY
PDH SDH E/FE/GE CROSS-CONNECT

• Terminal multiplexer are used to combine PDH, SDH, E/FE/GE input signal into
higher bit rate STM-N signal.
• This configurations is suitable use in point-to-point and linear network topology.
• Were the aggregate, or line output normally using the multiplexing section
protection (MSP) as a protection.

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TM is located at the terminal site of the network with only one optical direction. The functions of a TM
are to multiplex low-speed signals at a tributary port into the high-speed STM-N signal at a line port, or
to drop low-speed tributary signals from STM-N signals.

TM performs the cross-connect function when multiplexing low-speed tributary signals into the STM-N
frame. For example, we can multiplex one STM-1 tributary signal into any position of a STM-16 line
signal, i.e. multiplex STM-1 to any position of the sixteen STM-1s of STM-16. And we can multiplex one
tributary 2 Mbit/s signal into any position among the sixty-three VC-12s of an STM-1.

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This slide shows Regenerator as an element in SDH Network

REGENERATOR (REG)

STM-N A A STM-N
G G
G G

AGG=AGGREGATE
TRIB=TRIBUTARY
CROSS-CONNECT

• Regenerators, have the job of regenerating the clock and amplitude relationships
of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and distorted by
dispersion.
• They derive their clock signals from the incoming data stream. Messages are
received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g service channel E1, F1) in
the RSOH (regenerator section overhead). Messages can also be out-put using
these channel.

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The characteristic of REG is that it only regenerates optical signals without adding/dropping
electrical line service. There are two kinds of REGs in SDH transmission network: one is pure optical
REG, which regenerates the optical power so as to extend the optical transmission distance; the other is
electrical REG for pulse regeneration and reshaping, which performs Optical/Electrical (O/E)
conversion, electrical signal sampling, determination, regeneration and reshaping, and E/O
conversion to eliminate accumulated line noise and thus ensures good waveform of the line signals
being transmitted.
Hereinafter we only discuss the latter REG. The REG is equipment with two sides, which connect with
the west line port (W) and east line port (E) respectively. The REG processes optical signals at the W/E
side by O/E conversion, sampling, determination, regeneration and reshaping, E/O conversion and sends
the processed optical signal out at the E/W side. Compared with ADM, REG lacks the tributary ports
side. Therefore, ADM is also equivalent to a REG when it does not add/drop local electrical line service.
REG only processes RSOH in the STM-N frame, and has no cross-connect function (it only needs to
connect W and E directly); while ADM and TM process not only RSOH, but also MSOH, since they need
to multiplex the low-speed tributary signals to the STM-N frame.

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SDH Network Topology

This slide shows the linear/chain network topology in SDH

SDH Topologies

The linear bus (chain) topology used when there is no need

for protection and the demography of the sites is linear.

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The linear/chain network topology is to connect all nodes serially, with the two ends open. The
characteristic of chain network is that it is relatively economical. It is mostly applied in the early stages
of SDH network, and mainly applied in private networks (e.g. railway network)

• Linear Point-to-point

– Used for SDH island trunks in old asynchronous networks, or data services as ATM links

• Linear point-to-multipoint

– Adds up ADM in the middle

– Max. 16 nodes

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This slide shows Ring network topology in SDH

SDH Topologies

RING

The ring topology is the most common and known of the SDH
topologies it allows great network flexibility and protection

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Actually, the ring network topology is to connect the two ends of the chain network topology, hence any
one NE node of the network is not open. Currently, the ring network topology is very popular because of
its powerful survivability, i.e. powerful self-healing function. The ring network is generally applied in
local networks (access network and subscriber network), inter-office relay network, etc.

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This slide shows Mesh network topology in SDH

SDH Topologies

The mesh topology allows

even the most paranoid
network manager to sleep
well at nights because of
the flexibility and
redundancy that it gives

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The mesh network is to connect all nodes with each other. This network topology provides
multiple transmission routes between two NE nodes, which improves network reliability and eliminates
bottleneck problem and failure problem. However, high system redundancy will surely reduce the
system validity. Its cost is high and the structure is complicated. Mesh network is mainly applied in the
toll network to improve network reliability.

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This slide shows Star network topology in SDH

SDH Topologies

The Star topology is used for connecting far and less

important sites to the network
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The star network topology is to make an NE of the network as the central node connected with the
other nodes, while the other nodes are not connected with each other. All services need to be transited
through this special node. The characteristic of star network is that it can uniformly manage other
network nodes through the central node, thus facilitates bandwidth allocation and saves costs.

However, the central node has some potential bottleneck problems for security protection and
processing capacity. The role of the central node is similar to the tandem office of the switching
network. Star topology is mostly applied in local networks (access network and subscriber network).

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SDH Protection

This slide explain briefly about protection concept in SDH

What is protection ?

SONET/SDH need to be highly reliable (five nines)

Down-time should be minimal (less than 50 msec)
So systems must repair themselves (no time for manual intervention)
Upon detection of a failure (dLOS, dLOF, high BER)
the network must reroute traffic (protection switching)
from working channel to protection channel
The Network Element that detects the failure (tail-end NE)
initiates the protection switching
The head-end NE must change forwarding or to send duplicate traffic
Protection switching is unidirectional
Protection switching may be revertive (automatically revert to working channel)

working channel

protection channel
head-end NE tail-end
NE

Protection switching means that network can automatically restore its carried services from a network
fault without manual intervention within a very short period of time (ITU-T specifies the recovery time
should be no more than 50 ms), so that subscribers will not realize network fault.

Its basic principle is that networks should be able to find out a substitute transmission route and re-
establish the communication in case of network fault.

The substitute route can make use of the redundancy of the standby equipment or the currently
working equipment to satisfy the recovery demands of all the services or the designated priority
services. Therefore, the preconditions for network self-healing capability include redundant route,
powerful cross capability of the NE and intelligence of the NE.

Protection switching can only recover the failed services through the standby channel, but cannot repair
or replace the failed components or lines. Thus, the troubleshooting is still to be completed by manual
intervention, e.g. broken cable needs to be connected manually.

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This slide explain briefly how does protection work in SDH

How does it work?

Head-end and tail-end NEs have bridges (muxes)

Head-end and tail-end NEs maintain bidirectional signaling
channel
Signaling is contained in K1 and K2 bytes of protection channel
 K1 – tail-end status and requests
 K2 – head-end status

head-end tail-end bridge

bridge working channel

protection signaling channel

channel

Two basic types of protection architecture are distinguished in Automatic Protection Switching (APS):
linear protection mechanism, which is used for point-to-point connections, and ring protection
mechanism, which can take on many different forms.

Either mechanism use spare circuits or components to provide the back-up path. Switching is controlled
by the overhead bytes K1 and K2.

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This slide explain briefly about Linear 1+1 protection in SDH

Linear 1+1 protection

Simplest form of protection

Can be at STM/VC level (called SubNetwork Connection Protection)
or end-to-end path (called trail protection)

Head-end bridge always sends data on both channels

Tail-end chooses channel to use based on BER, dLOS, etc.

No need for signaling

If non-revertive
there is no distinction between working and protection channels
BW utilization is 50%

channel A

channel B

1+1 Path Protection

1+1 path protection is based on the path. Whether to switch or not is determined by the signal quality
of each path.

1+1 path protection adopts the principle of “Concurrent Transmission and Preferred Receiving”. When
adding services, the path service signal will be sent simultaneously to the working and protection
channels. When dropping services, it will be received simultaneously two path signals from the working
and protection channels. In both situations, the signal with better quality will be added or dropped.

It generally adopts PATH-AIS signal as the switching proof without APS protocol. The switching time
should be no more than 10 ms.

1+1 Multiplex Section Protection

Multiplex section protection is based on the multiplex section. Whether to switch or not is determined
by the signal quality of the multiplex section between two stations. When the multiplex section is faulty,
the service signal in the whole station will be switched to the protection channel for protection purpose.

In 1+1 multiplex section protection mode, the service signal simultaneously crosses over the working
and protection channels for transmission.

Under normal status, the signal of the working channel is used. When the system detects LOS, LOF, MS-
AIS, or the alarm of bit error >10E-3, it will switch to the protection channel to receive the service signal.

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This slide explain briefly about Linear 1:1 protection in SDH

Linear 1:1 protection

Head-end bridge usually sends data on working channel

When tail-end detects failure it signals (using K1) to head-end
Head-end then starts sending data over protection channel
When not in use
protection channel can be used for (discounted) extra traffic
(pre-emptible unprotected traffic)

May be at any layer (only STM-n level protects against fiber cuts)

working channel

extra traffic
protection channel

In 1:1 multiplex section protection mode, the service signal does not always cross over the working and
protection channels simultaneously. Thus, it can transmit the additional low priority service in the
protection channel.

Upon fault of the working channel, the protection channel will discard the additional service, and
perform cross-over and switching to protect service signals according to the APS protocol.
When working normally, 1:1 protection is equivalent to 2+0 protection.

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This slide explain briefly about the SNCP & MS-SPRing protection in SDH Ring network

SNCP vs. MS-SPRing

SNCP Unidirectional Path switching Two-fiber

MS-SPRing Bidirectional Line switching Four-fiber

Of all the possible combinations, only a few are in use

SubNetwork Connection Protection
protects tributaries
extension of 1+1 to ring topology
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Ring (two-fiber and four-fiber
versions)
simultaneously protects all tributaries in STM
extension of 1:1 to ring topology

Table 1: Differences between SNCP and MS-SPRing

SNCP MS-SPRing
Protection Service protection is based on the path, Service protection is based on the
Unit that is, protect one VC of the STM-N multiplex section.
signal. Whether to switch or not is determined by
Whether to switch or not is determined the signal quality of the multiplex section
by the signal transmission quality of the of the ring.
path of the ring.
Switching PATH-AIS; Switching is started by the APS protocol
Condition Whether to switch or not is generally carried via K1 and K2 bytes. The switching
determined by the receiver when it conditions of the MS protection are LOF,
detects TU-AIS signal. LOS, MS-AIS or MS-EXC alarm signals.
Switching Taking the STM-16 ring as example, if the When the MS is faulty, the whole STM-N
Mode 48th TU-12 of the 4th VC4 received has or 1/2 STM-N service signals of the ring will
TUAIS, only this TU-12 path is switched to all be switched to the standby channel.
the standby channel
Optical Fiber The path protection ring is generally a The MS protection ring adopts public
Utilization dedicated protection. In normal protection. In normal circumstances, the
Ratio circumstances, the protection channel is primary channel is used to transfer the
also used to transmit the active service primary service. Adopting 1:1 protection
(1+1 service protection), so the channel mode, the standby channel is used to
utilization ratio is low. transmit additional service, so the channel
utilization ratio is high.

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This slide explain about the SNCP protection in SDH network

SNCP

Working channel is in one direction

protection channel in the opposite direction
All traffic is added in both directions
decision as to which to use at drop point (no signaling)
Normally non-revertive, so effective two diversity paths
Good match for access networks
1 access resilient ring
less expensive than fiber pair per customer
Inefficient for core networks
no spatial reuse
every signal in every span
in both directions
node needs to continuously monitor
every tributary to be dropped

2-fiber ring topology

– Head-end bridge, tail-end switch logical topology
• 1+1 protection with uni-directional routing on each fiber
• Traffic is sent in both directions on the ring on separate fibers
• The better signal is selected by the receiver

• Used in the access network or MAN

– All traffic homing into a central node
• Typical for STM-1, STM-4 rings

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This slide explain about the MS-SPRing protection in SDH network

MS-SPRing

Switch at line level – less monitoring

When failure detected tail-end NE signals head-end NE
Works for unidirectional/bidirectional fiber cuts, and NE failures
Two-fiber version
half of STM-N capacity devoted to protection
only half capacity available for traffic
Four-fiber version
full redundant STM-N devoted to protection
twice as many NEs as compared to two-fiber

Example
recovery from unidirectional fiber cut

• 1:1, or 1:N redundancy options

• 2 fibers with shared protection configuration
– Half the bandwidth in each direction in a link is reserved for the shared protection of all
traffic in that reverse direction of the link
• An even number of STM-1s are required
• 4 fibers for dedicated protection configuration
– Bi-directional routing on 2 fibers (working line)
Each direction has a working and a protect fiber

• Multiple fail-over options for 4-fiber MS-SPRing

– In normal operation traffic is sent only in the required direction
– During fiber interruption, the traffic is routed around the break in opposite direction (long
path)
• Ring switching
– Optionally if the other 2 fibers are still available, then traffic might be routed onto the
parallel 2 fibers (short path)
• Span switching

• More complexity, but more flexible capacity

– Bandwidth used can be reused
– Requires signaling between ADMs
• STM visibility
• Might restore service in less than 50 milliseconds on a 1200 km or less ring

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RUJUKAN

1. Books

Mike Sexton, Andy Reid: “Broadband Networking: ATM, SDH, and SONET” Artech House,
1997. ISBN 0-89006-578-0

Stamatios V. Kartalopoulos: “Understanding SONET/SDH and ATM” IEEE, 1999; ISBN

0780347455

Dave Johnson, et al.: “The Evolution of a Reliable Transport Network” IEEE Communications
Magazine, August 1999, pp.52-57.

Jose Caballero, et al. Installation and Maintenance of SDH/SONET, ATM, xDSL and
Synchronisation Networks, Artech House Aug. 2003

2. Web
ITU-T standards
http://www.itu.int
ETSI standards
http://www.etsi.org

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