TCT 5

SDH PRINCIPLES

इ रसेट IRISET
TCT 5
SDH PRINCIPLES

The Material Presented in this IRISET Notes is for

guidance only. It does not over rule or alter any of the

T
Provisions contained in Manuals or Railway Board’s
directives
E
IS
IR

INDIAN RAILWAY INSTITUTE OF

SIGNAL ENGINEERING & TELECOMMUNICATION,
SECUNDERABAD - 500017

November 2019
TCT 5
SDH PRINCIPLES

INDEX

Chapter TOPIC Page

No.
1. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 SDH bit rates
1.2 Synchronous Transport Module (STM)
1.3 SDH Multiplexing Structure
1.4. SDH Multiplexing Structure
1.5 Mapping Elements

2. STM 1 Frame Structure

2.0 Introduction 5
2.1 Frame Structure
2.2. The Section Over Head (SOH)

T
3 Mapping of PDH tributaries into STM-1
3.0. Mapping of the PDH flows into SDH containers 9
E
3.1. Synchronous mapping
3.2. Asynchronous mapping
3.3. Mapping of e-4 into stm-1
3.4. Path overhead (POH)
IS
3.5. SDH Pointers
3.6. Functions of a Pointer
3.7. Description of Pointer bytes
3.8. Mapping of E-3 into STM-1
3.9. Mapping of E-1 into STM-1
3.10. E1 mapping into STM-1 through AU-3
IR

4 Ethernet over SDH

4.0. Introduction 20
4.1. Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)
4.2. Concatenation
4.3. Virtual Concatenation (VCAT)
4.4. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS)
4.5. Auto negotiation
4.6. Link Integrity

5 Network Topology and automatic protection switching (APS) in SDH

5.0. Introduction 23
5.1. Linear networks
5.2. Mesh Architecture
5.3. Ring Architecture
5.4. Automatic Protection Switching (APS)

6 Synchronization in SDH networks

6.0. Synchronization 33
6.1. Synchronization network
6.2. Poor synchronization
6.3. Elements of a Synchronization Network
6.4. Synchronization Clock types
6.5. Modes Of Synchronization
6.6. Synchronization Status Message (SSM)

7 Jitter and Wander In SDH Systems & Testing of SDH Network

7.0. Introduction 37
7.1. Parameters To Measure Synchronization Quality And to Specify
Performance Limits
7.2. Network Synchronization
7.3. Testing of Transmission Network
7.4. Objectives of Testing
7.5. Transport Capability Tests
7.6 General Aspects Of Testing
7.7 Functional Tests
7.8 Mapping And De-Mapping Tests
7.9 Jitter Testing
7.10 Testing With “Built-In” Capability Of SDH NE And Use Of Overheads
7.11 Testing with Network Management

8 Annexure 48

9 Questions Bank 52

T
10 Abbreviations 57

11 Glossary 58

Prepared by
Reviewed by
E : Y.V.Prasad, Instructor-Tele
: B. B. K. Murthy, Prof. Tele
IS
Approved by : C.Chandrasekhara Sastry, Sr.Prof.-Tele
DTP and Drawings : K.Srinivas, JE (D)
Version No. : 1.0
No. of Pages :
IR

No. of Sheets :

© IRISET

“This is the intellectual property for exclusive use of Indian Railways. No part of this publication
may be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or reproduced in any way, including but not
limited to photo copy, photograph, magnetic, optical or other record without the prior agreement
and written permission of IRISET, Secunderabad, India”

http://www.iriset.indianrailways.gov.in
CHAPTER - 1 Back to content page

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

1.0. Introduction
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) established an international standard known
as the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) for synchronous data transmission on optical
media.

The SDH specifications define optical interfaces that allow transmission of lower-rate (e.g.,
PDH) signals at a common synchronous rate. A benefit of SDH is that it allows multiple vendors’
optical transmission equipment to be compatible in the same span. SDH also enables dynamic
drop-and-insert capabilities on the payload.

1.1. Advantages of the SDH transmission – multiplexing technique

 High transmission rates: Transmission rates of up to 10 Gbit/s can be achieved in

modern SDH systems. SDH is therefore the most suitable technology for backbones, which
can be considered as being the super highways in today's telecommunications networks.

T
 Simplified add & drop function: Compared with the older PDH system, it is much easier
to extract and insert low-bit rate channels from or into the high-speed bit streams in SDH. It
is no longer necessary to demultiplex and then remultiplex the plesiochronous structure, a
E
complex and costly procedure at the best of times.
 High availability and capacity matching: With SDH, network providers can react quickly
and easily to the requirements of their customers. For example, leased lines can be
IS
switched in a matter of minutes. The network provider can use standardized network
elements that can be controlled and monitored from a central location by means of a
telecommunications network management (TMN) system.
 Reliability: Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair
mechanisms to cope with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element does not lead
IR

to failure of the entire network which could be a financial disaster for the network provider.
These back-up circuits are also monitored by a management system.
 Future-proof platform for new services: Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for services
ranging from POTS,ISDN and mobile radio through to data communications (LAN, WAN,
etc.), and it is able to handle the very latest services, such as video on demand and digital
video broadcasting via ATM that are gradually becoming established.
 Interconnection: SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different network
providers and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally standardized, making it
possible to combine network elements from different manufacturers into a network. The
result is a reduction in equipment costs as compared with PDH.

1.2. Synchronous Transport Module (STM): STM is an information structure. It consists of

information payload and overhead bits in block frame structure, which repeats at every 125
microseconds. The information is suitably conditioned for serial transmission on the selected
media at a rate, which is synchronized to the network.
 STM followed by an integer, which indicates the level of SDH.
 STM 1 is the first level of SDH bit rates
 Higher SDH bit rates are obtained as integer multiples
 Higher rate levels are denoted by the corresponding multiplication fraction of the first level
IRISET 1 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Back to content page

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

STM-1 with 155.520 mbps is the basic rate. STM- 4 indicates that it contains 4 STM-1s and
each STM-1 is independent in all respects. Similarly STM 16 means 16 Nos of STM-1s and
STM 64 is 64 Nos of STM-1s.

1.3. SDH bit rates: As per ITU(T)’ s recommendation G.707.

S.No. STM Level Data rate Abbreviated data rate

1. STM 1 155.520 mbps 155MB
2. STM 4 622.080 mbps 622MB
3. STM 16 2488.320 mbps 2.4GB
4. STM 64 9953.280 mbps 40GB

Table .1 SDH Bit Rates

1.4. SDH Multiplexing Structure: As per ITU (T)’s recommendation G.709 The inputs to
SDH system are PDH bit streams. ITU (T) has standardized E1, E3, E4 of E hierarchy and/or
T1, T2 and T3 of T hierarchy as inputs into SDH. The block diagram of SDH multiplexing
structure shown in Figure 1.

E T
IS
IR

Figure1. SDH Multiplexing Structure

Synchronous multiplexing implies in general the following operations:

 Assembling of the PDH data flows or flows generated by other sources in the appropriate
containers;

IRISET 2 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

 Generation of the virtual containers by attaching the POH (Path Overhead);

 Assembling of the tributary units by attaching the pointers and inserting the containers at
the appropriate positions in these units;
 Generation of the administrative units similarly to the tributary units;
 Generation of the basic transport frames;
 Multiplexing several basic transport frames into a superior order transport frame

Mapping: A process used when PDH tributaries are adapted into VCs by adding POH
information

Aligning: This process takes place when a pointer is included into a Tributary Unit (TU) or an
Administrative Unit (AU), to allow the 1st byte of the VC to be located

Multiplexing: This process is used when multiple low-order path signals are adapted into a
higher-order path signal, or when high-order path signals are adapted into a Multiplexing
Section

1.5 Mapping Elements: Mapping elements basically the packaging units that have got their

T
sizes fixed depending upon the traffic path they follow in multiplexing hierarchy. They are---

Container(C): The first entry point of the PDH signal. It is the basic packing unit for tributary
E
channels, is filled with the information from a plesiochronous signal. The process is called as
mapping. Justification facilities are provided to adapt plesiochronous tributaries to the
synchronous network clock. Each container is suitable for the rate of the signal inputted into it
and for the structure of the synchronous frame. Fixed stuffing bits are inserted for synchronous
IS
tributaries. Signal is prepared so as to enter into the next stage i.e. virtual container. Containers
are Basic Containers and Higher Order Containers. As per recommendation G.709, C-11, C-
12,C-2,C-3 & C-4 are the containers for PDH bit rates of 1.544 mbps, 2.048 mbps, 6.312
mbps,34 mbps or 45 mbps and 140 mbps respectively.
IR

Virtual Container (VC = C + POH): Each container is added with control information known as
Path Over Head (POH), which helps the service provider to achieve end-to-end path monitoring.
The container and the path overhead are together called as Virtual Container (VC). In Virtual
Container the POH fields are organized in a block frame structure.

Two types of virtual containers have been identified.

Basic virtual containers: VC11, VC12.

Higher order virtual containers: VC3, VC4.

Tributary unit (TU):This unit is an information structure, which provides adaptation between the
lower order path layer and the higher order path layer. It consists of information payload of
virtual container and the tributary unit pointer.

Tributary unit group (TUG): One or more tributary units are grouped or multiplexed by byte
interleaving to form higher bit stream rate as part of multiplexing structure. e.g.TUG-2 is a group
of 3 TU-12s or 4 TU11s or 1 TU2. TUG-3 consists of homogenous assembly of TUG-2s or TU-
3, either seven TUG-2s or one TU-3.

IRISET 3 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Pointer: It is an indicator whose value defines frame offset of a virtual container with reference
to the frame reference of transport entity on which it is supported. It indicates the phase
alignment of the virtual containers (VC-n) with respect to the POH of the next higher level VC in
which it resides. The tributary Unit Pointer location is fixed with respect to this higher level POH.

Administrative Unit (AU):It is the information structure, which provides adaptation between
higher order path layer and the multiplex section layer. It consists of information payload and
AU pointer, which indicates the offset of the payload frame start relating to the multiplex section
frame start. AU location is fixed with respect to STM-frame.

Administrative Group Unit (AUG): It consists of a homogenous assembly of AU-3s or AU-4.

E T
IS
IR

IRISET 4 TCT5 – SDH Principles

STM 1 Frame Structure

CHAPTER - 2 Back to content page

STM 1 FRAME STRUCTURE

2.0. Introduction:
The STM frame standards with line rate are as shown in Table1 of chapter-1. The first level of
the synchronous digital hierarchy shall be 155.52 Mbps. The SDH standard was developed
using a client/server layer approach. The overhead and transport functions are divided into
layers.

They are: 1. Regenerator Section, 2. Multiplex Section & 3. Path

E T
IS
Fig.2.1. Path section designations

2.1. Terminal multiplexers: Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and
synchronous input signals into higher bit rate STM-N signals.
IR

TERMINAL
MULTIPLEXER

2.2. SDH regenerators: As the name implies, have the job of regenerating the clock and
amplitude relationships of the incoming data signals that have been attenuated and distorted by
dispersion. They derive their clock signals from the incoming data stream. Messages are
received by extracting various 64 kbit/s channels (e.g. service channels E1, F1) in the RSOH
(regenerator section overhead). Messages can also be output using these channels.

2.3 Add/drop multiplexers (ADM) Plesiochronous and lower bit rate synchronous signals
can be extracted from or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams by means of ADMs. This
feature makes it possible to set up ring structures, which have the advantage that automatic
back-up path switching is possible using elements in the ring in the event of a fault.
IRISET 5 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Back to content page

STM 1 Frame Structure

ADD/DROP
MULTIPLEXER

2.4. STM-1 Frame Structure: An STM-1 frame structure consists of payload blocks, overhead
blocks and pointers. The ratio of these components can vary and depends on the initial payload
that needs to be transmitted.

E T
IS
Figure2.2.Schematic diagram of STM-1 frame

The STM-1 frame is the basic transmission format for SDH. The frame lasts for 125μSec as
depicted in Figure2.1.The STM-n frame is arranged in matrix format having 9 rows X 270
columns and hence has 2430 bytes, which forms the line rate of 155.52 Mbps.
IR

It is divided into three main areas.

 Section Over Head (SOH):
 Path Over Head (POH):
 Pay Load:

The Section Over Head (SOH): Contains maintenance, monitoring and operational functions
which is splittet up into two parts, the Regenerator and the Multiplex-Section Overhead.

Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH): The Regenerator Section Overhead contains only
the information required for the elements located at both ends of a section. This might be two
regenerators, a piece of line terminating equipment and a regenerator, or two pieces of line
terminating equipment

The Regenerator Section Overhead is found in the first three rows of Columns 1 through 9 of
the STM-1 frame.

IRISET 6 TCT5 – SDH Principles

STM 1 Frame Structure

Figure 2.3. Regenerator Section Overhead

 Description of RSOH Bytes:

A1, A2: Framing bytes These two bytes indicate the beginning of the STM-N frame. Provides a
frame alignment pattern (A1=F6 H, A2=28 H). The frame alignment word of an STM-N frame is
3 x N A1 bytes followed by 3 x N A2 bytes.

J0: Regenerator section trace. It’s used to transmit a Section Access Point Identifier so that a
section receiver can verify its continued connection to the intended transmitterSupports
continuity testing between transmitting and receiving device on each regenerator section.

B1: This is a parity code (even parity), used to check for transmission errors over a regenerator
section.The regenerator section BIP-8 provides end to-end error performance monitoring across

T
an individual regenerator section and is calculated over all bits of the previous STM-N frame
after scrambling. Computed value is placed in B1 byte before scrambling.

E
E1: Provides local order wire channel for voice communications between regenerators, hubs
and remote terminal locations.

F1: Allocated for user’s purposes (eg, temporary data/voice channel connection for special
IS
maintenance applications).

D1–D3: Bytes are used for message-based data communications channel providing
administration, monitor, alarm and maintenance functions between regenerator section
termination equipment.
IR

Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH): The Multiplex Section Overhead contains the
information required between the multiplex section termination equipment at each end of the
Multiplex section (that is, between consecutive network elements excluding the regenerators).

Figure2.4. Multiplex Section Overhead

 Description of MSOH Bytes:

B2: Provides multiplex section error monitoring. The BIP-N x 24, of an STM-N frame, end-to-
end error performance monitoring across an individual multiplex section and is calculated over
all bits of the previous STM-N frame except for the first three rows of SOH. Computed value is
placed in B2 byte before scrambling.

IRISET 7 TCT5 – SDH Principles

STM 1 Frame Structure

K1, K2 Two bytes allocated for APS signaling for multiplex section protection.These two bytes
are used for MSP (Multiplex Section Protection) signalingbetween multiplex level entities for bi-
directional automatic protection switching and for communicating Alarm Indication Signal(AIS)
and Remote Defect Indication (RDI) conditions.

The Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication (MS-RDI) is used to return an indication to the
transmit end that the received end has detected an incoming section defect

D4 - D12: MS Data Communications Channel (DCC) bytes.These nine bytes are used for OAM
information (control, maintenance, remote provisioning, monitoring, administration and other
communication needs).

S1: Synchronisation status message byte (SSMB).Bits 5 to 8 of this S1 byte are used to carry
the synchronisation messages

M1 MS remote error indication (MS-REI).

2.5. Payload: This is the data area. The bytes containing data from the tributaries are
transferred to the pay load area without buffering and are in relation with the STM-N frame. This
is a low level multiplexing of low rate plesiochronous signals, by inserting them into synchronous

T
frame or putting them in contact, which varies as per the flow rates of input signals. To adapt the
flow rates of the plesiochronous signals to the required rates of them in VCs, some additional
bits are added as pointers as per the process of justification. The entry point of the
E
plesiochronous tributaries is container.
IS
IR

IRISET 8 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

CHAPTER- 3 Back to content page

MAPPING OF PDH TRIBUTARIES INTO STM-1

3.0. Mapping of the PDH tributaries into SDH containers

To transport the PDH flows in the SDH systems it is necessary an appropriate mapping of these
flows in containers. The mapping has to solve the problem of rate matching between the local
clock of the multiplexer and the received flow. For each PDH flow exists a separate mapping
algorithm that uses usually positive justification for rate matching between the multiplexer and
the received plesiochronous flow.

There are two categories of mapping algorithms, namely:

3.1. Synchronous mapping:

 insertion of the bits from the plesiochronous flows in the appropriate containers is realized
using the clock extracted from the received flow;
 rate matching between the formed containers and the synchronous transport frames is

T
achieved with the help of the transport units pointers:
 tributary units pointers in the case of low order containers;
 Administrative units pointers in the case of high order containers.

3.2. Asynchronous mapping:

E
 insertion of the bits from the plesiochronous flows in the appropriate containers is realized
using the local clock of the multiplexer;
IS
 rate matching is realized with the help of positive justification;
 it is the most used mapping method being more easy to be implemented;
 there are not necessary continuous pointer operations only for mapping of the
plesiochronous tributaries
IR

3.3. Mapping of E-4 into STM-1

Fig.3.1.Mapping of E4 into STM-1

Back to content page
IRISET 9 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

Container C4: The input to container C4 is E4 -139.264 mbps. After clock recovery and
regeneration of the tributary, the data is placed in container.

The 260 columns and 9 rows matrix structure (the C4 container) intended for payload is
processed as follow:

Each row is split in 20 blocks of 13 bytes each;

12 of these bytes carry information bits (i.e. bits from the 140Mbit/s signal). The 13th byte is
used as W, X, Y and Z bytes for different purposes.

Pay load area (9 x 260 bytes) is divided as: 20 Blocks (In each row) X 9 Rows = 180 Blocks.

Each Block: 13 Bytes – Information bytes 12 &Overhead bytes 1.

Total Bytes in C4: 13 X 20 X 9 = 2340.

Bit Rate: 2340 X 8 X 8000 = 149.760 mbps.

Bit allocation in the C4 container in the asynchronous mapping of a PDH tributary having bit rate

T
140 mbps.

E
IS
IR

The bit rate is 149.760 mbps, which is higher than input to C4, (139.264 mbps). Hence all the
bits carried are not information bits. Some additional bits are added for justification and other
purposes

Justification: It is an operation, which makes it possible to fit a variable rate signal into a fixed
rate frame.

Suppose the normal rate of a tributary = X bits / sec

The variation of rate = + ∆ bits / sec

To transmit the tributary with in S frame, it is necessary to allocate highest possible bit rate.
S = X + ∆ bits / sec.
E4 = 139.264 mbps + 15 ppm = 139264 + 2.088 kbps.
1 justification bit is added in a row in Z byte.

IRISET 10 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

Fig.3.2.Mapping of Container C4

The special bytes are called W, X, Y and Z and have the following roles:

 W is a normal information byte;

T
 Y is a stuffing byte with undefined structure;
 X is a byte having the structure: C R R R R R O O:
E
bits O are used as control overhead for the PDH flow;
bits R are fixed stuffing bits;
C is a justification control bit, which indicates if the possible justification position from the
considered row contains information bit (C=0) or justification (C=1);
IS
 byte X is transmitted 5 times in a row;
are available 5 justification control bits;
identification of the justification operation is realized based on a majority logic decision
applied to the C bits.
IR

 Z byte having the structure: I I I I I I I S R:

bits I are information bits;
bit R is fixed stuffing bit;
bit S is a possible justification bit.

W = IIIIIIII X = CRRRRROO Y = RRRRRRRR Z = IIIIIISR

I = Information bit at 140 mbps

O = Service element bit reserved for future needs
R = Fixed stuffing bit
S = Justification bit (1 per line in Z)
C = 5 Justification indicator bits (by majority detection)
C = 00000 S = Information bit C = 11111 S = stuffing bit

Total information bits are [(12 x 8 x 20) + (1 X 8) + (1 X 6)] X 9 X 8000 = 139.248 mbps. This bit
rate is the rate of C4 bits, which is less than the E4 - 139.264 mbps. To add some more
information bits, S bit in Z byte is used as information bit (as justification bit) to the extent
necessary, which gives a max. bit rate of139.320 mbps.

IRISET 11 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

3.4. Path overhead (POH): The POH has the task of monitoring quality and indicating the
type of container. The format and size of the POH depends on the container type. The Path
Overhead is assigned to, and transported with the payload from the time it’s created by path
terminating equipment until the payload is demultiplexed at the termination point in a piece of
path terminating equipment. The Path Overhead is found in Rows 1 to 9 of the first column.

Description of POH Bytes:

E T
Figure.3.3. Path overhead (POH)
IS
J1 Higher-Order VC-N path trace byte - This user-programmable byte repetitively transmits a
15-byte, E.64 format string plus 1-byte CRC-7.A 64-byte free-format string is also permitted for
this Access Point Identifier. This allows the receiving terminal in a path to verify its continued
connection to the intended transmitting terminal
IR

B3 Path bit interleaved parity code (Path BIP-8) byte - This is a parity code (even), used to
determine if a transmission error has occurred over a path. Its value is calculated over all the
bits of the previous virtual container before scrambling and placed in the B3 byte of the current
frame.

C2 Path signal label byte – This byte specifies the mapping type in the VC-N
G1 Path status byte – This byte is used to convey the path terminating status and performance
back to the originating path terminating equipment. Therefore the bi-directional path in its
entirety can be monitored, from either end of the path.

F2 Path user channel byte - This byte is used for user communication between path elements.
H4 Position and Sequence Indicator byte - This byte provides a multi frame and sequence
indicator for virtual VC-3/4 concatenation and a generalized position indicator for payloads. In
the latter case, the content is payload specific (e.g., H4 can be used as a multi frame indicator
for VC-2/1 payload).

F3 Path user channel byte - This byte is allocated for communication purposes between path
elements and is payload dependent.

IRISET 12 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

K3 signaling is provided in K3 bits 1-4, allocated for protection at the VC- 4/3 path levels. K3
bits 5-8 are allocated for future use. These bits have no defined value. The receiver is required
to ignore their content.

N1 Network operator byte - This byte is allocated to provide a Higher-Order Tandem Connection
Monitoring (HO-TCM) function.N1 is allocated for Tandem Connection Monitoring for contiguous
concatenated VC-4, the VC-4 and VC-3 levels

VC4 is composed of 261 columns each of 9 rows; the first column contains the POH and the
rest compose the C4 container

3.5. AU-4 Pointers: This pointer points to the VC-4 in an STM-1 frame. SDH provides payload
pointers to permit differences in the phase and frequency of the Virtual Containers (VC-N) with
respect to the STM-N frame. (Lower-order pointers are also provided to permit phase
differences between VC-1/VC-2 and the higher-order VC-3/VC-4)

Functions of a Pointer

Minimization of multiplexing Delay

T
• This is the main advantage of pointers. Normally signals from different originating points
differ in their phases, because of different transmission length and different clock
generation. E
• In the usual multiplexing process, to align them, each signal has to be written into memories
and read out using a new phase of the frame to be multiplexed.
• Thus, it is inevitable to cause additional delay of half of the frame time in average and one
IS
frame time at maximum. Also, it requires large capacity memories.
• To avoid above inconveniences, this pointer method was introduced into the multiplexing of
SDH signal.
• A pointer is assigned to each VC to be multiplexed and it indicates relative phase shift
IR

between the VC and the new frame by using the address number in the new frame.
• As a matter of course, every VC has different pointer value.
• The pointer is renewed at every multiplexing process, so it is not necessary to introduce
undesirable additional delays

Payload Pointers: When there’s a difference in phase or frequency, the pointer value is
adjusted. To accomplish this, a process known as byte stuffing is used. In other words, the VC
payload pointer indicates where in the container capacity a VC starts, and the byte stuffing
process allows dynamic alignment of the VC in case it slips in time.

On a frame-by-frame basis, the payload pointer indicates the offset between the VC payload
and the STM-N frame by identifying the location of the first byte of the VC in the payload.

In other words, the VC is allowed to “float” within the STM-1 frame capacity. To make this
possible, within each STM-N frame, there’s a pointer, known as the VC Payload Pointer that
indicates where the actual payload container starts.

For a VC-4 payload, this pointer is located in columns 1 and 4 of the fourth row of the Section
Overhead. The bytes H1 and H2 (two 8-bit bytes) of the Overhead can be viewed as one value

IRISET 13 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

Description of AU-4 Pointer bytes:

H1 H1 H1 H2 H2 H2 H3 H3 H3

FIG.3.4.Higher order Pointer bytes

H1 and H2 Pointer bytes

• These two bytes, the VC payload pointer bytes specify the location of the VC frame.
• It’s used to align the VC and STM-1 Section Overheads in an STM-N signal, to perform
frequency justification, and to indicate STM-1 concatenation.

H3 Pointer action byte

• This byte is used for frequency justification.
• Depending on the pointer value, the byte is used to adjust the fill input buffers.
• The byte only carries valid information in the event of negative justification, otherwise it’s
not defined.

Following is the typical structure of an AU-4 pointer.

E T
FIG.3.5.structure of an AU-4 pointer.

• H1, H2 – Together are used to give the offset of the VC-4 in the STM-1 frame
IS
Details of the Pointer Coding
IR

FIG.3.6. Pointer Coding

N- New Data Flag - Bits 1-4 (N-bits) of the pointer word carry an NDF. It is the mechanism
which allows an arbitrary change of the value of a pointer. the normal value is "0110",
and the value "1001" indicates a new alignment for the VC-n, and possibly new size.
1001 –enabled, 0110 – disabled

I - Increment bit, In positive justification ‘I’ bits are inverted

D - Decrement bit, In negative justification D bits are inverted.
SS - 10 (S – undefined)
H3 - Negative justification opportunity bytes
Y - 1001SS11
1* - all 1 bits

When the payload is directly filled by 140 Mbps

PDH an AU pointer will direct to the starting point of VC-4.

IRISET 14 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

• If the VC-4 is filled by lower tributaries such as 34 Mbps, 2 Mbps or any of these two
combinations, the AU pointer will not be filled by any information.
• The AU-4 pointer value is a binary number with a range of 0 to 782 [ to number (261 x 9)/3
bytes] which indicates the offset, in three-byte increments, between the pointer and the first
byte of the VC-4 (POH is included in this numbering).
• Numbering starts from the first byte of the 4th row of VC.

3.6 Frequency Justification

Generally this function is not required in an SDH network since all network elements are
synchronized to a single clock. But if the VC’s are transported over different networks, and if a
network element is in an abnormal condition, justification is necessary to absorb any frequency
differences between payload and the frames.

There are 2 types of justification in SDH:

Positive justification: If the frame speed of the STM is higher than the payload arrival speed If
the frame rate of the VC-n is too slow with respect to that of the AUG-N, then the alignment of
the VC-n must periodically slip back in time This is Positive Pointer Justification (PPJ). PPJ
operation is carried out in 4 consecutive frames.

E T
IS
IR

FIG.3.7. Positive justification

Frame-n Start of VC-n, where clock is recovered from incoming bits & set as reference.
Frame (n+1) Pointer initialization, payload slipped back because clock difference.
Frame (n+2) Pointer value I bits inverted to have 5bit majority voting at receiver & stuffing bytes
added after 3H3 bytes.
Frame (n+3) Pointer value incremented by 1.

Negative justification: If the frame speed of the STM is lower than the payload arrival speed. If
the frame rate of the VC-n is too fast with respect to that of the AUG-N, then the alignment of
the VC-n must periodically be advanced in time It is similar to PPJ till frame (n+1), Frame
(n+2)Pointer value D bits inverted to have 5bit majority voting at receiver & Buffering is done in
H3 bytes where payload data is loaded (which is extra in VC-n). Frame (n+3)Pointer value
decremented by 1.
IRISET 15 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

T
FIG.3.8. Negative justification

The operations performed in this case are the following:




E
The plesiochronous tributary signal is assembled into a C4 container;
VC4 is generated by adding the POH to C4;
the AU pointer is added to the VC4 and it is obtained the AU4 unit;
IS
 the AU4 administrative unit is converted into an AUG structure;
 this structure includes the block having 9 rows, 261 columns and in row 4 an additional
number of 9 bytes are used for the AU pointer;
 AUG is inserted into an STM-1 frame.
IR

3.7 Mapping of E-3 into STM-1

Multiplexing of the C3 container into an STM-N frame

Fig,3.9. Mapping of E-3 into STM-1

The 34,368Mbps (or 44.736Mbps) signal is assembled into the C3 container. The VC3 virtual
container (composed of 9 lines and 85 columns) is generated by adding the POH. The TU3
tributary unit is generated (86 columns and 9 rows) by adding a pointer to the VC3.The TU3
tributary unit generates TUG3 units (TUG3 is practically identical with TU3) and 3 TUG3 units
can be multiplexed in a C4 container. The VC4 virtual container is generated by adding the
POH and VC-4 is inserted into an STM-1 frame or an STM-N frame.
IRISET 16 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

The mapping process ensures the following characteristics of the VC3 SDH flow:
 Total bit rate debit (of the payload area) VC3 = 48384kbps;
 Useful nominal rate fs = 34368kbps;
 It is obtained by transmitting one information and one justification bit in the 2 possible
justification positions of a partial frame;
 There are used 3 information and 3 justification bits per VC3 container.
 Useful rate without the justification positions (the possible justification positions contain
effectively justification bits) = 34344kbps = fs-7X10-4Xfs;
 Useful rate with justification positions (the possible justification positions contain information
bits) 139320kbps = 34392kbps = fs+7 X 10-4 X fs

3.8 Mapping of E-1 into STM-1

T
Fig,3.10. Mapping of E-1 into STM-1
E
E1 traffic to form STM-1 frame through AU-4 mapping which is performed in following steps:

 E1 traffic is of 32 bytes with 2.048Mbps data rate.

IS
 E1 traffic is mapped into C-12 container whose size is of 34 bytes; the remaining 2 bytes
will be stuffed to complete the mapping (packaging).
 C-12 is mapped into VC-12 by adding 1 byte of path overhead byte.
 TU-12 is formed by adding 1byte pointer value, which points to the first byte of VC-12, then
IR

TU-12 is framed to form 9X4 information structure.

 TUG-2 is formed by multiplexing three TU-12 containers which is indicated by M=1, 2, 3.
The TUG-2 size is 9X12.
 TUG-2 is mapped into TUG-3 by multiplexing seven TUG-2‟s which is indicated by L=1, 2,
3…7.TUG-3 size being 9X86, with first 2 columns of fixed stuffing.
 VC-4 is formed by multiplexing three TUG-3‟s which is indicated by K=1, 2, 3 and adding
VC-4 POH bytes, with 2 columns of stuffing whose size is 9X261.
 VC-4 is mapped into AU-4 by adding the 1 row pointer, which gives the offset location of
VC-4 in AU-4; AU-4 is then mapped into AUG-1, which is of same size.
 The STM-1 frame is formed by performing the framing by adding SOH bytes to AUG-1, with
line rate of 155Mbps. Figure 5 depicts the byte interleaved TDM which forms TU-12 to
TUG-2 to TUG-3 to VC-4

Lower Order Virtual Containers:

In the case of 2Mbps the number of spare words to accommodate POH and Pointer in a given
125μs period is not sufficient enough. Hence 4 frames of 125μs are used to indicate the POH
and Pointer for the respective 2Mbps PDH stream.

IRISET 17 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

Figure 3.11 Lower Order Virtual Containers

E T
IS
IR

Figure.3.12. Byte interleaved TDM

Multiplexing of the TU tributary units into the tributary group unit TUG2 and after that into the
TUG3 unit;

It is a fixed phase relation between the TUG2 and the TUG3 units;
• it is not necessary the use of a TU3 pointer in the first column of the unit;
• the TU3 pointer is replaces with NPI (Null Pointer Indicator );
• a TUG3 unit can be generated by multiplexing 7 TUG2 units byte by byte

Every row will be having 4bytes of each TU-12 (every TUG-2 will be having 4 columns of TU-12
in it). This procedure follows for remaining 8 rows, which forms TUG-2 of 9X12. Similarly TUG-3
& VC-4 are multiplexed. In STM-1 frame, 63 VC-12‟s (K*L*M) can be mapped each having 4
columns & these columns will be framed in STM-1 frame (K*L*M) columns apart.

IRISET 18 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Mapping of PDH Tributaries into STM-1

3.9 E1 mapping into STM-1 through AU-3:

STM-1 frame is formed through AU-3 mapping from E1 traffic in following steps:
 TUG2 is formed similar to that of AU4 mapping.
 Seven TUG2‟s are multiplexed to map into VC3 by adding 1 column path overhead with 2
columns of stuffing, which makes the size of VC-3 of 9X87.
 VC-3 is mapped into AU-3 by addition of the 3byte pointer, which gives the starting location
of the VC-3 payload.
 Three AU-3‟s are multiplexed into AUG-1.
 Then framing is done by adding SOH bytes to AUG-1 to form STM-1 frame.

STM-1 frame when mapped through AU-4 mapping technique will be having 1column VC-4
POH & 8 stuffing columns where as when mapped through AU-3 mapping has got 3columns of
VC-3 POH & 6column stuffing. In AU-3 mapping 2columns of data is more compared to AU-4,
which increases the data rate comparatively. So according to data rate varies according to
mapping.

Similar to 63XVC-12 STM-N frame can also cater combination of traffics like 21VC-12 and 2VC-

T
3 can be combined together in STM-1 frame in AU-4 mapping. Similarly there can be many
combinations with respect to K, L, M values and data rate.

E
The mapping process ensures the following characteristics of the VC12 SDH flow:

 total bit rate (of the payload area) VC12 = 2224kbps;

 useful nominal rate fs = 2048kbps;
IS
 it is obtained by transmitting one information and one justification bit in the 2 possible
justification positions in a TU12 multiframe;
 useful rate without the justification positions (the possible justification positions contain
effectively justification bits) = 2046kbps =fs-10-3 ;
IR

 Useful rate with justification positions (the possible justification positions contain information
bits) = 2050kbps= fs+10-3.

IRISET 19 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Ethernet over SDH

CHAPTER - 4 Back to content page

ETHERNET OVER SDH

4.0. Introduction:
Ethernet and SDH are landmark technologies for computer and telecommunications
networking respectively. However, digital network convergence has pushed both to work
together. This demand drove the creation of a set of new technologies to efficiently and flexibly
combine both worlds.

Ethernet over SDH (EoS) was developed primarily to provide a simple, flexible and cost-
effective solution to customers offering Ethernet based services. An EoS transport solution
fundamentally addresses the following key issues.

4.1. Generic Framing Procedure (GFP) ITU-T recommendation G.7041/Y.1303): provides

several functions to adapt Ethernet traffic to transportation. Framing protocol to encapsulate
Ethernet frames to generate an SDH payload in SDH networks.

Advantages of GFP

T
• Traffic management and QoS control are significantly easier
• GFP is more robust than HDLC and less susceptible to bit errors
• GFP is supported by OTN (Optical Transport Network)/WDM interfaces in addition to SDH
E
• GFP permits multiple protocols from different ports or links to share the same transport
path, resulting in more efficient use of available bandwidth
IS
4.2. Concatenation: is the process of summing the bandwidth of X containers of the same type
into a larger container.

There are two concatenation methods:

 Contiguous concatenation, which creates big containers that cannot split into smaller
IR

pieces during transmission. For this, each NE must have concatenation functionality.
 Virtual concatenation, which transports the individual VCs and aggregates them at the
end point of the transmission path. For this, concatenation functionality is only needed at
the path termination equipment.

4.3. Virtual Concatenation (VCAT): allows the separation of GFP-adapted traffic into different
paths in an SDH network. Bandwidth mapping of the SDH payload to SDH channels, which are
either high-order or low-order virtual containers (VCs)

Bandwidth provisioning scheme. Bandwidth mapping of the SDH payload to SDH channels,
which are either high-order or low-order virtual containers (VCs).Concatenation is the process of
summing the bandwidth of X containers of the same type into a larger container.

There are two concatenation methods:

1. Contiguous concatenation: which creates big containers that cannot split into smaller
pieces during transmission. For this, each NE must have concatenation functionality.

Back to content page

IRISET 20 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Ethernet over SDH

2. Virtual concatenation: which transports the individual VCs and aggregates them at the
end point of the transmission path. For this, concatenation functionality is only needed at
the path termination equipment.

Packet-oriented, statistically multiplexed technologies, such as IP or Ethernet, do not match well

the bandwidth granularity provided by contiguous concatenation.

a. VCAT is an inverse multiplexing technique that allows granular increments of bandwidth in

single VC-n units.
b. At the source node VCAT creates a continuous payload equivalent to X times the VC-n
c. The set of X containers is known as a Virtual Container Group (VCG), and each individual
VC is a member of the VCG.
d. Lower-Order Virtual Concatenation (LO-VCAT) uses X times VC11, VC12, or VC2
containers (VC11/12/2-Xv, X = 1... 64).
e. Higher-Order Virtual Concatenation (HO-VCAT) uses X times VC3 or VC4 containers

T
(VC3/4-Xv, X = 1... 256), providing a payload capacity of X times 48 384 or 149 760 kbit/s.

E
IS
IR

FIG.4.1.Provisioning of Ethernet data into STM-1

Advantages of VCAT
• Scalability: Allows bandwidth to be tuned in small increments on demand to match
desired data rate and avoid wastage. Traditional contiguous concatenation comes in coarse
increments.
• Efficiency: More easily routed through a network and aids to eliminate stranded
bandwidth. Allows for more efficient usage of an existing network’s available bandwidth.
• Compatibility: Requires only end nodes of the network to be aware of the containers
being virtually concatenated. Transparent to core network elements.
• Resiliency: Individual members of a virtually concatenated group can be routed as
diversely as possible across a network. So if one member is lost, the others are likely to be
operational albeit with a reduced bandwidth

IRISET 21 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Ethernet over SDH

4.4. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) dynamically adjusts the capacities of SDH
paths according to source and/or destination needs. In combination, these technologies have
brought new life to SDH. In fact, this new network vision was named Next Generation SDH
(NGSDH). ITU-T as G.7042, designed to manage the bandwidth allocation of a VCAT path.
LCAS can add and remove members of a VCG that control a VCAT channel. LCAS cannot
adapt the size of the VCAT channel according to the traffic pattern.

LCAS applications
 VCAT bandwidth allocation, LCAS enables the resizing of the VCAT pipe in use when it
receives an order from the NMS to increase or decrease the size.
 Network Resilience, In the case of a partial failure of one path, LCAS reconfigures the
connection using the members still up and able to continue carrying traffic.
 Asymmetric Configurations, LCAS is a unidirectional protocol allowing the provision of
asymmetric bandwidth between two MSSP nodes to configure asymmetric links
 Cross-Domain Operation, because LCAS resides only at edge nodes it is not necessary
to coordinate more than one configuration centre

4.5 Auto negotiation: Auto negotiation is a feature to detect the link partner capabilities. It

T
allows the devices at both ends of a link segment to advertise abilities, acknowledge receipt and
understand the common mode(s) of operation that both devices share.
E
IS
IR

FIG.4.2. Auto negotiation

4.6 Link Integrity: Allows detecting faults along the end-to-end Ethernet transport
connection. For any traffic affecting VCG side problem, no point in keeping the ETH port UP (or
pumping ETH traffic).Link Integrity Enabled forces the ETH port to go down.

Following faults can be detected

a) Near-end Ethernet Link Failure
b) SDH Link Failures
c) CSF/Far-end Ethernet Link Failure

FIG.4.3. Link Integrity

IRISET 22 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Network Topology & APS in SDH

CHAPTER - 5 Back to content page

NETWORK TOPOLOGY AND

AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING (APS) IN SDH
5.0. Introduction: A network element is ready to carry live traffic. Following are different
network topologies in which the proposed optical fiber cable faults management system can
work.
There are 4 types of network topologies:
 Linear topology – used when the appropriate network topology is linear (ex. Access
networks in a high speed network) and when is not necessary a high protection to faults.
 Mesh topology – each node is connected with a number of other nodes – high
management flexibility, high protection to faults but also high redundancy of the physical
channels between nodes.
 Ring topology – used most often; ensures a high management flexibility and good
protection to faults.
 Star topology – used to connect distant and less important nodes; ensures low protection
to faults.

T
These architectures allow for efficient bandwidth usage as well as protection (i.e. the ability to
transmit traffic even when part of the network has failed).These topologies have different level
E
of protection which can be possible in the network.

5.1 Linear networks: In linear networks, SDH ADM nodes are connected in a linear fashion
where two terminal multiplexers exist at both ends as shown in Figure.1.This topology provides
IS
drop and insert capability to all network elements. There may be unprotected linear networks,
establishing two fiber connections between two ADMs or protected with four fiber connections
where two of them are working and other two serving as a backup or protection pair.
IR

Fig.5.1.Linear network

A point-to-multipoint (linear add/drop) architecture includes adding and dropping circuits

along the way. The SDH ADM (add/drop multiplexer) is a unique network element
specifically designed for this task. It avoids the current cumbersome network architecture of
demultiplexing, Cross-connecting, adding and dropping channels, and then re-
multiplexing. The ADM typically is placed in an SDH link to facilitate adding and dropping
tributary channels at intermediate points in the network.

5.2 Mesh Architecture:

Fig.5.2.The meshed network architecture Back to content page

IRISET 23 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Network Topology & APS in SDH

The meshed network architecture accommodates unexpected growth and change more
easily than simple point-to-point networks. A cross connects function concentrates traffic at a
central site and allows easy re-provisioning of the circuits. There are two possible
implementations of this type of network function:

a) Cross-connection at higher-order path levels, for example, using AU-4 granularity in

the switching matrix.
b) Cross-connection at lower-order path levels, for example, using TU-12 granularity in
the switching matrix.

5.3 Ring Architecture: The SDH building block for a ring architecture is the ADM.
Multiple ADMs can be put into a ring configuration for either Bi-directional or Unidirectional
traffic. The main advantage of the ring topology is its survivability; if a fibre cable is cut,
for example, the multiplexers have the local intelligence to send the services affected via
an alternate path through the ring without a lengthy interruption. The demand for
survivable services, diverse routing of fibre facilities, flexibility to rearrange services to
alternate serving nodes, as well as automatic restoration within seconds, have made rings
a popular SDH topology.

E T
IS
IR

Fig.5.3. Ring Architecture

Rings are very important because they give greater flexibility in the allocation of bandwidth to
the different users and they allow rerouting of traffic should a link fail under normal operation, a
2 Mb/s tributary is sent round the ring in both the directions. The ADM assigned to drop the 2
Mb/s tributary monitors the two SDH signals for errors and delivers the one with better
performance. This is known as path switching. When a catastrophic failure occurs, for example,
when the fiber is cut by a road digger, the nodes either side of the failure loop the clockwise ring
to the anticlockwise ring, allowing traffic to avoid the failed ring segment. This forms an
extended ring which carries all the traffic to each node in the ring, allowing service to continue.

5.4 Automatic Protection Switching (APS): is a functionality of carrier-grade transport

networks, is often called resilience. Since it enables service to quickly recover from failures, it is
required to ensure high reliability and availability.

APS is also responsible to :

1. detection of failures (signal fail or signal degrade) on a working channel
2. switching traffic transmission to a protection channel
3. selecting traffic reception from the protection channel
4. (optionally) reverting back to the working channel once failure is repaired

IRISET 24 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Network Topology & APS in SDH

ITU-T Recommendation G.841

This Recommendation provides the necessary equipment-level specifications to implement

different choices of protection architectures for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) networks.
Protected entities may range from a single SDH multiplex section (e.g. linear multiplex section
protection), to a portion of an SDH end-to-end path (e.g. sub network connection protection), or
to an entire SDH end to-end path (e.g. HO/LO linear VC trail protection). Physical
implementations of these protection architectures may include rings or linear chains of nodes.

Protection schemes are classified as:

a. SDH trail protection (at the section or path layer);

b. SDH sub network connection protection (with inherent monitoring, non-intrusive monitoring,
and sub-layer monitoring).

The reliability and the maintenance of the transmission networks are two major aspects which
have to be considered when the SDH multiplexers are installed. The redundancy plays an
important part and has to be ensured both at the level of the transmission channels and
multiplexers. If the transmission channels has interruptions, the data traffic has to be switched

T
on an appropriate protection (backup) channel (protection switching) and if a multiplexer is out
of order the system has to switch on available protection equipments (equipment protection).
E
Two basic types of protection architecture are distinguished in APS.

One is the linear protection mechanism used for point-to-point connections.

IS
The other basic form is ring protection mechanism which can take on many different forms. Both
mechanisms use spare circuits or components to provide the back-up path. Switching is
controlled by the overhead bytes K1 and K2 in MSOH.

Protection is required for the traffic against 3 conditions

IR

 Signal Degrade (SD),

 Signal Failure (SF)
 And fiber cut.

When first 2 conditions occur the traffic quality will be lost and in the later case traffic itself will
be lost. So there was service level agreement done between service provider & customer,
according to which 99.999% of the time connection should be available and this is possible only
by Automatic Protection Switching.

Classification of APS: can be classified in general as—

 1+1 protection scheme or Dedicated protection scheme

W - working
P - protection
FIG.5.4. 1+1 Protection scheme

IRISET 25 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Network Topology & APS in SDH

The simplest of all the forms is the 1+1 type of protection. Each working line (port or path) is
protected by one dedicated protection line (port or path). Protection line is redundant line
dedicated for the working line. Traffic is taken through both working line & protection line
simultaneously and at the far end traffic will be selected by switch depending upon the
healthiness of the traffic. The switch over is triggered by a defect such as fiber cut, SF or SD.
When working line is on the toss, traffic will be selected from the protection line. The main
disadvantage of the 1+1 is high bandwidth redundancy but 1+1 is faster than any of the
protection-switching scheme.

 1:1 protection scheme or Shared protection scheme

W - working
P - protection

FIG .5.5. 1:1 Protection scheme

T
1:1 in general can be called as 1:N; in 1:1 protection for each of the working line (which can be
either port or path) there will be a corresponding protection line. There will be 2 types of traffics
identified for catering it, high priority traffic & low priority traffic (Not supported in Tejas
E
products). High priority traffic will be catered in the working line and low priority traffic will be
taken through protection line. When the working line goes on the toss, traffic has to be catered
through protection line where low priority traffic is present, which will be pre-empted from
IS
protection line for serving the high priority traffic.

 1:N protection scheme

IR

W - working
P - protection

FIG 5.6. 1:N Protection scheme

In 1:N there will be N working line, which are getting protected by 1 protection line through
which low priority traffic is catered and the switching occurs depending upon the priority given to
the working line and low priority traffic will be given least priority.

Above said 2 protection schemes can be discussed in detail based on network topology, which
are
1. Linear protection scheme:
2. Ring protection scheme

Linear protection scheme: 1+1, 1:1 and 1:N Configurations can be used in linear protection
switching scheme.Linear topology leads to different configuration of protection fibers depending
on the type of equipments and their capabilities. The ‘1+1’ configuration means that a
supplementary fiber pair (called the ‘protection channel’) is dedicated to protect the primary fiber
pair (referred to as ‘working channel 1’). Depending of the operation (unidirectional or
IRISET 26 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Network Topology & APS in SDH

bidirectional) and switching configuration (revertive or non-revertive), the data/voice traffic is

redirected to the protection fiber pair in case of problems detected on the primary fiber pair.

The protection switching mode can be configured either as revertive & non-revertive mode.
Non-revertive protection allows the traffic remains on the protect path even after the working
path is repaired.

Revertive systems restore working traffic on the original path after the Wait To Restore time
(WTR).

Multiplex section protection (MSP): is a port level protection supported on STM-1 interfaces.
The term MSP differentiates it from ring systems. The ‘1+1’ configuration uses a complete
duplication of services and implies that two identical lines are active at the same time.
Multiplex section protection is based on failure detection at the multiplex section level, by both
ADMs located on both sides of the failure. If a failure occurs in one section, the STM-N signal is
completely rerouted by switching over to the protection fibre, even if the failure is due to only
one of the containers in the frame

T
Ring protection scheme: Ring network is made up of ADM and any traffic added can reach to
its destination in 2 ways, which can be useful in APS.

E
IS
IR

Fig.5.7.Ring protection scheme

Ring networks are classified into

 Uni directional path protection

 Bi-directional path protection

 Uni directional path protection

Unidirectional rings Figure 5.7 shows the basic principle of APS for unidirectional rings. Let us
assume that there is an interruption in the circuit between the network elements A and B.
Direction y is unaffected by this fault. An alternative path must, however, be found for direction
x. The connection is therefore switched to the alternative path in network elements A and B.

IRISET 27 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Network Topology & APS in SDH

Fig.5.8.Two fiber unidirectional path switched ring

The other network elements (C and D) switch through the back-up path. This switching process
is referred to as line switched. A simpler method is to use the so-called path switched ring.
Traffic is transmitted simultaneously over both the working line and the protection line. If there is
an interruption, the receiver (in this case A) switches to the protection line and immediately
takes up the connection

 Unidirectional Operation
In the event of a single fiber cut, only one direction of traffic is switched over to the protection

T
fiber and the other direction remains on the original working fiber. Suitable for dedicated
protection schemes

E
IS
IR

Fig.5.9. Unidirectional Operation

Path Switching
Today, path switching is only used on unidirectional rings – hence the name Unidirectional Path
Switched Rings (UPSR)

What does Path Switching mean?

− At the exit node, both fibers are monitored and the path traffic extracted.
− Based on several factors, especially error rate, the “best” traffic is selected to be handed off
to the customer.

To a large degree, path switching can be done completely by the receiver, without coordination
with the sender.

IRISET 28 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Network Topology & APS in SDH

Fig.5.10. Path Switching

 Line Switching
Line Switching is done on bi-directional rings, either two fiber or four fiber.
Thus the name Bi-directional Line Switched Ring (BLSR).
The total capacity of the fibers must be twice the carried traffic.
For four fiber systems, this means two fibers are dedicated for protection.

T
What does Line Switching mean?
 Two adjacent nodes monitor the traffic between them.
 If one detects “failure” on a fiber, it signals the other.
E
 The two nodes coordinate switching to the protection fiber(s).
IS
IR

Fig.5.11. Bi-directional Ring

Fig.5.12. Backup for a Bi-directional Ring

IRISET 29 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Network Topology & APS in SDH

The ring protection types are as follows

 In Europe, 2f-MS-SPRing, 4f-MS-SPRing or 2f-SNCP

 In USA, 2f-BLSR, 4f-BLSR or 2f-UPSR

BLSR --- Bi-Directional Line-Switched Rings,

UPSR --- Uni-Directional Path-Switched Rings and
MS-SPRing --- the Multiplex Section-Shared Protected Rings,
SNCP --- Sub-Network Connection Protection

Sub network connection protection

Sub network connection protection is a dedicated protection mechanism that can be used on
any physical structure (i.e. meshed, rings, or mixed). It may be applied at any path layer in a
layered network.

It can be used to protect a portion of a path (e.g. that portion where two separate paths
segments are available) between two Connection Points (CPs) or between a CP and a
Termination Connection Point (TCP), or the full end-to-end path between two TCPs. It switches

T
on server failures (using inherent monitoring) or it switches using client layer information (using
non-intrusive monitoring).

E
SNC protection is a linear protection scheme which can be applied on an individual basis to VC-
n signals. It need not be used on all VCs within a multiplex section. It need not be used on all
LO VCs within a HO VC. SNC protection operates in a unidirectional protection switching
IS
manner.

 Linear multiplex section protection switching

Linear multiplex section protection switching can be a dedicated or shared protection

mechanism. It protects the multiplex section layer, and applies to point-to-point physical
IR

networks. One protection multiplex section can be used to protect the normal traffic from a
number (N) of working multiplex sections. It cannot protect against node failures. It can operate
in a unidirectional or bidirectional manner, and it can carry extra traffic on the protection
multiplex section in bidirectional operation.

SDH protection switching takes place in under 50 ms

Regarding multiplex section shared protection rings, G.841 states :

The following network objectives apply:

Switch time – In a ring with no extra traffic, all nodes in the idle state (no detected failures, no
active automatic or external commands, and receiving only Idle K-bytes), and with less than
1200 km of fibre, the switch (ring and span) completion time for a failure on a single span shall
be less than 50 ms. On rings under all other conditions, the switch completion time can exceed
50 ms (the specific interval is under study) to allow time to remove extra traffic, or to negotiate
and accommodate coexisting APS requests.

For linear VC trail protection, it says :

The following network objectives apply:

IRISET 30 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Network Topology & APS in SDH

Switch time – The APS algorithm for LO/HO VC trail protection shall operate as fast as possible.
A value of 50 ms has been proposed as a target time. Concerns have been expressed over this
proposed target time when many VCs are involved. This is for further study. Protection switch
completion time excludes the detection time necessary to initiate the protection switch, and the
hold-off time.

Typical SNCP in Rly usage:

E T
IS
IR

SNC Protection
Protection Mechanisms
Where to use – Rule of thumb
Point-to-point
– MSP
– SNCP
Ring
– SNCP
– MS-SPRing
Leased line
– SNCP (individual VC-Xs)
– MSP (whole MS)
Mixed traffic
– SNCP (individual VC-Xs)

IRISET 31 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Network Topology & APS in SDH

Table.1.Comparison of protection schemes

E T
IS
Table.2.The Ring Protection Architectures
IR

Traffic Protection

Sub-Network Connection protection based on Inherent monitoring (SNC/I) and Non-intrusive

monitoring (SNC/N) is implemented. The traffic in the ring can be planned allocating both a
working path and a protection path. If for example a fiber cable is damaged the connection is
preserved by automatic switch-over to the protection path.

The protection based on inherent switching is controlled by receipt of AIS (alarm indication
signal) or LOP (loss of pointer). Errors leading to AIS and LOP and therefore protection
switching are: LOS (loss of signal), LOF (loss of frame) or excessive errors.

The SNC/N protection will initiate a switch, if an SF (Signal Failure) or SD (Signal Degrade)
condition is detected..

IRISET 32 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Synchronization in SDH networks

CHAPTER - 6 Back to content page

SYNCHRONIZATION IN SDH NETWORKS

6.0. Synchronization: Synchronous is the first word in the term SDH for a very good reason.
If synchronization is not guaranteed, considerable degradation in network function, and even
total failure of the network can be the result. To avoid this worst case scenario, all network
elements are synchronized to a central clock. This central clock is generated by a high-precision
primary reference clock (PRC) unit conforming to ITU-T Recommendation G.811. This clock
signal must be distributed throughout the entire network. A hierarchical structure is used for this;
the signal is passed on by the subordinate synchronization supply units (SSU) and synchronous
equipment clocks (SEC). The synchronization signal paths can be the same as those used for
SDH communications

E T
IS
IR

Figure 6.1. Clock supply hierarchy structure

The clock signal is regenerated in the SSUs and SECs with the aid of phase-locked loops. If the
clock supply fails, the affected network element switches over to a clock source with the same
or lower quality, or if this is not possible, it switches to hold-over mode. In this situation, the
clock signal is kept relatively accurate by controlling the oscillator by applying the stored
frequency correction values for the previous hours and taking the temperature of the oscillator
into account.

6.1. Synchronization network is a network that shall be able to provide all types of
telecommunication traffic networks with reference timing signals of required quality. The
objective for the traffic networks, for example switching, transport, signaling, mobile, is to not
lose information. Loss of information is often caused by poor synchronization. This can be
avoided by properly connecting the traffic network to an adequate synchronization network (how
to connect to a synchronization network is normally called network synchronization)
synchronization network is set up to ensure that all of the elements in the communications
network are synchronous. A network where transmission system payloads are synchronised to
a master (network) clock and traceable to a reference clock. A network where all clocks have
the same long term accuracy under normal operating conditions.
Back to content page

IRISET 33 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Synchronization in SDH networks

6.2 Poor synchronization causes loss of information in varying degrees. Examples of results
of poor synchronization are:

• degraded traffic throughput;

• inhibition of set-up of calls (#7 signaling) due to re-transmission;
• re-sending of files;
• corrupt fax messages;
• degraded speech quality;
• freeze-frames on video;
• disconnection of calls during hand-over in mobile networks;
• Partial or complete traffic stoppage.

6.3 Elements of a Synchronization Network

T
up to N=20 SECs cascaded between any two SSUs
up to K=10 SSUs in one chain
E
total number of SECs in one chain limited to 60
IS
Fig.6.2. Synchronization Network Reference Chain model

6.4 Synchronization Clock types

 G.811 Primary Reference Clock (PRC)
 G.812 Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU)
IR

 G.813 SDH Equipment Clock (SEC)

Primary Reference Clock (PRC)

As pointed out earlier, the switches in digital communication networks in which time division
multiplexing is applied, need a common timing reference. The requirements on the accuracy
and stability of the reference result from the connection quality objectives (measured in terms of
the slip rate) of a digital connection, specified in ITU-T Recommendation G.822 . Currently
those requirements can only be met with atomic (Caesium-beam) clocks used as the network
primary reference clock (PRC: Primary Reference Clock) or with use of GPS receivers; but by
deploying different strategies on clock holdover, repair time and network planning, these
objectives can also be met under failure condition for a limited period of time. The task of
network synchronization is to distribute the reference signal from the PRC to all network
elements requiring synchronization. The PRC determines the long-term stability of the reference
frequency.

SSUs (Synchronization Supply Units) regenerate the clock signal after it has passed a chain
of SECs and serve as temporary references for parts of the network when the connection to the
PRC is lost in failure situations. Usually SSUs are located in network nodes where they
distribute a timing signal to all network elements in the node.

IRISET 34 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Synchronization in SDH networks

SECs (SDH Equipment Clocks) are the clocks incorporated in SDH network elements. SECs
offer great flexibility in the selection of references and support automatic reconfiguration
mechanisms in rings or chains of SDH network elements.

Fig.6.3.SEC (SDH Equipment Clock)

T0 : 2 MHz station clock (delivers timing to all functions of the equipment)

T1 : 2 Mhz derived from STM-N
T2 : 2 MHz derived from 2 Mbit/s
T3 : 2MHz input sync. Signals (may be derived from 2 Mbit/s without traffic)

T
T4 : 2MHz output sync. Signals (may be derived from 2 Mbit/s without traffic)

6.5 Modes Of Synchronization

E
Free running mode: An operating condition of a clock, the output signal of which is strongly
influenced by the oscillating element and not controlled by phase-locking techniques. In this
mode the clock has never had a network reference input, or the clock has lost external
IS
reference and has no access to stored data, that could be acquired from a previously connected
external reference. Free-run begins when the clock output no longer reflects the influence of a
connected external reference, or transition from it. Free-run terminates when the clock output
has achieved lock to an external reference.
IR

Holdover mode: An operating condition of a clock which has lost its controlling reference input
and is using stored data, acquired while in locked operation, to control its output. The stored
data are used to control phase and frequency variations, allowing the locked condition to be
reproduced within specifications. Holdover begins when the clock output no longer reflects the
influence of a connected external reference, or transition from it. Holdover terminates when the
output of the clock reverts to locked mode condition.

Locked mode: An operating condition of a slave clock in which the output signal is controlled by
an external input reference such that the clock’s output signal has the same long-term average
frequency as the input reference, and the time error function between output and input is
bounded. Locked mode is the expected mode of operation of a slave clock.

6.6 Synchronization Status Message (SSM): This is a communication channel in the SDH
protocol designated for setting-up of protected synchronization of an SDH network.

The status message contains information on the quality level of the timing source. The quality
message, together with a list of synchronization sources in each network element, allows
controlled switching of the synchronization source if there is a fault.

IRISET 35 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Synchronization in SDH networks

Each network element:

 Has a configurable list of priorities for synchronization sources (a maximum of four STM-N
sources and two 2 MHz sources) with specified switch criteria (i.e. expected quality level).
 Monitors SSM on incoming STM-N (with SSM change, another source is selected)
 Inserts SSM on outgoing STM-N, in accordance with current reference source
 Monitor the 2 MHz source (out-of-range conditions)
 Squelches 2 MHz output signals if reference is below the specified quality level.

Note: An SDH network will operate completely satisfactorily even if it is not synchronized to very
precise external references. The important requirement is the selection of one source and to
use that to distribute synchronization. In the initial phase, the internal clock of one TM/ADM can
be used to synchronize the others. If one of the external interfaces is synchronized, it can be
used as a reference.

E T
IS
IR

IRISET 36 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

CHAPTER - 7 Back to content page

JITTER AND WANDER IN SDH SYSTEMS &

TESTING OF SDH NETWORK
7.0 Introduction:

Jitter and Wander are defined respectively as the short term and long term variations of the
significant instants of a digital signal from their ideal positions. They are relative terms and
always mentioned with respect to a reference clock and can be represented as varying their
positions with respect to time by moving backward or forward in reference to an ideal clock
source. In any transmission network Jitter and Wander accumulate according to their generation
and transfer characteristics of each equipment connected, can effect the signals and might
cause bit errors, uncontrollable slips etc. It is necessary that the amount of jitter and wander are
controlled for SDH network interface. The jitter, which is specified as maximum phase amplitude
and is quantified as a peak to peak value as it is the peak jitter that causes the bit error. Jitter is
measured in Unit Intervals (UIs). One UI is of one data bit width.

T
The measurement of wander needs any Primary Reference Clock (PRC) or any other reference
clock, which is free from wander. It involves low frequencies with long duration and can consist
of hours of phase information. High temporal resolution is needed to measure phase transients.

7.1
E
Parameters To Measure Synchronization Quality And to Specify Performance
Limits:
IS
 Time Interval Error (TIE): It is the phase difference between the signal and reference
clock, measured in nano seconds. It is set to zero at the start of total measurement period
and provides the information of phase changes since the beginning of the measurement.
 Maximum Time Interval Error (MTIE): It is defined as the largest peak to peak TIE within
a specified interval and characterizes frequency off set and phase transients. A time
IR

window of specified interval is moved across the entire measurement time of TIE and the
peak value is the MTIE.
 Time Deviation (TDev): It is defined as the rms value of the filtered TIE and characterizes
its spectral contents. The band pass filter is centered on a frequency of 0.42/t, where t is
the observation interval. As rms part of T Dev calculation requires sufficient time to get a
good statistical average, at least 12 t is required for accurate value of T Dev. Normal
practice is to observe for 3t for calculation of T Dev for an interval of t.

7.2 Network Synchronization:

The cross connect as shown in Fig. 7.1 receives various tributaries as inputs and generates a
new aggregate output signal. The timing of the output signal is determined by the synchronous
clock function and the input signal might be at slower phase when compared with the output
signal. The two signals are originated from the same clock function but varying at the input and
output of the network element. The causes are as given below.

 Changes in cable delays due to temperature changes.

 Frequency drift due to DC off set in the PLL synchronous clock.
 Random phase transients in the synchronous distribution chain due to protection switching.

IRISET 37 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Back to content page

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

Fig. 7.1 SDH Path Synchronization

The input and output phase variations are to be removed to maintain the integrity of data. This
is achieved by the pointer justification process, which shifts the pay load by advancing or
retarding within the STM-N signal. At receiving end where the pay load is demapped, these
adjustments might result in pay load jitter which should be smoothened to ensure that jitter
remains within limit. Especially the low frequency wander in the SDH systems is gradually
stored up by the pointer processing mechanism and released as a higher frequency phase
transient in the pay load causing adverse effects on data integration. To avoid this, the jitter and
wander should be kept within the permissible limits.

7.3 Testing of Transmission Network: The testing activities are related to

T
 Design verification and field trial
 Installation and commissioning
 Operation and maintenance
E
SDH network contains the capability to support the in service testing by network management
system for operation and maintenance. However, the insufficiency of this capability and
necessity of comprehensive testing make it essential to use external SDH Test Set to ensure
IS
that the SDH network elements provide the promised operational benefits to the network
operators and their customers as per ITU-T standards.

7.4 Objectives of Testing: The SDH functionality is dependent more on software. The testing
objective covers four broad categories.
IR

 Transport Capability Tests

 Payload Pointer Tests
 Line Interface Tests
 Embedded Overhead Tests
7.5 Transport Capability Tests: Transport Capability tests include BER and Mapping/De-
Mapping tests, which confirm that an SDH network carries a payload of 2 mbps, 34 mbps or 140
mbps tributary signals and delivers it correctly to the destination.

Payload Pointer Tests: Payload Pointer tests include timing offset and tributary output jitter
tests, which confirm that SDH network equipment is operable with other non-SDH network
elements already in use in networks.

Line Interface Tests: Line Interface tests include the parametric tests that confirm the electrical
and optical functional capabilities of an SDH interface.

Embedded Overhead Tests: Embedded overhead tests include alarm stressing and
performance monitoring, network management protocol tests and other special tests, which
confirm that SDH network elements respond in a predictable manner under stress condition.

IRISET 38 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

7.6 General Aspects Of Testing: The general aspects that should be considered while
testing SDH network, are as below.

Completion Of Basic Installation: Completion of basic installation before the testing is

necessary to ensure the following.

 Each Network Element (NE) is fully assembled with its cards installed
 Cabling is done between Digital Distribution Frame (DDF) and NE tributary ports
 Computer control of the NE is established
 Configuring of NE operating characteristics is completed

Avoiding Optical Receive Overload: Care should be taken to avoid overload of receiver using
attenuator while testing NE.

Synchronization: It is essential to synchronize the set up to ensure that no uncontrolled pointer

adjustments occur during testing.

7.7 Functional Tests: The test set up is as shown in Fig.10.2 for the following functional
verification tests.

T
Verifying Correct Mechanical Installation: This test is for checking correct mechanical
installation of an SDH network element that may be Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM), Line Terminal
Multiplexer (LTM) or Digital Cross Connect (DXC). In Fig. 7.2, it is assumed that the NE is an
E
ADM.

Performing a BER test on each Virtual Container path (VC-n) processed by the NE, checks the
IS
NE for the following.

 Correct cabling between DDF and tributary ports.

 The basic performance of the network element’s electronics including optics.

Installation is correct if no error or alarm is observed.

IR

Fig. 7.2 SDH Functional Tests

Verifying Path Routing To PDH Tributary Ports: This test verifies path routing through an
ADM or DXC. It identifies, which VC-n paths are terminated by the NE, with the mapped
payload being dropped to a PDH tributary port.
IRISET 39 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

Verifying Path Routing To SDH Tributary Ports: This test verifies the VC-4 path routing to the
SDH tributary ports. The test set up is as in Fig. 10.2 with the receive input shown in dotted line.

Verifying Trail Trace Identifier Configuration: This test verifies correct NE configuration of
the trail trace identifier for a terminated path. In addition, it verifies automatic reporting of the
associated trace identifier mismatch alarm to the management system.

Verifying Clock Synchronization: SDH network synchronization is very important issue in

view of its serious impact on the network performance. Following are the two key elements for
precise and reliable SDH network synchronization.

 An accurate PRC (Primary Reference Clock)

 Accurately routed timing information from PRC to all nodes in the network.

The above can be checked by the following three distinct tests.

 Line frequency measurement
 Monitoring the pointer activity
 Observing the indication of Sync status byte (S1)

T
If the PRC is poorly distributed to NEs it causes increase in pointer activity, resulting in
increased tributary jitter and in worst case, this activity leads to corruption or even loss of
payload data. E
The Lock Sync. test verifies correct configuration of the clock synchronization hierarchy in the
NE. Three alternative clock sources are mentioned below.
IS
 Primary: External 2 MHz clock (also used for Sync of SDH test set),
 Secondary: Received STM-N line signal
 Tertiary: NE’s own internal clock.
IR

7.8 Mapping and De-Mapping Tests:

Fig. 7.3. Mapping And De-Mapping Test

The test set up for Mapping and De-mapping tests is as shown in Fig.10.7.3.

Mapping Test: Mapping is the process of assembling the payload from the container into virtual
container. This test verifies the performance of the payload mapping process in a device under
IRISET 40 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

test by off-setting the bit rate of tributary test signal to stress the synchronization capabilities of
the mapping process. There should be no error in the bit rate of 2 mbps, 34 mbps, 140 mbps or
55 mbps with the off setting by + 50 ppm, + 20 ppm, + 15 ppm and +20 ppm respectively.

De-Mapping Test: De-Mapping is the reverse process of mapping. It is the process of

recovering the tributary signal from the virtual container. This test, by off setting the frequency of
mapped PDH signal with reference to the virtual container, verifies that de-mapping of payload
from the SDH signal takes place without any error.

7.9 Jitter Testing: Jitter testing of SDH network includes measurement of the following.
 STM-N optical jitter tolerance
 STM-N optical output jitter
 PDH tributary jitter
 Pointer adjustment jitter (combined jitter)
 De-mapping jitter

Jitter is the short term variation of the significant instants of the digital signal with respect to the
position in time, which they should otherwise occupy. It can also be considered as spurious

T
phase modulation of digital signal clock. Jitter measurements are always made on clock signal
and expressed in Unit Intervals (UIs), which are independent of bit rate and can be calculated
as below.
E
The jitter frequency is rarely a sinusoidal, although sinusoidal jitter frequency is often used in
testing. For example,
IS
Peak deviation of bit rate
M = Modulation Index = ---------------------------------- = ╥ X jpp (Jpp = Jitter Peak to Peak)
Jitter frequency

For a 2.048 kbps data, UI = 0.488 ns, if the Jitter function (amplitude) is 2.44,the peak to peak
jitter will be = 2.44/0.488 = 5 UI
IR

Therefore, M = 3.14 x 5 = 15.70

If jitter frequency is 100 Hz, peak deviation of bit rate = 100 x 15.70 = 1570 Hz

Therefore, the bit stream varies as 2048000 + 1570 Hz at a rate of 100 times per second.

The primary sources of jitter are the network elements themselves. The types of jitter and the
possible causes are as given below.

 Mapping/De-Mapping Jitter: Mapping and De-Mapping jitter are caused by the phase
smoothing associated with the read/write clock of elastic stores and the bit stuffing/de-
stuffing used to compensate for frequency variation of the mapped tributary signal.
 Pointer Jitter: Pointer jitter is caused by excessive pointer movements as a result of the
effects of clock noise, frequency off-sets.
 Systematic Jitter: Systematic jitter is caused by mis aligned timing recovery circuits, finite
pulse width and clock threshold off-sets.

IRISET 41 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

Fig. 7.4 STM-N Optical Output Jitter Tolerance

E T
IS
Fig. 7.5 SDH Jitter Tolerance Mask (ITU-T G.825)
IR

Measuring SDH Jitter Tolerance: This test as shown in Fig. 7.4 verifies that NE complies with
the ITU-T Jitter Specification and requires evaluating the results against the defined mask as
shown in Fig. 7.5.

Measuring SDH Optical Output Jitter: This test verifies maximum acceptable jitter as per ITU-
T Recommendation G.958 at NE’s optical output. The test set up is as shown in Fig. 7.6.

7.6 STM-N Optical Output Jitter

IRISET 42 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

Measuring PDH Tributary Jitter: The jitter present on a PDH signal output from an SDH
network, results from following two primary sources.

 Pointer adjustment
 Bit stuff justification process performed when mapping an asynchronous signal into the
synchronous transport signal.

Therefore, both pointer adjustment jitter and de-mapping jitter are to be tested to verify the
compliance with the ITU-T standard G.783, which limits the maximum acceptable level of jitter.

Pointer Jitter (Combined Jitter): The pointer movements occur often in SDH network causing
the output of large amount of jitter spikes at the tributary ports and into the PDH network, which
is not designed to withstand with such large amount of transient jitter. Therefore, testing of this
jitter is very much essential to ensure that this effect is minimized and that errors and loss of
data do not occur.

Jitter resulting from pointer adjustment is totally different in character from jitter previously
experienced in PDH network. It is transient in nature, relatively high in amplitude and most of
the energy is contained in low frequency components as shown in Fig. 10.7

E T
IS
IR

Fig. 7.7 PDH Pointer Adjustment Jitter

For this testing, the set up is as shown in Fig. 7.8. The SDH test set is capable to generate
combined impairment by providing independent control over PDH off set and pointer sequence.
This set is to be done according to ITU-T standard G.783 given in Table. 10.1

Pay Pointer Sequence Measurement Max. Jitter

Load Bandwidth ( UI PK-Pk)
2 mbps TU-12 A,B,C, 0.02 – 100 KHz * 0.4
A,B,C 18 - 100 KHz ** 0.075
34mbps TU-3 A,B,C, 0.1 - 800 KHz * 0.4
D, 0.1 - 800 KHz ** 0.75
A,B,C,D 10 - 800 KHz ** 0.075
140mbps TU-4 A,B,C, 0.02 - 3500 KHz * 0.4
D, 0.02 -3500 KHz * 0.75
A,B,C,D 10 - 3500 KHz ** 0.075
* = Equivalent to Measurement Filter “ LP + HP1”
** = Equivalent to Measurement Filter “ LP + HP2”
Table 7.1 Pointer Adjustment Jitter
IRISET 43 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

Current ITU-T/ETSI standards define four pointer sequences for use during this testing of NE.
Pointer jitter test involves measuring the tributary jitter while the network element is stressed
with pointer sequence shown in Fig. 7.9 defined in ITU-T standard G.783 for 34 mbps (TU-3
pointer) and for 140 mbps (AU-4 pointer).

SDH SDH
TEST Network
Element
SET

Generates a G.783 adjustment

Sequence on the pointer Synchronize the SDH Measures
jitter on
Associated with the VC- N test set and the the de-
mapped
Clock PDH Test
Containing the mapped PDH network element PDH test
signal
Test signal

T
Fig. 7.8 Pointer Jitter Test

When testing 2 mbps, similar pointer sequences are generated on the TU-12 pointer associated
with the 2 mbps tributary under test with the following differences.

 Sequence D is not valid.

E
 The time separating regular adjustments in sequence B & C is greater than 750 ms (not 34
IS
ms)
 The time separating the double pointer adjustment in sequence B is 2 ms (not 0.5 ms).

The maximum acceptable level of pointer adjustment jitter at PDH output tributaries on SDH
NEs as per ITU-T standard G.783 is given in Table. 7. 2.
IR

Fig. 7.9 Pointer Jitter Sequences

IRISET 44 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

SDH Tx Settings PDH Rx Settings

Pay Pointer PDH Measurement Measurement Max. Jitter
Load Sequence Service Filters Period (UI PK-PK)
Off Set (Second)
2 mbps A +50 ppm. LP+HP1 20 S 0.4
BC LP+HP1 30 S 0.4
A Any value in LP+HP2 20 S 0.075
BC range. LP+HP2 30 S 0.075
34 mbps AD +20 ppm. LP+HP1 20 S 0.4(A)
BC LP+HP1 30 S 0.75(D)
AD Any value in LP+HP2 20 S 0.4
BC range. LP+HP2 30 S 0.075
0.075
140 mbps AD +15 ppm. LP+HP1 20 S 0.4(A)
BC LP+HP1 30 S 0.75(D)
AD Any value in LP+HP2 20 S 0.4
BC range. LP+HP2 30 S 0.075

T
0.075

Table 7. 2 Pointer Jitter Measurements Settings

E
The maximum jitter variation depends on the following.
 Pointer sequence used to stress the NE’s de-synchronization
 The jitter measurement bandwidth.
IS
De-Mapping Jitter: Typical de-mapping jitter characteristic is shown in Fig. 10.10 and it is less
serious than pointer jitter. The characteristics of de-mapping jitter are as given below.

 Low amplitude
IR

 Relatively high frequency and can therefore be suppressed by the de-synchronizer in SDH-
NE
 Its amplitude varies as the PDH tributary frequency is off set relative to VC-n. This is due to
changes in the mapping’s bit stuff justification ratio to compensate such off set.

The peak de-mapping jitter occurs at a small off set from OPPM (PDH tributary relative to VC-
n). The limits as per ITU-T G.783 Rec. are given below in Table 10.3.

Pay Off-Set Range Measurement Max. Jitter

Load (ppm) Bandwidth (UI PK-PK)
2 mbps + 50 18 – 100 KHz* 0.075
34 mbps + 20 10 – 800 KHz* 0.075
140mbps + 15 10 – 3500 KHz* 0.075
* = Equivalent to measurement Filter “LP + HP2”

Table 7.3 De-Mapping Jitter Test

IRISET 45 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

Fig. 7 10 De-Mapping Jitter Characteristic

The objective of a de-mapping jitter test is to find the maximum peak to peak jitter caused by off
setting the frequency mapped PDH signal relative to that of the VC-n used to transport this

T
payload. The test set up is shown in Fig. 7.11.

E
IS
IR

Fig. 7.11 De-Mapping Jitter Test

Here, the SDH test set and NE must be synchronized with the same clock, which ensures that
no unexpected pointer adjustment occurs during testing and that only de-mapping jitter is
measured.

7.10 Testing With “Built-In” Capability Of SDH NE And Use Of Overheads: Network
management, detection and location of fault, performance monitoring, protection switching,
alarms simulation and duration etc are possible with the additional benefits inherent in SDH NE.
Exploitation of SDH Analyzer (Designed as per TEC Spec. NO.G/SDA-01/02 Feb.97) can also
help performing those tests.

IRISET 46 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Jitter & Wander in SDH systems & Testing of SDH network

7.11 Testing with Network Management: SDH NE is capable of supporting network

management. The functions can be summarized as below.

 Fault management, which includes fault detection and location.

 Performance management, which includes conversion of alarms, error data etc into
information.
 Configuration management, which includes conversion of information data.
 Software download.
 Telecom Management Network (TMN) interface (Q3 interface).

Performance Monitoring: The mechanism within SDH is used to derive the error performance,
short interruption parameters and unavailability parameters based on eroded blocks and the
BIP-n is used on frame by frame basis. These BIP checks inserted in the overheads associated
with the selection, line, path maintenance spans. Errors detected in HO and LO paths BIPs
cause FEBE signal to be sent up streams. Following are the performance monitoring
parameters.

 Analysis of PDH streams: ES, SES, UAS, EFS, DM.

 Analysis of SDH streams: Error blocks, ESR, SESR, BBER, SIE, US etc derived from B1 in

T
RS, B2, BIP2 and FEBE in TUs.

Alarm Simulation and Detection: Major alarm signals based on overheads bytes, such as
E
Loss Of Signal (LOS), Loss Of Frame (LOF) and Loss Of Pointer (LOP) cause Alarm Indication
Signal (AIS) to be transmitted down stream. In response to different AIS signals, Far End
Remote Failure (FERF) and Remote Alarm Indication (RAI) as applicable are sent up stream, to
IS
warn about trouble in down streams.
IR

IRISET 47 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Annexure

ANNEXURE Back to content page

ITU (T)’S SDH RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction: SDH Hierarchy was adopted by ITU – T in 1988. The recommendations of ITU -
T at the time of adoption and subsequent additions time to time are shown in Table 9.1

ITU (T)’s Recommendations For SDH:

G.702 - PDH bit rates

G.703 - Plesiochronous interfaces
G.707 - SDH flow rates
G.708 - Network node interface for SDH
G.709 - SDH multiplexing structure
G.773 - Q interfaces for network and transmission management
G.781 - Structure of recommendations concerning SDH multiplexing equipment

T
G.782 - General characteristics of SDH multiplexing equipment
G.783 - Characteristics of functional blocks of SDH multiplexing equipment
G.784 - SDH management
G.sdxc1
G.sdxc2
G.sdxc3
-
-
-
E
Structure of recommendations concerning SDH cross-connect panels
General characteristics of SDH cross-connect panels
Characteristics of functional blocks of SDH cross-connect panels
IS
G.802 - Inter working between networks, based on different asynchronous digital
G.803 Hierarchies and speech encoding laws.
G.821 - Architectures of transport networks based on the SDH
IR

G.825 - Performance evolutions in the pay load

G.957 - Control of jitter and wander within SDH digital networks .
G.958 - Optical interfaces for SDH systems and equipment
G.tna1 - SDH digital line systems on optical fibre cables
G.sna1 - SDH network
G.sna2 - Architecture of SDH networks
G.81s - Performance data of SDH networks
G.652, - SDH synchronization and clocks
G.653, - Classification of Optical interfaces
G.654 - “
M.30 - “
- Transmission Management Network (TMN)

Table .1 ITU (T)’s Recommendations For SDH

 G.702 & G.703: Mainly PDH recommendations covering the number of PDH digital
hierarchy bit rates 1544 & 2048 kbps, and PDH based digital networks.

IRISET 48 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Back to content page
Annexure

 G.70x: G.707, G.708 & G.709 form a coherent set of specifications for SDH & NNI.
– The first level of SDH shall be 155.520 mbps.
– Higher SDH bit rates shall be obtained as integer multiples.
– Higher rate levels should be denoted by the corresponding multiplication factor of the
first level.
 G.707: Covers the advantages offered by synchronous digital multiplexing method, defines
the standardized levels of SDH bit rates, specifies the SDH bit rates. The bit rates of SDH
as specified by G.707 are shown in Table 9.2

SDH Bit Rates:

SDH Level Bit Rates
1 155.520 mbps
4 622.080 mbps
16 2488.320 mbps
64 9953.280 mbps

Table.2 SDH Bit Rates as per ITU (T)’s G.707

T
 G.708: Specifies signal structure of NNI for SDH, specifies the general principles and basic
frame structure of the network node interface (NNI) for SDH and covers the principles of
SDH working. The SDH is the key to flexible broadband networks that features efficient
E
operation, administration and maintenance. The SDH standards exploit one common
characteristic of all PDH networks, i.e. 125 micro seconds duration, the sampling rate of
audio signal. The frame structure contains 9 rows and number of columns depending upon
IS
STM level. In STM-1 there are 9 rows and 270 columns. In 1.544 mbps 24 channel PDH
signal, there are 25 bytes (time slots) in 125 microseconds and two additional bytes for
supervisory etc i.e. 9 rows x 3 columns. Similarly in 2.048 mbps (30 Chl), there are 32
bytes in one frame. Adding 4 bytes more, it becomes 36 bytes i.e. 9 rows x 4 columns.
STM-1 contains 9 rows and 270 columns. The first 9 rows and 9 columns accommodate
IR

Section Overhead (SOH) and 9 rows and 261 columns accommodate the information
payload. So the speed is 270 x 9 x 8 x 8000 bits / sec, i.e. equal to 155.520 mbps.

Basic Frame Structure of SDH:

1. The overall frame size of 9 rows x 270 columns.
2. Section Over Head definition and its byte allocation.
3. Arrangement for international synchronous inter connection of STM-1s
4. Enables inter connection of synchronous digital network elements for transport of payloads
including digital signals of SDH.

 G.709: Specifies the multiplexing structure within the basic frame and multiplexing of basic
frames with one another. Formats for mapping of multiplexing elements into the STM-1 at
the NNI and the method of multiplexing to STM-1 shall be as described as in this
Recommendation. It is a Synchronous Basic Multiplexing Structure.
 G.773: Covers mainly the network and transmission management systems and defines the
Q interfaces for management.
 G.781, G.782, G.783 & G.784: Covers the characteristics of SDH multiplexing equipment.
G.781 presents the structure of recommendations concerning synchronous multiplexing
equipment and gives information on the different options to be found there.
IRISET 49 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Annexure

 G.782 specifies the general characteristics of synchronous multiplexing equipment. G.783

specifies the characteristics of the functional blocks of the multiplexing equipment. G.784
covers the management functions.
 G.802 & G.803: G.802 Specifies the inter working between networks, based on different
asynchronous digital hierarchies and speech encoding laws and G.803 Specifies the
architectural features of the main strategies which may be used to enhance the availability
of a transport network & protection category.
 G.957 & G.958: Specifications with regard to optical interfaces and cables. G.957 covers
the characteristics of optical interfaces to be used within the context of SDH (details of
attenuation values required in accordance with the scope of the application selected,
maximum permissible chromatic dispersion according to the light source). G.958 covers on
line digital systems based on SDH to be used on optical fibre cables.
 G.sdxc1, G.sdxc2, G.sdxc3: Covers the cross connects panels, equipment designed for
information switching like virtual containers.
 G.sna1 & G.Sna2: Covers the description of performance and architecture of transmission
networks, principles and applications of SDH. G.sna1 covers architecture like access
points, network nodes etc., G.sna2 concerns network performance data. G.sna1 also

T
describes the layered model of transport network.

Circuit Layer Network

E Path Layer Network
IS
Fig. 1 Layerd Model Of SDH Transport Network
Transmission Media Layer Network
Circuit Layer Networks: Provides users with circuit switched and leased line services.
Identifies different circuit layer networks.
IR

Path Layer Networks: Supports different types of circuit layer networks.

Lower order path layer
SDH

Higher order path layer

Transmission Media Layer Network: Identifies different physical interfaces.

 G. tna1: General functional architecture to transport networks.
 G.81s: Specify the clocks & methods of synchronization of clocks used at various stages of
SDH system. G.811 specifies the primary reference clock (PRC), one or two such clocks
are only provided in a country. G.812 specifies the SSU, the stand alone synchronization
unit, which shall be synchronized by PRC or another SSU. G.812 specifies network element
clock, which is a clock located in SDH system equipment.
 G.821: Covers pay load performance evolutions.
 G.825: Specifies the method of control of jitter and wander in SDH networks.
 M.30: Specifies the transmission management network(TMN) principles.
 G.65s: Classify the optical interfaces based on application and show the application codes.
IRISET 50 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Annexure

ITU-T recognizes Three Application Categories:

Intra Office (I): Distances less > 2 km

Inter Office Short Haul (S): 15 km approximately
Inter Office Long Haul (L): 40 km approximately with 1310 nm window and 60 km with 1550
nm window.

Table 9.3 Classification Of Optical Interfaces

Inter–Office
Intra
Application Short–haul
Office Long–haul
Source nominal 1310 1310 1550 1310 1550
wavelength (nm)

Rec. Rec. Rec. Rec. Rec. Rec.

Type of fibre G.652 G.652 G.652 G.652 G.652 G.653
Rec.
G.654
Distance (Km) <2 15 40 60

T
STM STM-1 1-1 S-1.1 S-1.2 L-1.1 L-1.2 L-1.3
Level STM-4 1-4 S-4.1 S-4.2 L-4.1 L-4.2 L-4.3
STM-16 E1-16 S-16.1 S-16.2 L-16.1 L-16.2 L-16.3

The G.65s are described in Table 9.3.

IS
The details of some SDH related recommendations are given in Table .9.4.

ITU (T)’s SDH Related Recommendations:

Item Recommendation Year

Network Architecture G.tna, G.sna1,G.sna2, 1992
IR

Network Node Interface (functions) G.707,G.708,G.709 1990

Physical G.957,G.703 1990
Multiplex Equipment G.781.G.782,G.783. 1990
Line Equipment G.958. 1990
Cross connect equipment G.sdc x1,G.sdc x2,G.sdc x3 1992
Element management G.784 1990
Equipment clock G.81s 1992

Table 4 ITU (T)’s SDH Related Recommendations

IRISET 51 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Question Bank

QUESTION BANK Back to content page

OBJECTIVE
Chapter – 1
1. Mapping is a process used when PDH tributaries are adapted into VCs by adding POH
information (T/F)
2. Aligning is a process takes place when a pointer is included into a Tributary Unit (TU) or an
Administrative Unit (AU) (T/F)
3. Multiplexing is used when multiple low-order path signals are adapted into a higher-order
path signal (T/F)
4. Container(C) is the first entry point of the PDH signal into STM-N frame (T/F)
5. Each container is added with control information known as Path Over Head (POH) called as
Virtual Container (T/F)
6. Tributary unit (TU) provides adaptation between the lower order path layer and the higher
order path layer. (T/F)
7. Pointer indicates the phase alignment of the virtual containers (VC-n) (T/F)
8. Administrative Unit (AU) provides adaptation between higher order path layer and the

T
multiplex section layer (T/F)

Chapter – 2
1. Terminal multiplexers are used to combine plesiochronous and synchronous input signals
E
into higher bit rate STM-N signals. (T/F)
2. SDH regenerators have to regenerate the clock and amplitude relationships of the incoming
data signals. (T/F)
IS
3. An Add/drop multiplexer (ADM) can be extracted Plesiochronous and lower bit rate
synchronous signals from or inserted into high speed SDH bit streams. (T/F)
4. An STM-1 frame structure consists of payload blocks, overhead blocks and pointers (T/F)
5. The time duration of an STM-1 frame is 125μSec. (T/F)
6. The Section Over Head (SOH) Contains maintenance, monitoring and operational
IR

functions. (T/F)
7. A1, A2 Framing bytes indicate the beginning of the STM-N frame. (T/F)
8. B1 byte is used to check for transmission errors over a regenerator section (T/F)
9. D1–D3 Bytes are used for data communications channel in regenerator section termination
equipment. (T/F)
10. The Multiplex Section Overhead contains the information required between the multiplex
section termination equipment at each end of the Multiplex section (T/F)
11. K1,K2 Two bytes allocated for APS signaling for multiplex section protection. (T/F)

Chapter – 3
1. The input to container C4 is E4 -139.264 mbps. (T/F)
2. The size of the C4 container is 260 columns and 9 rows matrix structure (T/F)
3. Justification is an operation, which makes it possible to fit a variable rate signal into a fixed
rate frame. (T/F)
4. The POH has the task of monitoring quality and indicating the type of container. (T/F)
5. J1 is an Higher-Order VC-N path trace byte (T/F)
6. K3 byte is provided for protection at the VC-4/3 path levels (T/F)
7. VC4 is composed of 261 columns each of 9 rows (T/F)
8. AU-4 Pointer points to the VC-4 in an STM-1 frame (T/F)
IRISET 52 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Back to content page

Question Bank

9. H3 byte is used for frequency justification (T/F)

10. Positive Pointer Justification will be done, if the frame rate of the VC-n is too slow with
respect to speed of the STM (T/F)
11. Negative Pointer justification will be done If the frame rate of the VC-n is too fast with
respect to speed of the STM (T/F)
12. VC4 is generated by adding the POH to C4 (T/F)
13. The 34,368Mbps (or 44.736Mbps) signal is assembled into the C3 container (T/F)
14. E1 traffic is mapped into C-12 container (T/F)
15. C-12 is mapped into VC-12 by adding 1 byte of path overhead byte (T/F)
16. TU-12 is formed by adding 1byte pointer to VC-12 (T/F)
17. TUG-2 is formed by multiplexing three TU-12 containers (T/F)
18. VC-4 is formed by multiplexing three TUG-3‟s (T/F)

Chapter – 4
1. Concatenation is the process of summing the bandwidth of X containers of the same type
into a larger container. (T/F)
2. Virtual Concatenation (VCAT) allows the separation of GFP-adapted traffic into different
paths in an SDH network (T/F)

T
3. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS) dynamically adjusts the capacities of SDH
paths. (T/F)
4. Auto negotiation is a feature to detect the link partner capabilities. (T/F)
5.
E
Link Integrity allows detecting faults along the end-to-end Ethernet transport connection.

Chapter – 5
(T/F)
IS
1. Equipment of the SDH can be adequately protected by circuit board duplication 1+1 or
N+1 (T/F)
2. Duplicating the link on different routes provides the automatic path protection of a SDH
network. (T/F)
3. If one of the inter node links of a APS network fails, the traffic is interrupted. (T/F)
IR

4. In the event of a failure of a SDH network, protection switches operate on both sides of the
failure to route the traffic through spare capacity. (T/F)
5. The multiplexing section of a SDH network is protected by MSOH. (T/F)
6. In case of 1+1 configuration of a SDH network the stand by route is idle when main is
working condition. (T/F)
7. In case of 1:1 configuration of the SDH network the main route transports traffic of higher
importance where as the stand by carries the traffic of lesser importance. (T/F)
8. Bi-directional SDH ring supports only section protection. (T/F)
9. In bi-directional ring of SDH, half the bandwidth must be reserved for protection to allow for
rerouting the traffic in the event of failure in another part of the ring. (T/F)
10. Network reliability in SDH increases with the number of rings. (T/F)
11. A linier network topology provides drop and insert capability to all network elements (T/F)
12. Protection is to provide some redundant capacity within a network and automatically
reroute traffic (T/F)
13. 1:1 Protection is based on the principle of Bridging at the sending site and Selection at the
receiving site. (T/F)
14. In 1+1 protection system if fiber cuts, the source & the destination both switch over to the
other protection fiber (T/F)
15. SNCP is a port level protection supported on the STM interfaces (T/F)
IRISET 53 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Question Bank

Chapter – 6
1. SSUs (Synchronization Supply Units) regenerate the clock signal after it has passed a
chain of SECs. (T/F)
2. SSUs distribute a timing signal to all network elements in the node. (T/F)
3. In free running mode the clock has never had a network reference input. (T/F)
4. SDH NE operates in Holdover mode when NE has lost its controlling reference input and is
using stored data. (T/F)
5. Locked mode is the expected mode of operation of a slave clock (T/F)
6. The synchronization status message contains information on the quality level of the timing
source. (T/F)

Chapter – 7
1. The short-term variation of significant instants of digital signal from their ideal position is
called jitter. (T/F)
2. The long-term variation of significant instants of digital signal from their ideal position is
called wander. (T/F)
3. One UI is of one data bit width. (T/F)

T
4. For testing of transport capability test the BER and mapping /de-mapping tests are
conducted. (T/F)
5. For testing of payload pointer tests, the timing offset and tributary output jitter tests are
conducted. E (T/F)
6. Clock synchronization test is conducted by verifying the line frequency, pointer activity and
sync status byte. (T/F)
7. Jitter testing includes optical jitter tolerance, optical output jitter, PDH tributary jitter, pointer
IS
adjustment jitter and de- mapping jitter. (T/F)
8. Network management includes fault management, performance management, configuration
management, and software download and telecom management network. (T/F)

Choose the correct answer-

IR

1. Jitter is the ( )
a) Short-term variation b) Long-term variation
2. For testing of transport capability tests- ( )
a) The BER and mapping /de-mapping tests are conducted.
b) The timing offset and tributary output jitter tests are conducted.
c)
3. Clock synchronization test is conducted by ( )
a) Verifying the line frequency c) Pointer activity
b) Sync status byte. d) All
4. Jitter testing includes- ( )
a) Optical jitter tolerance b) Optical output jitter,
c) PDH tributary jitter c) Pointer adjustment jitter
d) De- mapping jitter e) All

IRISET 54 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Question Bank

KEY FOR OBJECTIVE

Chapter 1: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-T, 7-T,8-T

Chapter 2: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-T, 7-T,8-T,9-T,10-T,11-T
Chapter 3: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-T, 7-T, 8-T, 9-T, 10-T, 11-T, 12-T, 13-T, 14-T, 15-T, 16-T,
17-T,18-T
Chapter 4: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T
Chapter 5:1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-T, 7-T,8-T,9-T,10-T,11-T,12-T,13-T,14-T,15-T,
Chapter 6: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-T
Chapter 7: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-T, 7-T,8-T
1-a, 2-a, 3-c, 4-e

SUBJECTIVE

Chapter – 1

1. What are the advantages of the SDH?

2. What is Synchronous Transport Module (STM)?
3. Define the following
a. Mapping:

T
b. Aligning
c. Multiplexing
4. What are the mapping elements in multiplexing process? Explain them briefly?

Chapter – 2
E
1. Briefly explain the following
IS
a. Regenerator Section
b. Multiplex Section
c. Path
2. Draw and explain the STM-1 frame structure?
IR

Chapter – 3

1. Briefly explain the following

a. Synchronous mapping
b. Asynchronous mapping
2. Explain the Mapping process of E-4 into STM-1 with a diagram?
3. What are the functions of a Pointer?
4. What is Frequency Justification? And explain positive and negative justification process?
5. Explain the Mapping process E-3 into STM-1 with a diagram
6. Explain the Mapping process E-1 into STM-1 with a diagram

Chapter – 4

1. Briefly explain the following

a. Generic Framing Procedure (GFP,
b. Concatenation
c. Virtual Concatenation (VCAT)
d. Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme (LCAS)
e. Auto negotiation

IRISET 55 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Question Bank

Chapter – 5

1. What are the types of network topologies in STM networks?

2. What is Automatic Protection Switching (APS)
3. What is the Classification of APS and explain them briefly?
4. What is Sub network connection protection (SNCP)? Explain briefly?

Chapter – 6

1. What is the necessity of Synchronization?

2. What are the Elements of a Synchronization Network and explain them briefly?
3. Briefly explain the following
a. Primary Reference Clock (PRC)
b. Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU)
c. SDH Equipment Clock (SEC)
4. What are the Modes Of Synchronization and explain them briefly?

Chapter – 7

T
1. What do you know about jitter and wander in SDH?
2. What are the parameters to measure synchronization quality?
3. What is path synchronization?
4.
5.
6.
E
What are the objectives of testing?
Explain the SDH functional tests?
Explain how to verify clock synchronization?
IS
7. Explain mapping and de-mapping tests?
8. Explain what do you understand about jitter testing?
IR

IRISET 56 TCT5 – SDH Principles

Abbreviations/ Acronyms

ABBREVIATIONS / ACRONYMS Back to content page

ADM Add/drop multiplexers

APS Automatic Protection Switching
AU Administrative Unit
AUG Administrative Group Unit
BLSR Bi-Directional Line-Switched Rings,
DCC Data Communications Channel
DDF Digital Distribution Frame
DXC Digital Cross Connect
EoS Ethernet over SDH
FERF Far End Remote Failure
GFP Generic Framing Procedure
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LCAS Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme
LOF loss of frame
LOP loss of pointer
LOS loss of signal
LTM Line Terminal Multiplexer
MSOH Multiplex Section Overhead
MSP Multiplex section protection

T
MS-RDI Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication
MS-REI MS remote error indication
MS-SPRing Multiplex Section-Shared Protected Rings,
MTIE Maximum Time Interval Error
E
OTN Optical Transport Network
POH Path Overhead
PPJ Positive Pointer Justification
PRC primary reference clock
IS
RDI Remote Defect Indication
RSOH Regenerator Section Overhead
SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SEC synchronous equipment clocks
SNCP Sub-Network Connection Protection
IR

SSMB Synchronizations status message byte

SSU synchronization supply units
STM Synchronous Transport Module
TCP Termination Connection Point
TIE Time Interval Error
TMN Telecommunications network management
TU Tributary Unit
TUG Tributary unit group
UPSR Uni-Directional Path-Switched Rings
VC Virtual Container
VCAT Virtual Concatenation

Back to content page

IRISET 57 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Glossary

GLOSSARY Back to content page

container, 3, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19,

A 20, 24, 20
adaptation, 3, 4, 20 contiguous, 14, 21, 22, 20
add, 1, 12, 22, 24, 20 crc, 20
adm, 20
D
aggregate, 20
ais, 20 dcc, 20
alarm, 7, 33, 22, 23, 31, 20 ddf, 20
alignment, 4, 7, 14, 16, 17, 20 debit, 19, 20
architecture, 24, 26, 22, 23, 20 demultiplex, 1, 20
asymmetric, 22, 20 depicted, 6, 20
asynchronous, 10, 26, 20, 22, 20 distributed, 20, 23, 20
au, 20 diversely, 22, 20
au4, 20 drop, 1, 6, 23, 24, 25, 20
aug, 20 dropping, 24, 20

T
availability, 1, 25, 22, 20 dxc, 20

B E
bidirectional, 27, 31, 20
bip, 20
bip2, 20
E e1, 20
e3, 20
e4, 20
IS
bit, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, elements, 1, 3, 6, 7, 13, 14, 16, 22, 23, 28,
19, 21, 22, 20, 24, 25, 29, 20, 21, 20 29, 20, 21, 22, 21, 22, 23, 25, 21, 22, 20
bits, 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, error, 7, 8, 13, 29, 22, 20, 22, 24, 31, 20
19, 22, 21, 20 es, 20
block, 1, 2, 3, 18, 24, 20 ethernet, 20
IR

blsr, 20 etsi, 20
byte, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, extracted, 6, 9, 29, 20
19, 20, 21, 23, 21, 20
bytes, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, F
21, 26, 31, 21, 20 frame, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 28, 33, 31, 21, 22, 20
C
channel, 7, 13, 14, 22, 25, 26, 27, 22, 21, G
20 gfp, 20
clock, 3, 5, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23,
20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 30, 23, 24, 20 H
code, 7, 13, 20
hdlc, 20
coding, 20
holdover, 21, 20
columns, 6, 10, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 20
commissioning, 21, 20 I
compatible, 1, 20
concatenation, 13, 15, 20, 21, 22, 20 interface, 20, 22, 31, 20, 21, 20
configure, 22, 20 itu, 20
configured, 27, 20
Back to content page
IRISET 58 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Glossary

J pointer, 3, 4, 9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21,

33, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 20
j0, 20
ports, 20, 22, 23, 26, 20
j1, 20
ppj, 20
jitter, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
ppm, 11, 24, 28, 29, 20
20, 23, 20
prc, 20
justification, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,
programmable, 13, 20
22, 21, 26, 29, 20
protection, 8, 14, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
K 31, 32, 33, 21, 30, 22, 20
protocols, 20
k1, 20
k2, 20 R
k3, 20
rate, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17,
kbps, 11, 25, 21, 20
19, 20, 21, 22, 29, 21, 24, 25, 21, 20
km, 31, 23, 20
redundancy, 23, 26, 20
M redundant, 26, 20
regenerator, 5, 7, 20
mapping, 3, 9, 10, 13, 19, 21, 20, 24, 26, revertive, 27, 28, 20
29, 30, 22, 20

T
rsoh, 21
monitored, 1, 13, 29, 20
msoh, 20 S
msp, 20 E scrambling, 7, 8, 13, 21
mssp, 20
sdh, 21
mtie, 20
ses, 21
multiframe, 22, 20
sesr, 21
IS
multiplexing, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 14, 19, 20, 21, 24,
sf, 21
21, 20, 21, 22, 20
slave, 22, 21
N slip, 16, 21
sncp, 21
ngsdh, 20
IR

soh, 21
nms, 20 sonet, 21
node, 21, 23, 25, 29, 31, 22, 20, 21, 20 ssm, 21
ssu, 21
O
stm, 21
offset, 4, 15, 16, 20, 21, 20 survivability, 24, 21
overheads, 31, 20 synchronisation, 8, 21

P T
path, 3, 4, 6, 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 20, 21, 22, tdm, 21
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 22, 23, 31, tec, 21
22, 20 topology, 23, 24, 27, 21
payload, 1, 4, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, tributaries, 3, 8, 9, 16, 20, 28, 21
19, 21, 20, 21, 23, 24, 30, 21, 20 tributary, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 18, 21, 24, 25, 21,
pdh, 20 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 21
performance, 7, 8, 13, 25, 22, 23, 24, 30, tu, 21
31, 22, 23, 20 tu11, 21
plesiochronous, 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 18, 20 tu12, 21
poh, 20 tu2, 21
tu3, 21
IRISET 59 TCT5 – SDH Principles
Glossary

tug, 21 vc11, 21
tug2, 21 vc12, 21
tug3, 21 vc2, 21
tx, 21 vc3, 21
vc4, 21
U vcat, 21
unidirectional, 22, 27, 28, 29, 31, 21 vcg, 21
unprotected, 23, 21
W
upsr, 21
wander, 20, 21, 20, 23, 21
V
vc, 21

E T
IS
IR

IRISET 60 TCT5 – SDH Principles

इ रसेट IRISET
िश ण ारा गुणव ा QUALITY THROUGH TRAINING

VISION: TO MAKE IRISET AN INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL REPUTE,

SETTING ITS OWN STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS.

MISSION: TO ENHANCE QUALITY AND INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY OF

SIGNALLING & TELECOMMUNICATION PERSONNEL
THROUGH TRAINING

For any suggestions mail to

[email protected]/[email protected]

www.iriset.indianrailways.gov.in

भारतीय रे ल सगनल इंिज नयर व दरू संचार सं थान

तारनाका रोड, सकंदराबाद – 500 017
FAX: 070-89888(Rly), 040-27823922(BSNL), Ph: 040-27820315
© IRISET