11-12-2022

Engineering Mechanics MEI 101

Distributed Forces

Dr. Antarip Poddar

Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
Email: [email protected]

Center of Gravity of 2D Body

A distributed system of forces can be replaced by a
single resultant force acting at a specific point on an object.

The specific point is called the object’s center of gravity.

Center of
gravity of a
plate

Forces 𝑀 : 𝑥̄ 𝑊 = ∑ 𝑥Δ𝑊 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑊

acting in
3D
∑𝑀 : 𝑦̄ 𝑊 = ∑ 𝑦Δ𝑊 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑊
11-12-2022

Center of Gravity of 2D Body

Center of gravity of a wire

The center of gravity of a wire is the point where the

resultant weight of the wire acts. The center of gravity
may not actually be located on the wire.

Centroids of Areas and Lines

Centroid of an area:

𝑥̄ 𝑊 = 𝑥𝑑𝑊 𝑦̄ 𝑊 = 𝑦𝑑𝑊

𝑊 =𝛾×𝑡×𝐴
𝑥̄ 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄
𝑑𝑊 = 𝛾 × 𝑡 × 𝑑𝐴
= first moment with respect to 𝑦
Assume:
homogeneous plate of
uniform thickness 𝑦̄ 𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄
= first moment with respect to 𝑥
11-12-2022

Centroids of Areas and Lines

Centroid of a line

Assume:
homogeneous wire of
uniform cross section

An area is symmetric with respect to an axis BB’ if

for every point P there exists a point P’ such that PP’
is perpendicular to BB’ and is divided into two equal
parts by BB’.

The first moment of an area with respect to a

line of symmetry is zero.

𝑥̄ 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄

= first moment with respect to 𝑦

• If an area possesses an axis of symmetry, its

centroid lies on that axis.
11-12-2022

If an area possesses two lines of symmetry?

its centroid lies at their intersection.

• An area is symmetric with respect to a center O

if for every element dA at (x,y) there exists an
area dA’ of equal area at (-x,-y).

𝑥̄ 𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄 = first moment with respect to 𝑦

𝑦̄ 𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 𝑄 = first moment with respect to 𝑥

Here we have

It follows:

The centroid of the area coincides with the

center of symmetry.

Centroids of Common Shapes

11-12-2022

Composite Plates/Areas
In many instances, we can divide a flat plate into
rectangles, triangles, or the other common shapes

𝑜𝑟, 𝑋 𝑊= 𝑥̄ 𝑊

We can determine the abscissa 𝑋 of the plate’s center of

gravity G from the abscissas 𝑥̅ , 𝑥̅ , . . . , 𝑥̅ of the centers
of gravity of the various parts.

Equate the moment of the weight of the whole plate about

the y-axis to the sum of the moments of the weights of the
various parts about the same axis:
11-12-2022

Centroid of Areas: Example 1

For the plane area shown, determine
the
(a) first moments with respect to the x
and y axes and
(b) the location of the centroid.

Strategy: Break up the given area into simple components,

find the centroid of each component, and
then find the overall first moments and centroid.

Centroid of Areas: Example 1

𝑄 = +506.2 × 10 mm
𝑄 = +757.7 × 10 mm
11-12-2022

∑ 𝑥̄ 𝐴 +757.7 × 10 mm
𝑋= =
∑𝐴 13.828 × 10 mm

𝑋 = 54.8 mm

∑ 𝑦̄ 𝐴 +506.2 × 10 mm
𝑌= =
∑𝐴 13.828 × 10 mm

𝑌 = 36.6 mm

Determination of Centroids by Integration

For an area bounded by analytical curves
(i.e., curves defined by algebraic equations)

If the element of area dA is a small rectangle of sides

dx and dy, evaluating each of these integrals requires
a double integration with respect to x and y.

Double integration to find the first moment may be

avoided by defining dA as a thin rectangle or strip.

𝑥̅ , 𝑦 : coordinates of the centroid of the element dA

𝑥̄ 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥̄ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑦𝑑𝑥

Vertical rectangular strip 𝑦̄ 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦̄ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥

11-12-2022

Determination of Centroids by Integration

Horizontal rectangular strip
Choose the coordinate
system which best matches
the boundaries of the figure.

Triangular
sector

A double integration is also necessary if we use

polar coordinates for which
Polar coordinates
dA is a small element with sides r and r dθ

𝑥̄ 𝐴 = 𝑥̄ 𝑑𝐴 𝑦̄ 𝐴 = 𝑦̄ 𝑑𝐴
2𝑟 1 2𝑟 1
= cos 𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = sin 𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
3 2 3 2

Centroid by Integration: Example 2

SOLUTION:
• Determine the constant k.
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑏
𝑏 = 𝑘𝑎    ⇒  𝑘 =
𝑎
𝑏
𝑦= 𝑥
𝑎

• Evaluate the total area.

Determine by direct integration
the location of the centroid of a 𝐴= 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥
parabolic spandrel.
𝑏 𝑏 𝑥
= 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎 3
𝑎𝑏
=
3
11-12-2022

Centroid by Integration: Example 2

First moments:

𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 𝑎 𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑥̄ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑎 𝑎 4 4

𝑦 1 𝑏 𝑏 𝑥 𝑎𝑏
𝑄 = 𝑦̄ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = =
2 2 𝑎 2𝑎 5 10

• Centroid coordinates:

xA  Q y
ab a 2b 3
x  x a
3 4 4

yA  Q x
ab ab 2 3
y  y b
3 10 10

Moment of Inertia
Whenever a distributed load acts perpendicular to an area and “second moment” of the area
its intensity varies linearly, the calculation of the moment of 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 about an axis (the x axis), or
the loading about an axis will involve an integral of the form moment of inertia of the area.

Example: Consider the plate, submerged in a fluid

and subjected to the pressure p.

This pressure varies linearly with depth, such that 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑦

∴ Force acting on differential area dA of the plate:

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑝 𝑑𝐴 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑑𝐴
The moment of this force about the x axis:
𝑑𝑀 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐹 = 𝛾𝑦 𝑑𝐴

Integrating dM over the entire area of the plate: 𝑀 = 𝛾 𝑦 𝑑𝐴

This integral has no physical meaning, it often arises in formulas used in

fluid mechanics, mechanics of materials, structural mechanics, and design.
11-12-2022

Polar Moment of Inertia

Rectangular moments of inertia,
• The polar moment of inertia is an important parameter in
problems involving torsion of cylindrical shafts and rotations of
slabs.

𝐽 = 𝑟 𝑑𝐴

• The polar moment of inertia is related to

rectangular moments of inertia,

𝐽 = 𝑟 𝑑𝐴 It is seen that 𝐼 , 𝐼 , 𝐽 will

always be positive since they
= 𝑥 +𝑦 𝑑𝐴 involve the product of
distance squared and area.
= 𝑥 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
=𝐼 +𝐼

Radius of Gyration of an Area

Consider area A with moment of inertia Ix.

Imagine that the same total area A is concentrated in a thin

strip parallel to the x axis with equivalent Ix.

kx = radius of gyration with respect

𝐼
𝐼 =𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 = to the x axis
𝐴

Similarly,

𝐼
𝐼 =𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 =
𝐴

𝐽
𝐽 =𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 =
𝐴
𝑘 =𝑘 +𝑘
11-12-2022

Moment of Inertia: Example

SOLUTION:
• A differential strip parallel to the x axis is chosen for dA.

𝑑𝐼 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑙𝑑𝑦

• For similar triangles,

𝑙 ℎ−𝑦 ℎ−𝑦 ℎ−𝑦

= 𝑙=𝑏 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑏 𝑑𝑦
𝑏 ℎ ℎ ℎ

• Integrating dIx from y = 0 to y = h,

Determine the moment of
inertia of a triangle with 𝐼 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
respect to its base.
ℎ−𝑦 𝑏ℎ
= 𝑦 𝑏 𝑑𝑦 𝐼 =
ℎ 12

Moment of Inertia: Example

Why not a differential strip perpendicular to the base?

𝑙 𝑙

B C
D
𝑑𝐼 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑙𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑙 𝑑x
𝑙 is step function. Thus, two integrals will be required.

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑑𝑥+ ∫ 𝑥 𝑙 𝑑𝑥
11-12-2022

Example

SOLUTION:

• An annular differential area element is chosen,

𝑑𝐽 = 𝑢 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑢𝑑𝑢

𝐽 = 𝑑𝐽 = 𝑢 2𝜋𝑢𝑑𝑢

𝜋
𝐽 = 𝑟
2
a) Determine the centroidal polar
moment of inertia of a circular • From symmetry, Ix = Iy,
area by direct integration.

JO  I x  I y  2I x r 4  2I x
b) Using the result of part a, 2
determine the moment of
inertia of a circular area with 
respect to a diameter. I diameter  I x  r4
4
11-12-2022

Parallel Axis Theorem

The second integral is zero since the x’

axis passes through the area’s centroid C

The moment of inertia of an area with respect

to an axis 𝑥 can be determined from its
moment of inertia with respect to the
Similarly,
centroidal axis 𝑥′ by a calculation involving
the distance 𝑑 between the axes.
11-12-2022

Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas

The moment of inertia of a composite area A about a given axis
is obtained by adding the moments of inertia of the component
areas A1, A2, A3, ... , with respect to the same axis.

Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas: Example

SOLUTION:
1 1
Rectangle: 𝐼 = 𝑏ℎ = 240 120
3 3
= 138.2 × 10 mm

Determine the moment of

inertia of the shaded area
with respect to the x axis.
From chart:
11-12-2022

Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas: Example

4𝑟 4 90
𝑎= = = 38.2 mm
3𝜋 3𝜋
b = 120−a = 81.8 mm

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋 90 mm

1 1
Moment of inertia with respect to AA’, 𝐼 = 𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋 90 = 25.76 × 10 mm
8 8

Use parallel axis theorem to get the

MOI about centroidal axis x’: 𝐼 =𝐼 − 𝐴𝑎 = 25.76 × 10 12.72 × 10 = 7.20 × 10 mm

Moment of inertia with respect to x, 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐴𝑏 = 7.20 × 10 + 12.72 × 10 81.8

= 92.3 × 10 mm

Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas: Example

• The moment of inertia of the shaded area is obtained by subtracting the moment of
inertia of the semicircle from the moment of inertia of the rectangle.

𝐼 = 138.2 × 10 mm − 92.3 × 10 mm

𝐼 = 45.9 × 10 mm
11-12-2022

Product of Inertia
The moments of inertia of an area can have different values depending
on what axes we use to calculate them.

Important to determine the maximum and minimum values of the

moments of inertia, which means finding the particular orientation of
axes that produce these values.

The first step in calculating moments of inertia with regard to rotated

axes is to determine a new kind of second moment, called the product
of inertia.

Product of Inertia with

respect to x and y axis:

Product of Inertia

Since x or y may be negative, the product of inertia

may either be positive, negative, or zero, depending on
the location and orientation of the coordinate axes.

𝑑𝐼 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴
When the x axis, the y axis, or both are an axis
of symmetry, the product of inertia is zero.

𝑑𝐼 = −𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴
11-12-2022

Parallel axis theorem for products of inertia

The second and third integrals are zero since the moments
of the area are taken about the centroidal axis.

Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia

Given 𝐼 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 𝐼 = 𝑥 𝑑𝐴 𝐼 = 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝐴

we wish to determine moments and product of

inertia with respect to new axes x’ and y’, rotating
axes about the origin through angle θ.

Learn about
𝑥 = 𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑦 sin 𝜃 coordinate transformation
𝑦 = 𝑦 cos 𝜃 − 𝑥 sin 𝜃
matrix/ Rotation matrix
11-12-2022

Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia

𝐼 = + cos 2 𝜃 − 𝐼 sin 2 𝜃 (i)

𝐼 = − cos 2 𝜃 + 𝐼 sin 2 𝜃 (ii)

𝐼 = sin 2 𝜃 + 𝐼 cos 2 𝜃 (iii)

The equations for Ix’ and Ix’y’ are the

parametric equations for a circle,
i.e. for any given value of the parameter
θ, all of the points will lie on a circle.
MOHR’S CIRCLE 𝐼 −𝐼 +𝐼 =𝑅
Eliminate θ from
(i) and (iii): 𝐼 +𝐼 𝐼 −𝐼
𝐼 = 𝑅= +𝐼
2 2

Principal Axes and Principal Moments of Inertia

Eqs. (ii) and (iii) are parametric equations of the same circle.
Because of the symmetry of the circle about the horizontal axis,
we would obtain the same result if we plot a point N of
coordinates Iy’ and -Ix’y’
11-12-2022

Principal Axes and Principle Moments of Inertia

• At the points A and B, Ix’y’ = 0 and Ix’ is a maximum
and minimum, respectively.
I max,min  I ave  R

2θm + 180o Ix’y’ = 0 ∴ sin 2 𝜃 + 𝐼 cos 2 𝜃 = 0

2θm
2𝐼
tan 2 𝜃 = −
𝐼 −𝐼
N
• The equation for 2θm defines two angles, 180o apart
which correspond to the principal axes of the area
about O. or,
𝐼 −𝐼 +𝐼 =𝑅
• θm : two angles 90o apart.

𝐼 +𝐼 𝐼 −𝐼 • Imax and Imin are the principal moments of inertia of the

𝐼 = 𝑅= +𝐼
2 2 area about O.

Principal Moment of Inertia: Example

For the section shown, the moments of

inertia with respect to the x and y axes are Ix
= 4.32 x 10-6 m4 and Iy = 2.901 x 10-6 m4.
Determine
(a) the orientation of the principal axes of the
section about O, and
(b) the values of the principal moments of
inertia about O.

Note: Product of inertia is not directly asked.

But it is required for mag. & orientation of principle MOI.
11-12-2022

Principal Moment of Inertia: Example

SOLUTION:
Add three rectangles.
Apply the parallel axis theorem to each rectangle, 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑥̄ 𝑦̄𝐴

Note that the product of inertia with respect to centroidal

axes parallel to the xy axes is zero for each rectangle.
𝐼 = 0 (Recall axis of symmetry)

Rectangle Area, cm 𝑥̄ , cm 𝑦̄ , cm x̄ ȳ 𝐴,cm

I 9.652 −3.2 +4.4 −135.9
II 9.4742 0 0 0
III 9.652 +3.2 −4.4 −135.9
𝑥̄ 𝑦̄ 𝐴 = −271.8

𝐼 = 𝑥̄ 𝑦̄ 𝐴 = −2.718 x 10−6 m

Principal Moment of Inertia: Example

Determine the orientation of the principal axes
and the principal moments of inertia.

2𝐼 −2 × 2.718 × 10
tan 2𝜃 = − =− = 3.83
𝐼 −𝐼 4.32 − 2.901 × 10

𝜃 = 37.7° and 𝜃 = 127.7°

𝐼 +𝐼 𝐼 −𝐼
𝐼 , = ± +𝐼
2 2
Given:
Ix = 4.32 x 10-6 m4
Iy = 2.901 x 10-6 m4

𝐼 = 6.4195 x 10−6 m
𝐼 = 0.8015 x 10−6 m
11-12-2022

Mohr’s Circle for Moments and Products of Inertia

The moments and product of inertia for an area
are plotted as shown and used to construct
Mohr’s circle,
𝐼 +𝐼
𝐼 =
2

𝐼 −𝐼
𝑅= +𝐼
2

• Mohr’s circle may be used to graphically or analytically

determine the moments and product of inertia for any other
rectangular axes including the principal axes and principal
moments and products of inertia.

Product of Inertia: Example

SOLUTION:

𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = ℎ 1− 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ℎ 1 − 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
1 1 𝑥
𝑥̄ =𝑥 𝑦̄ = 𝑦 = ℎ 1−
2 2 𝑏

b 2
I xy   dI xy   xel yel dA   x 12 h2 1  bx  dx
0  
b 2 2 b
x x 2 x3   x 2 x3 x 4 
Determine the product of  h 2     2 dx h    2 
inertia of the right triangle 0 2 b 2b   4 3b 8b  0
(a) with respect to the x
and y axes and (b) with
respect to centroidal axes 1
parallel to the x and y axes.
𝐼 = 𝑏 ℎ
24
11-12-2022

Product of Inertia: Example

• Apply the parallel axis theorem to evaluate the product of inertia with
respect to the centroidal axes.

1 1
𝑥̄ = 𝑏 𝑦̄ = ℎ
3 3

With the results from part (a),

𝐼 =𝐼 + 𝑥̄ 𝑦̄ 𝐴

1 1 1 1
𝐼 = 𝑏 ℎ − 𝑏 ℎ 𝑏ℎ
24 3 3 2

1
𝐼 =− 𝑏 ℎ
72