OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Oxidation and reduction are opposite processes that occur together in certain reactions. These are known
as redox reactions.

Oxidation-Reduction reactions in terms of electrons

In many redox reactions, one element loses electrons and another gains them. Oxidation and reduction
can be defined in terms of electron transfer:

o Oxidation is the loss of electrons by an element in its free state, or an element in a compound.
o Reduction is the gain of electrons by an element in its free state, or an element in a compound.

[Hint: OILRIG- Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain]

Example

When aluminium is heated in a stream of chlorine gas, aluminium chloride is formed.

Aluminium chloride is an ionic compound composed of Al 3+ and Cl- ions. In the reaction:

o Each aluminium atom loses three electrons to form the Al3+ ion:

o Each chlorine atom in each chlorine molecule gains one electron to form a Cl- ion:

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Oxidation number or oxidation state

An oxidation number can be assigned to each atom or ion in a chemical substance. The oxidation number
indicates the number of electrons lost, gained or shared as a result of chemical bonding. Oxidation
numbers are either positive, negative or zero. Unless an oxidation number is zero, a plus or minus sign is
written in front of the number, and the number 1 is always written, e.g., +1, -3.

Rules to follow when determining oxidation numbers

1. The oxidation number of each atom of an element in its free, uncombined state is zero.

2. The oxidation number of each monoatomic ion in an ionic compound is the same as the charge on
the ion.

3. The oxidation number of hydrogen in a compound or polyatomic ion is always +1, except in metal
hydrides, where it is -1.

4. The oxidation number of oxygen in a compound or polyatomic ion is always -2, except in peroxides
where it is -1.

5. With the exception of hydrogen and oxygen, the oxidation numbers of elements in covalent
compounds and polyatomic ions may vary. The oxidation number may appear in the name of the
compound or ion:

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6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms or ions in a compound is zero.

7. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the
ion.

Practice:

a) Determine the oxidation number of nitrogen in NO2.

b) Determine the oxidation number of nitrogen in the ion NO2-.

c) Determine the oxidation number of chromium in the Cr2O72- ion and name the ion.

d) Determine the oxidation number of sulphur in sulphur dioxide and give an alternative name for
sulphur dioxide.

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e) Determine the oxidation number of carbon in ethane (C2H6).

Oxidation- Reduction in terms of oxidation number

In all redox reactions, the oxidation number of one element increases and the oxidation number of
another element decreases. Oxidation and reduction can be defined in terms of oxidation number:

o Oxidation is the increase in oxidation number of an element in its free state, or an element in a
compound.
o Reduction is the decrease in oxidation number of an element in its free state, or an element in a
compound.

The displacement reaction between chlorine and potassium bromide:

During the reaction:

o The oxidation number of each Br- ion in the potassium bromide _______________ from _____ to _____.
Potassium bromide has been _________________.

o The oxidation number of each chlorine atom in the chlorine molecule has ________________ from ____
to ____. Chlorine has been ________________.

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Using oxidation numbers to recognize redox reactions

Any redox reaction can be recognized using the following steps:

o Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction if it has not been given.
o Write the oxidation number of each element below it in brackets. The oxidation numbers of
elements in polyatomic ions which remain unchanged during a reaction need not be determined.
o Decide which element shows an increase in oxidation number. This element has been oxidized.
o Decide which element shows a decrease in oxidation number. This element has been reduced.

If the oxidation numbers of all elements remain unchanged, the reaction is not a redox reaction.

1. Determine which reactant has been oxidized and which has been reduced in the reaction between
iron (III) oxide and carbon monoxide.

2. Determine which reactant has been oxidized and which has been reduced in the reaction between
magnesium and sulphuric acid.

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Oxidizing and Reducing agents

During any redox reaction:

o One reactant causes another reactant to be oxidized. This is the oxidizing agent.
o One reactant causes another reactant to be reduced. This is the reducing agent.

In the following reaction, X has been oxidized and Y has been reduced:

Oxidizing and Reducing agents in terms of electrons

o An oxidizing agent causes an element in it free state, or an element in a compound to lose

electrons. In turn, it gains the electrons and becomes reduced in the process.
o A reducing agent causes an element in its free state, or an element in a compound to gain
electrons. In turn, it loses the electrons and becomes oxidized in the process.

Example: the reaction between calcium and oxygen

 Each calcium atom loses two electrons to form a Ca 2+ ion; Calcium has been oxidized. The oxygen
atoms caused this loss by taking away the electrons. Oxygen (O2) is the oxidizing agent.
 Each oxygen atom in the oxygen molecule gained two electrons to from O 2- ion; oxygen has been
reduced. The calcium atoms caused this gain by donating the electrons. Calcium (Ca) is the
reducing agent.

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Oxidizing and reducing agents in terms of oxidation number

o An oxidizing agent causes the oxidation number of an element in its free state, or an element in a
compound to increase.
o A reducing agent causes the oxidation number of an element in its free state, or an element in a
compound to decrease.

Example:

 In the oxidation number of each sulphur atom in the hydrogen sulphide molecule has increased
from -2 to 0. Hydrogen sulphide has been oxidized. Chlorine is the reactant that caused this
increase in oxidation number. Chlorine (Cl2) is the oxidizing agent.
 The oxidation number of each chlorine atom in the chlorine molecule has decreased from 0 to -1.
Chlorine has been reduced. Hydrogen sulphide is the reactant that caused this decrease in
oxidation number. Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is the reducing agent.

1. Determine which reactant is the oxidizing agent and which is the reducing agent in the reaction
between zinc and copper (II) sulphate.

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Common oxidizing and reducing agents

Some substances always behave as oxidizing agents and others always behave as reducing agents. A
visible change may occur when some of these react:

o A colour change may occur

o A precipitate may form
o A particular gas may be produced
Visible change when the
Oxidizing Agent Reason for the visible change
agent reacts
Acidified potassium manganate The purple MnO4- ion forms the
Purple to colourless
(VII) solution [H+/ KMnO4(aq)] colourless Mn2+ ion.
Acidified potassium dichromate The orange Cr2O72- ion forms the
Orange to green
(VI) solution [H+/ K2Cr2O7(aq)] green Cr3+ ion.
The yellow-brown Fe3+ ion forms the
Aqueous iron (III) salts, Fe (aq)
3+
Yellow-brown to pale green
pale green Fe2+ ion.
Sodium chlorate (I) solution, Turns many coloured dyes The dyes are oxidized to their
[NaClO(aq)] colourless colourless form.
Hot concentrated sulphuric acid, A pungent, colourless gas is Sulphur dioxide gas (SO2) is
[H2SO4(l)] evolved produced.
Dilute or concentrated nitric Nitrogen dioxide gas (NO2) is
A brown gas is evolved
acid, [HNO3(aq)] produced.
Table showing common oxidizing agents

Visible change when the

Reducing agent Reason for the visible change
agent reacts
Potassium iodide solution, [KI Iodine (I2) forms which dissolved
Colourless to brown
(aq)] forming a brown solution.

2+
The pale green Fe2+ ion forms the
Aqueous iron (II) salts, [Fe (aq] Pale green to yellow-brown
yellow-brown Fe3+ ion.
Hydrogen sulphide gas, [H2S(g)] A yellow precipitate forms. Solid sulphur (S) forms.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid, A yellow-green precipitate is Chlorine gas (Cl2) is produced.

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[HCl(aq)] evolved.
Table showing common reducing agents

Substances that can behave as both oxidizing and reducing agents

o Acidified hydrogen peroxide, H+/H2O2- it is usually an oxidizing agent. If it reacts with a stronger
oxidizing agent than itself, it acts as a reducing agent.
- With potassium iodide solution, it acts as an oxidizing agent and oxidizes the iodide ions to
iodine.
- With both acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution and acidified dichromate (VI) solution,
both stronger oxidizing agents than itself, it acts as a reducing agent. The acidified hydrogen
peroxide reduced the purple MnO4- to the colourless Mn2+ ion; and the orange Cr2O72- ion to the
green Cr3+ ion, respectively.
o Sulphur dioxide, SO2- it is usually a reducing agent. If it reacts with a stronger reducing agent than
itself, it acts as an oxidizing agent.
- With both acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution and acidified potassium dichromate
(VI) solution it acts as a reducing agent.
- With hydrogen sulphide, a stronger reducing agent than itself, it acts as an oxidizing agent and
oxidizes the hydrogen sulphide to yellow sulphur.

Tests for oxidizing and reducing agents

Certain tests can be performed in the laboratory to determine if an unknown substance is an oxidizing or
reducing agent.

Tests for the presence of an oxidizing agent

To test to see if a substance is an oxidizing agent, add it to a known reducing agent, which gives a visible
change when oxidized. The reducing agents usually used are potassium iodide solution or an aqueous
solution of an iron (II) salt.

 An oxidizing agent caused potassium iodide solution to change from colourless to brown because
it oxidizes the colourless I- ion to iodine which dissolves forming a brown solution.
2I-(aq) I2(aq) + 2e-

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 An oxidizing agent causes an aqueous solution of an iron (II) salt, e.g., iron (II) sulphate, to change
from pale green to yellow-brown because it oxidizes the pale green Fe 2+ ion to the yellow-brown
Fe3+ ion.

Tests for the presence of a reducing agent

To test to see if a substance is a reducing agent, add it to a known oxidizing, add it to a known oxidizing
agent, which gives a visible change when it is reduced. The oxidizing agents usually used are acidified
potassium manganate solution or acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution.

 A reducing agent causes acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution to change from purple yo
colourless because it reduces the purple MnO4- ion to the colourless Mn2+ ion.
MnO4-(aq)  Mn2+(aq)
 A reducing agent causes potassium dichromate (VI) solution to change from orange to green
because it reduces the orange Cr2O72- ion to the green Cr3+ ion.

Oxidation-reduction reactions in everyday life

Activity Oxidation-reduction reaction

Chlorine bleaches containing sodium chlorate (I) (NaClO) and oxygen bleaches
containing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), remove coloured stains by oxidizing the
Bleaches
coloured chemicals or dyes in the stain to their colourless form:
ClO-(aq) + coloured dye Cl-(aq) + colourless dye
When oxygen and moisture come into contact wit iron and its alloy, steel, the iron
Rusting
is oxidized to form hydrated iron (III) oxide, commonly known as rust.
When some fruits and vegetables are peeled or cut, e.g., apples, bananas and
Browning of cut
potatoes, enzymes in the cells on the cut surface are exposed to oxygen in the air.
vegetables and
These enzymes oxidize certain chemicals in the cells to brown compounds called
fruits
melanins which cause the cut surface to brown.
Preserving food Sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are reducing agents used as
food preservatives, e.g., to preserve dried fruit, fruit juices, wine and certain
shellfish. They prevent spoilage of foods by preventing oxidation of wine to
vinegar and oxidation of Vitamin C in fruits and fruit juices. They also prevent

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browning by reducing any melanins back to their colourless form.
Table showing oxidation and reduction in everyday activities

Evaluation

1. Define the terms oxidizing and reducing agent:

a) In terms of electrons
b) In terms of oxidation number
2. Give an example of a substance that can act as both an oxidizing and reducing agent.
3. State, with a reason, whether EACH of the following equations shows oxidation or reduction:
a) I2(aq) + 2e 2I-(aq)
b) Cu+(aq)Cu2+(aq)+e-
c) 2Br-(aq)Br2(aq) +2e-
4. Determine the oxidation number of:
a) Bromine in: bromine dioxide, the BrO3- ion and the BrO- ion
b) Nitrogen in: ammonia, the NO2- ion and dinitrogen monoxide
c) Carbon in: carbon monoxide, the carbonate ion, methane (CH 4), propene (C3H6) and the
hydrogencarbonate ion
5. Determine the oxidation number of sulphur in SO 32- ion and the SO42- ion and use this to name
EACH ion.
6. Define the terms oxidation and reduction:
a) In terms of electrons
b) In terms of oxidation number
7. State with reasons based on oxidation number, which reactant has been oxidized and which has
been reduced in EACH of the following reactions:
a) 2FeCl3(aq) + H2S(g) 2FeCl2(aq) +S(s)+2HCl(aq)
b) CH4(g) +4CuO(s)4Cu(s) + CO2(g)+2H2O(g)
8. State with reasons based on oxidation number, which reactant is the oxidizing agent and which is
the reducing agent in the following reaction:
Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g) 2Fe(s) +3H2O(l)

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9. Name two reagents you could use to prove that an unknown substance is a reducing agent. For
EACH reagent, give the colour change you would expect and explain this colour change.
10. By referring to oxidation and reduction, explain EACH of the following statements:
a) The cut surface of an apple turns brown if the apple is left uneaten.
b) Sodium chlorate (I) is a good bleaching agent.
c) Sodium sulfite is a good preservative of some food items.
d) Iron nails rust easily when exposed to air.

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