Bandwidth Utilization (Part 2)

Course Code: COE 3201 Course Title: Data Communication

Dept. of Computer Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Lecture No: 10 Week No: 11 Semester:

Lecturer:
Lecture Outline

1. Interleaving
2. Data rate management
3. Digital Hierarchy
4. T-lines & E-Lines
Interleaving

The process of taking a group of bits from each input line for multiplexing is called
interleaving.
Interleaving is the process of multiplexing.
In TDM, synchronization between the sender and receiver is very important.

Fig. 17: Interleaving

TDM

 Example 8: Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends
100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on
the link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the
bit rate for the link.

 Solution:

Fig. 18: Example 8.

The multiplexer is shown in Figure 18. Each frame carries 1 byte from each channel;
the size of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each channel, the frame rate
must be 100 frames per second. The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
TDM

 Example 9:

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a time slot of 2 bits. Show the
output with four arbitrary inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame duration?
What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

Solution:

Figure 19 shows the output (4x100kbps) for four arbitrary inputs. The link carries
400K/(2x4)=50,000 frames per second [2x4=8bit] . The frame duration is therefore
1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The bit duration on the output link is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.
Empty Slot

 Sometimes an input link may have no data to transmit.

 When that happens, one or more slots on the output link will go unused.

 That is wastage of bandwidth.

 Statistical TDM can improve the efficiency.

Fig. 20: Empty Slots.

Data Rate Management
 Data Rate Management:

Not all input links maybe have the same data rate.

Some links maybe slower. There maybe several different input link speeds.

There are three strategies that can be used to overcome the data rate mismatch:
multilevel, multislot and pulse stuffing.

 Data rate matching:

Multilevel: used when the data rate of the input links are multiples of each other.

Multislot: used when there is a GCD(Greatest Common Divisor) between the data
rates. The higher bit rate channels are allocated more slots per frame, and the
output frame rate is a multiple of each input link.

Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD between the links. The slowest speed link
will be brought up to the speed of the other links by bit insertion, this is called pulse
stuffing.
Data Rate Management

Fig. 21: Multilevel Multiplexing.

Fig. 22: Multislot Multiplexing.

Data Rate Management

Fig. 23: Multislot Multiplexing

This method is pulse stuffing. "Not Multislot Multiplexing"
Frame Synchronization
 Synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue.

 If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to
one channel may be received by the wrong channel.

 For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning
of each frame.

 These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the
demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the
time slots accurately.

 In most cases, this synchronization information consists of 1 bit per frame, alternating
between 0 and 1, as shown in Figure 24.

Fig. 24: Multislot Multiplexing.

Mathematical Problem
Example 10:
We have four sources, each creating 250 8-bit characters per second. If the interleaved
unit is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data rate of
each source, (b) the duration of each character in each source, (c) the frame rate, (d)
the duration of each frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the data rate of
the link.

Solution:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2 kbps.
b. Each source sends 250 characters per second; therefore, the duration of a character is
1/250 s, or 4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source, which means the link needs to send
250 frames per second to keep the transmission rate of each source.

d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note that the duration of each frame is
the same as the duration of each character coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra synchronizing bit. This means that each
frame is 4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
Mathematical Problem

Example 11:

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to
be multiplexed. How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate of the link?

Solution:

We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots to the second channel. Each frame
carries 3 bits. The frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries 1 bit from the
first channel. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s × 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.
Digital Hierarchy

Digital hierarchy:
Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of digital signals, called digital
signal (DS) service or digital hierarchy. Figure 25 shows the data rates supported by each
level.

Fig. 25: Digital Hierarchy.

Digital Hierarchy

T Lines:
DS-0, DS-1, and so on are the names of services. To implement those services, the
telephone companies use T lines (T-1 to T-4). These are lines with capacities precisely matched
to the data rates of the DS-1 to DS-4 services (see Table 1). So far only T-1 and T-3 lines are
commercially available.

Table 1
Digital Hierarchy
T Lines for Analog Transmission:
T lines are digital lines designed for the transmission of digital data, audio, or video.
However, they also can be used for analog transmission (regular telephone connections),
provided the analog signals are first sampled, then time-division multiplexed.

Fig. 26: T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines.

T-1 frame structure

Fig. 27: T-1 Frame Structure.

E line rates:

E line rates:
Europeans use a version of T lines called E lines. The two systems are conceptually
identical, but their capacities differ.

Table 2
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

In synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. This can be
inefficient if some input lines have no data to send.
In statistical time-division multiplexing,
Slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. Only when
an input line has a slot's worth of data to send, then it is given a slot in the output
frame.
In statistical multiplexing,
The number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines.

1. The multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion;

2. it allocates a slot for an input line if the line has data to send; otherwise,
3. it skips the line and checks the next line.
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
Addressing:
Figure 28 also shows a major difference between slots in synchronous TDM
and statistical TDM. An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data;

In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the
destination.

In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and

pre assigned relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address. If the
multiplexer and the demultiplexer are synchronized, this is guaranteed.

In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs

and outputs because there are no pre-assigned or reserved slots.

We need to include the address of the receiver inside each slot to show where
it is to be delivered.
TDM slot comparison

Fig. 28: TDM slot comparison.

Books

1. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw." (2005).

References

1. Prakash C. Gupta, “Data communications”, Prentice Hall India Pvt.

2. William Stallings, "Data and Computer Communications”, Pearson
3. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw." (2005).