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Data Communications and

Networking

Dr. Naveed Jan

Assistant Professor
Information Engineering Technology
University of Technology Nowshera

Chapter 5

Digital Transmission

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Encoding Techniques
• Digital data, digital signal
NRZ, Manchester etc.
• Digital data, analog signal
ASK, FSK, PSK
• Analog data, digital signal
PCM, DM, ADPCM
• Analog data, analog signal
AM, FM, PM

Digital to Digital Conversion

• In this section, we see how we can represent
digital data by using digital signals. The
conversion involves three techniques: line
coding, block coding, and scrambling. Line
coding is always needed; block coding and
scrambling may or may not be needed
▪ Line Coding
▪ Line Coding Schemes
▪ Block Coding
▪ Scrambling

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Digital to Digital Conversion

Line Coding
• Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a
sequence of signals that denote the 1’s and 0’s.
• For example a high voltage level (+V) could
represent a “1” and a low voltage level (0 or -V)
could represent a “0”.

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Data Element vs Signal Element

• A data symbol (or element) can consist of a number
of data bits:
▪ 1 , 0 or
▪ 11, 10, 01, ……
• A data symbol can be coded into a single signal
element or multiple signal elements
▪ 1 → +V, 0 → -V
▪ 1 → +V and -V, 0 → -V and +V
• The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by
a signal element.

Data Element vs Signal Element

r is the ratio between data element & signal element:

r = number of data elements/number of signal elements
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Data Rate vs Signal Rate

• The data rate defines the number of bits sent per sec -
bps. It is often referred to the bit rate.
• The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent
in a second and is measured in bauds. It is also
referred to as the modulation rate.
• Goal is to increase the data rate and at the same time
reducing the baud rate.

Data Rate vs Baud Rate

• The baud or signal rate can be expressed as:
S = c x N x 1/r bauds
where N is data rate
c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
c = 1 for broadband (WAN digital-to-analog)
c = ½ for baseband (LAN digital-to-digital)

r is the ratio between data element & signal element

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Data Rate vs Baud Rate

• Example: A signal is carrying data in which one data
element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate
is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?

• Solution: We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The

baud rate is then

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Data Rate vs Baud Rate

Note

Although the actual bandwidth of a

digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.

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Baseline Wandering
• In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a
running average of the received signal power. This
average is called the baseline.
• The incoming signal power is evaluated against this
baseline to determine the value of the data element.
• A long string of Os or 1s can cause a drift in the
baseline (baseline wandering) and make it difficult
for the receiver to decode correctly
• A good line encoding scheme will prevent long runs
of fixed amplitude
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DC Component
• DC components - When the voltage level in a digital
signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates
very low frequencies (results of Fourier analysis).
These frequencies around zero, called DC
components.
• Most channels are band pass and may not support the
low frequencies.
• This will require the removal of the dc component of
a transmitted signal

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Self Synchronization
• Self synchronization - the clocks at the sender and the
receiver must have the same bit interval.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will
misinterpret the incoming bit stream

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Self Synchronization
• Example: In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1
percent faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
• Solution: At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead
of 1000 bps 0.1
Extrabits =  1000 = 1
100

• At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps
0.1 0.1
Extabits =  1Mbps =  1000000 = 1000
100 100
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Error Detection
• Error detection - errors occur during transmission due
to line impairments.
• Some codes are constructed such that when an error
occurs it can be detected.
• For example: a particular signal transition is not part
of the code. When it occurs, the receiver will know
that a symbol error has occurred

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Noise and Interference

• Noise and interference - there are line encoding
techniques that make the transmitted signal
“immune” to noise and interference.
• This means that the signal cannot be corrupted, it is
stronger than error detection.

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Complexity
• Complexity - the more robust and resilient the code,
the more complex it is to implement and the price is
often paid in baud rate or required bandwidth

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Line Coding Schemes

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Unipolar
• All signal levels are on one side of the time axis -
either above or below
• Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC
components. It has no synchronization or any error
detection. It is simple but costly in power
consumption.

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Unipolar

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Polar Scheme

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NRZ-Polar Scheme
• The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
• Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two
voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
• There are two versions:
– NRZ - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol
and negative for the other
– NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in
polarity determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1”
symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.

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NRZ-Polar Scheme

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NRZ-L Example
• Draw graph of NRZ-L for following data streams assuming that the
last signal level has been positive.
a. 00000000
b. 11111111
c. 01010101
d. 00110011

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NRZ-I Example
• Draw graph of NRZ-I for following data streams assuming that the
last signal level has been positive.
a. 00000000
b. 11111111
c. 01010101
d. 00110011

Invert if next bit is 1.

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No inversion if next bit is 0

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NRZ-Polar Scheme
Note

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.

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NRZ-Polar Scheme

Note

NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC

component problem and baseline
wandering, it is worse for NRZ-L. Both
have no self synchronization &no error
detection. Both are relatively simple to
implement.

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NRZ-Polar Scheme
• Example: A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 1-Mbps data.
What are the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

• Solution: The average signal rate is

S= c x N x R
= 1/2 x N x 1
= ½ x 1000000= 500 Kbaud.
• The minimum bandwidth for this average baud rate is Bmin =
S = 500 kHz.

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RZ-Polar Scheme
• The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage
values. +, 0, -.
• Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either
from high to zero or from low to zero.
• This scheme has more signal transitions (two per
symbol) and therefore requires a wider bandwidth.
• No DC components or baseline wandering.
• Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol
value.
• More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no
error detection capability.
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RZ-Polar Scheme

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Biphase-Polar Scheme
• Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-
L and RZ schemes.
– Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from
high to low or low to high. Uses only two voltage levels.
• Differential Manchester coding consists of
combining the NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
– Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the
level at the beginning of the symbol is determined by the
symbol value. One symbol causes a level change the other
does not.

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Biphase-Polar Scheme

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Biphase-Polar Scheme

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Manchester Example
• Draw graph of Manchester scheme for following data streams
assuming that the last signal level has been positive.
a. 00000000
b. 11111111
c. 01010101
d. 00110011

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Differential Manchester Example

• Draw graph of differential Manchester scheme for following data
streams assuming that the last signal level has been positive.
a. 00000000
b. 11111111
c. 01010101
d. 00110011

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Biphase-Polar Scheme

Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

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Biphase-Polar Scheme

Note

The minimum bandwidth of Manchester

and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ. The is no DC component
and no baseline wandering. None of
these codes has error detection.

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Block Coding
• For a code to be capable of error detection, we need to add
redundancy, i.e., extra bits to the data bits.
• Synchronization also requires redundancy - transitions are
important in the signal flow and must occur frequently.
• Block coding is done in three steps: division, substitution and
combination.
• It is distinguished from multilevel coding by use of the slash -
xB/yB.
• The resulting bit stream prevents certain bit combinations that
when used with line encoding would result in DC components
or poor sync. quality

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Block Coding

Note

Block coding is normally referred to as

mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.

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Block Coding

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Block Coding

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Block Coding

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Block Coding
• Substitution in 4B/5B

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Block Coding
• Redundancy:
– A 4 bit data word can have 24 = 16 combinations.
– A 5 bit word can have 25=32 combinations.
– We therefore have 32 - 16 = 16 extra words.
– Some of the extra words are used for control/signaling
purposes

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Block Coding
• 8B/10B:

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Block Coding
• 8B/10B: The 8B/10B block code adds more
redundant bits and can thereby choose code words
that would prevent a long run of a voltage level that
would cause DC components

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Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because
it is more robust to noise and can easily be
recovered, corrected and amplified. For this reason,
the tendency today is to change an analog signal to
digital data. In this section we describe two
techniques, pulse code modulation and delta
modulation.

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Pulse Code Modulation

• PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog
signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
▪ Before we sample, we have to filter the signal to
limit the maximum frequency of the signal as it
affects the sampling rate.
▪ Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the
signal, ie remove high frequency components that
affect the signal shape
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Pulse Code Modulation

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Sampling:
– Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
– Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
– fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.

– The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation

PAM and the outcome is a signal with analog (non integer)
values

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Sampling:

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Sampling:

Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Sampling:

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Sampling:

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Quantization:
– Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude
values ranging between two limits: a min and a max.
– The amplitude values are infinite between the two limits.
– We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite
set of known values.
– This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and
max into L zones, each of height 
 = (max - min)/L

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Quantization:
– The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-
1 (resulting in L values)
– Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the
value of the midpoint

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Quantization:
– Assume we have a voltage signal with amplitudes
Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
– We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
– Zone width  = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
– The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10 to -5, -5 to 0, 0
to +5, +5 to +10, +10 to +15, +15 to +20
– The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5, 2.5, 7.5, 12.5,
17.5

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Quantization:
– Each zone is then assigned a binary code.
– The number of bits required to encode the zones, or the
number of bits per sample as it is commonly referred to, is
obtained as follows:
nb = log2 L
– Given our example, nb = 3
– The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000, 001, 010,
011, 100, 101, 110, and 111
– Assigning codes to zones:
• 000 will refer to zone -20 to -15
• 001 to zone -15 to -10, etc.

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Quantization:

-0.28

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Pulse Code Modulation

• Quantization:
– When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the
coded signal is an approximation of the actual amplitude
value.
– The difference between actual and coded value (midpoint)
is referred to as the quantization error.
– The more zones, the smaller  which results in smaller
errors.
– BUT, the more zones the more bits required to encode the
samples → higher bit rate

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Pulse Code Modulation

• PCM is the preferred method of communication within the public switched telephone
network (PSTN). It is an old but widely used concept. We need to convert our voice
into digital form before transmission over long distance

• Human Voice Example (telephony standard ):

• Human frequency range = 0.3 to 3.4 KHz = 4 KHz

• Sampling Frequency: Fs=2FMax = 2 x 4000 = 8000 samples per second

• Quantization: 8 bits/sample = 256 levels

• Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample = 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64
Kbps

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Transmission Modes
• The transmission of binary data across a link can be
accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In
parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock
tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
While there is only one way to send parallel data,
there are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous

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Transmission Modes

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Transmission Modes
• Parallel Transmission

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Transmission Modes
• Serial Transmission

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Transmission Modes
Serial Transmission
• Types of Serial Transmission:
– There are three types of serial data transmission methods
based on bit synchronization and time control.
1. Asynchronous Transmission
2. Synchronous Transmission
3. Isochronous Transmission

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Transmission Modes

1) Asynchronous Transmission
• In this transmission method one byte data or a
character is sent from one device to another with
uneven time interval between two character transfer.
• No synchronization is required between the
transmitter and receiver devices. Sender can directly
transmit data and the receiver can receive that data.

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Transmission Modes

Note

Asynchronous here means

“asynchronous at the byte level,”
but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same.

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Transmission Modes
• Asynchronous Transmission

• Asynchronous transmission is relatively slow due to the increased number

of bits and gaps. It is a cheap and effective form of serial transmission and
is particularly suited for low speed connections such as keyboard and
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mouse.
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Transmission Modes
2) Synchronous Transmission
– In this transmission method data is sent block (chunks or
frames) by block from one device to another with even
time interval between two block transfer.
– Efficiency is comparatively very high.
– Speed of data transmission is very high.
– No need to transmit start and stop bit.
– The bits are usually sent as bytes and many bytes are
grouped in a frame.
– A frame is identified with a start and an end byte

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Transmission Modes
• Synchronous Transmission

• The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or

gaps to introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving end,
and, by extension, with fewer bits to move across the link, synchronous
transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission. For this reason, it is
more useful for high-speed applications such as the transmission of data
from one computer to another
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Transmission Modes
3) Isochronous Transmission:
– Isochronous transmission is similar to synchronous
transmission but the time interval between blocks
is almost zero.
– In isochronous transmission we cannot have
uneven gaps between frames.
• In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays
between frames are not acceptable, synchronous
transmission fails. For example, TV images are
broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they
must be viewed at the same rate 74

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