Digital Transmission

Introduction

• In previous, we discussed data and signals. We

said that data can be either digital or analog.
• We also said that signals that represent data
can also be digital or analog.
• In this section, we see how we can represent
digital data by using digital signals.
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

• In this section, we see how we can represent digital data

by using digital signals. The conversion involves three
techniques: line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
Line coding is always needed; block coding and
scrambling may or may not be needed.
Topics discussed in this section
• Line Coding
• Line Coding Schemes
• Block Coding
• Scrambling
• Line coding is the process of converting digital
data to digital signals.
• We assume that data, in the form of text,
numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are
stored in computer memory as sequences of bits
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a
digital signal. At the sender, digital data are
encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the
digital data are recreated by decoding the digital
signal. As shown in fig
Figure: Line coding and decoding
Characteristics

• Signal Element Versus Data Element .

• Let us distinguish between a data element and a
signal element.
• In data communications, our goal is to send
data elements.
• A data element is the smallest entity that can
represent a piece of information: this is the bit.
• In digital data communications, a signal
element carries data elements.
• Data elements are being carried; signal
elements are the carriers.
• We define a ratio ‘r ‘ which is the number of
data elements carried by each signal element.
Figure: Signal element versus data element
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
• The data rate defines the number of data
elements (bits) sent in Is. The unit is bits per
second (bps).
• The signal rate is the number of signal
elements sent in Is. The unit is the baud.
• The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate;
the signal rate is sometimes called the pulse
rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
• One goal in data communications is to
increase the data rate while decreasing the
signal rate. Increasing the data rate increases
the speed of transmission; decreasing the
signal rate decreases the bandwidth
requirement.
• We have a limited bandwidth in our
transportation system.
• We can formulate the relationship between
data rate and signal rate as
• S =c x N x 1/r baud
• where N is the data rate (bps); c is the case
factor, which varies for each case;
• S is the number of signal elements; and r is
the previously defined factor.
Example
• A signal is carrying data in which one data
element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1).
If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution
• We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 .
The baud rate is then
Note

Although the actual bandwidth of a

digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.
Self Synchronization
• To correctly interpret the signals received from
the sender, the receiver's bit intervals must
correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit
intervals are not matched and the receiver might
• misinterpret the signals
• . Figure shows a situation in which the receiver
has a shorter bit duration.
• The sender sends 10110001, while the receiver
receives 110111000011.
Figure: Effect of lack of synchronization
Example
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000
bps.

At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps.
DC Components

• When the voltage level in a digital signal is

constant for a while, the spectrum creates very
low frequencies
• These frequencies around zero, called DC
(direct-current) components, present problems
for a system that cannot pass low frequencies.
Line Code

• A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital

signal over a transmission line.
• This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and
distortion of signal.
Types of Line Coding

• There are 3 types of Line Coding

• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bi-polar

4.20
Figure: Line coding schemes
Unipolar NRZ scheme

• In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are

on one side of the time axis, either above or
below.
• Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off
Keying or simply OOK.
• The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the
absence of pulse represents a 0.

4.23
Figure: Unipolar NRZ scheme

Above reference line

Polar

• Encoding has 3 subcategories:

1. Non Return to Zero (NRZ),
2. Return to Zero (RZ)
3. Bi phase
• Two of which have multiple variations of their
own .
• Polar encoding uses two voltage levels –One
positive and one negative
Types of Polar Encoding
NRZ-I

• The inversion of the level represents a 1 bit

• A bit 0 is represented by no change ƒ NRZ-I is
superior to NRZ-L due to synchronization
provided by signal change each time a 1 bit is
encountered .
• The string of 0’s can still cause problem but
since 0’s are not as likely, they are less of a
problem
Figure: Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

In NRZ-L 0-ABOVE 1-BELOW

In NRZ-I 0-NO TRANSITION 1-TRANSITION

Polar RZ scheme

• Any time, data contains long strings of 1’s or

0’s, Rx can loose its timing
• A better solution is to somehow include synch
in encoded signal somewhat similar to what
we did in NRZ-I but it should work for both
strings of 0 & 1
• One solution is RZ encoding which uses 3
values : Positive, Negative and Zero
RZ
• Signal changes not b/w bits but during each
bit.
• A 1 bit is represented by positive to zero and a
0 is represented by negative to zero transition
• The only problem with RZ encoding is that it
requires two signal changes to encode one bit
and therefore occupies more BANDWIDTH.
Figure 4.7 Polar RZ scheme

At 0—z below at 1=z

above

4.31
Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
Figure: Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

0- +to-
1 –to+
Note

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero, and negative.
• Like RZ, it uses three voltage levels:
• Unlike RZ, zero level is used to represent
binary 0.
• Binary 1’s are represented by alternate positive
and negative voltages
Figure: Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

0-Draw line on reference line 1-Draw 1 line above and next line
below line

0-Draw 1 line above and next line

1-Draw line on reference line
below line
Digital-to-Analog Conversion

• When data from one computer is sent to

another via some analog carrier, it is first
converted into analog signals. Analog signals
are modified to reflect digital data.
• An analog signal is characterized by its
amplitude, frequency, and phase. There are
three kinds of digital-to-analog conversions
• To send the digital data over an analog media,
it needs to be converted into analog signal.
• Original data is digital but because telephone
wires carry analog signal, original data must
be converted .
Variation in Characteristics of Sine Wave

• A sine wave is defined by 3 characteristics:

• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase
• By changing one aspect of a simple electrical
signal back & forth, we can use it to represent
digital data
• When we vary any one of these
characteristics ,we create a second version of
that wave
• If we than say that the original wave
represents binary 1,the variation can represent
binary 0 or vice versa .
• So by changing one aspect of a simple
electrical signal back & forth, we can use it to
represent digital data
Mechanisms for Modulating Digital Data to
Analog Signals
• Amplitude shift keying(ASK)
• Frequency shift keying(FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PSK)
Fourth Mechanism

• In addition, there is a fourth and better

mechanism that combines changes in both
amplitude and phase called Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
• QAM is the most efficient of these options
and is the mechanism used in all modern
modems.
Aspects of Digital to Analog Conversion

• Bit Rate & Baud Rate

• Bit rate: no of bits transmitted during one
second
• ŠBaud rate: no of signal units per second that
are required to represent that bit
Bit Rate & Baud Rate

• In discussion of computer efficiency, bit rate is more

important –we want to know how long it takes to process
each piece of info
• In data transmission, however ,we are more concerned
with how efficiently we can more that data from place to
place, whether in pieces or blocks
• The fewer signal units required, the most efficient the
system and less bandwidth required to transmit more
bits ,so we are more concerned with baud rate
• The baud rate determines the B.W required to send the
signal
EXAMPLE
• An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal
element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the Baud Rate and Bit Rate?
• Solution:
• Baud Rate= Number of Signal Elements
• Baud Rate =1000 bauds/second
• Bit Rate=Baud Rate * Number of bits per signal
element
• Bit Rate= 1000 * 4 = 4000 bps
Amplitude Shift Keying

• In this conversion technique, the amplitude of

analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.
• Both frequency and phase remain constant,
while the amplitude changes
• Which voltage represents 1 and which
represents 0 can be chosen by System
Designer
• A bit duration is the period of time that defines
one bit
• The peak amplitude of the signal during each
bit duration is constant and its value depends
on the bit (1 or 0).
• Speed of transmission during ASK is limited
by the physical characteristics of Tx. Medium
Frequency Shift Keying

• In this conversion technique, the frequency of

the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data.
• This technique uses two frequencies, f1 and f2.
One of them, for example f1, is chosen to
represent binary digit 1 and the other one is
used to represent binary digit 0. Both
amplitude and phase of the carrier wave are
kept intact.
Phase Shift Keying

• In this conversion scheme, the phase of the

original carrier signal is altered to reflect the
binary data.

• When a new binary symbol is encountered, the

phase of the signal is altered. Amplitude and
frequency of the original carrier signal is kept
intact.
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

• QPSK alters the phase to reflect two binary

digits at once. This is done in two different
phases. The main stream of binary data is
divided equally into two sub-streams. The
serial data is converted in to parallel in both
sub-streams and then each stream is converted
to digital signal using NRZ technique. Later,
both the digital signals are merged together.